1) Distinguish between systematic errors and random errors.

systematic errors random errors

Systematic errors tend to be consistent in
magnitude and/or direction. If the magnitude and
direction of the error is known, accuracy can be
improved by additive or proportional
corrections. Additive correctioninvolves adding
or subtracting a constant adjustment factor to
each measurement; proportional
correction involves multiplying the
measurement(s) by a constant.
Systematic errors in experimental observations
usually come from the measuring instruments.
They may occur because:
there is something wrong with the
instrument or its data handling system, or
because the instrument is wrongly used
by the experimenter
random errors vary in magnitude and
direction. It is possible to calculate the
average of a set of measured positions,
however, and that average is likely to be
more accurate than most of the
measurements.
Random errors in experimental
measurements are caused by unknown and
unpredictable changes in the experiment.
These changes may occur in the measuring
instruments or in the environmental
conditions.

Two types of systematic error can occur with

instruments having a linear response:

1. Offset or zero setting error in which the

instrument does not read zero when the
quantity to be measured is zero.
2. Multiplier or scale factor error in
which the instrument consistently reads
changes in the quantity to be measured
greater or less than the actual changes.

Examples of systematic errors caused by the
wrong use of instruments are:
errors in measurements of temperature
due to poor thermal contact between the
thermometer and the substance whose
temperature is to be found,
errors in measurements of solar radiation
because trees or buildings shade the
radiometer.
Examples of causes of random errors are:
electronic noise in the circuit of an
electrical instrument,
irregular changes in the heat loss rate
from a solar collector due to changes
in the wind.
 2) Enumerate the desirable characteristics of manometric liquids.
Commonly used manometric liquids are mercury, water or alcohol.
Some of the important and desirable properties of the manometric liquids are:
1) High chemical stability
2) Low viscosity
3) Low capillary constant
4) Low coefficient of thermal expansion
5) Low volatility
6) Low vapour pressure

High thermal stability and low volatility are important for maintaining a
constant. Specific gravity. High viscosity causes transmission lags .Thermal
expansion causes changes in zero reading. While measuring low pressures,
vapour pressure of the manometric fluid is an important consideration.