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Development: Growth
and Differentiation in
Living Systems
13 Processes and Patterns of Development
14 The Human Life Span
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In Unit 4, you learned about genetic processes that allow change in species from
one generation to the next. In this unit, you will explore developmental processes that

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allow change within the lifetime of individual organisms. For instance, you will learn
how changes in cells lead to changes in tissues, organs, and organisms. In Chapter 14,
you will focus on changes in human growth and development from birth through old

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age. You also will explore human life stages in other cultures to learn how culture
influences the expression of life stages.

In this unit, you will revisit your critter and participate in a multicultural fair.

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By the end of Unit 5, you should understand how
development takes place from fertilization to death;

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physical development involves processes of growth and differentiation;

humans grow and develop through various stages of life (these include
physical, cognitive, emotional, and social stages); and
culture influences the expression of those human life stages.

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Be not afraid of growing slowly; be afraid

only of standing still.
Chinese proverb

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Processes and
Patterns of
Development

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People sometimes describe the processes of science as a simple set of steps that

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one can follow to generate scientific knowledge. Perhaps you have studied the so-
called scientific method. That description is so oversimplified that it is inaccurate.
It is true that practicing scientists really do generate questions, test hypotheses, and

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form conclusions. However, they do not necessarily complete exactly those tasks in
exactly that order. Instead, doing science is a highly creative, long-term search for
answers to complicated and fascinating puzzles. Searching for answers is a dynamic

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process. It requires careful questioning, hypothesis-making, and concluding.
Scientific searches also involve imagination, persistence, humor, and sometimes, luck.

How organisms grow and develop is one of lifes fascinating puzzles. How is it that

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organisms change in precise and predictable ways from fertilized eggs to adults? In
this chapter, you will consider what we know about the processes and patterns of
development. You also will be invited to think about how scientists have gathered this

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knowledge. How might scientists extend their understanding to answer the questions
about development that continue to puzzle us today.

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ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES

Engage One Hundred Years of Questions

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Explore
A Start in Development

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Explain

Explore
Processes That Generate Complexity
Explain

Elaborate Development Gone Awry

Evaluate Evaluating Where We Stand

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Engage One Hundred Years

of Questions
How do scientists think of the questions that they would like to investigate?
Actually, finding questions to ask is the easy part of science. The hard part is
expressing our questions in such a way that we can answer them.

Materials
DVD and player

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PROCESS AND PROCEDURES
1. View the DVD segment From Egg to Adult. What questions do those pairs

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of images raise in your mind? In your journal, record 2 questions about
development that arouse your curiosity.
2. View the DVD segment A Collection of Eggs: An Assortment of Adults.

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What questions do those images raise in your mind? In your journal, record
2 more questions that you find interesting.

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Analysis
1. To see how some scientists have approached the study of development, read the

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story Changes All Around. Then join the class in a discussion of the following:
a. Compare Rouxs hot-needle experiment on a frog embryo to Drieschs
Figure 13.1
Sea urchins develop experiment on sea urchin embryos. Indicate similarities and differences in

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from eggs. The eggs each of the following aspects of their experiments:
develop into a stage Experimental design
when they are called
larvae (singular: Results

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larva) before Conclusions
becoming adults
(see Figure E13.20). b. What was the specific question that Roux tried to answer? How was his
question different from the question, How do organisms develop? Why was
this difference important?
c. What was Rouxs contribution to the science of developmental biology?
2. Work individually. Compare the questions that you recorded in Process and
Procedures steps 1 and 2 with the questions that scientists in the Science survey
named as most interesting to them. How are your questions similar to those the
scientists asked? How are they different? Record your answers in your journal.
3. Scientists still are asking and answering questions about development. What
does that suggest about the processes of development? What does that suggest
about the processes of science? Record your answers in your journal.

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Changes All Around
The fertilized frog egg has just started to develop. It has
undergone one cell division. Under a microscope, it is
clear that the two cells are in contact with one another.
The scientist picks up a hot needle. With excruciating
care, he pierces just one of the two cells. The other cell
remains untouched. The pricked cell dies. The scientist
continues his observations to see if the remaining cell
will develop further or if it also will die. The year is 1888.
The scientist, a German named Wilhelm Roux (pictured
below), is in the process of making a dramatic step
forward in the study of living systems.
Why was the killing of one cell such
an important experiment? How did this
affect biology? Scientists in the late19th
century knew that vertebrates, such as
frogs or humans, start life as a single cell,
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the fertilized egg. Scientists had proposed
many ideas to try to explain how an
embryo develops after fertilization. Some
thought that a fertilized egg contained
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a tiny, fully formedor preformed
organism that simply grew larger during
development. Others thought that the
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structure of an organism formed as the
embryo developed.
Roux, however, took a big step
forward by doing more than just
thinking about how development might
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take place. He asked the large questionHow do
organisms develop? He then identified a simpler, related
question that he could test. This question was, Does
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each of the first two cells in an embryo contain all of
the structures and information needed to grow into an
organism. Or does each cell contain just half of the
structures and information needed? (The second half
of this question would be true if a fertilized ovum
contained a tiny, fully formed or preformed organism.)
Roux tested this question by performing the hot-needle
experiment described above.
The results of Rouxs hot-needle experiment were
spectacular. As Roux described them: [An] amazing
thing happened; the one cell developed in many cases
into a half-embryo generally normal in structure, with
*Wilhelm Roux wrote these words in 1888. They were translated by Hans Laufer and appeared in Shostak, S. (1991). Embryology: An
Introduction to Developmental Biology. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
ENGAGE: One Hundred Years of Questions
small variations occurring only in the region of the
immediate neighborhood of the treated half of
the egg.*
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In other words, the cell that survived gave rise only to
the portions of the embryo that it would have produced
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if the experiment had not been done. Roux interpreted
his results as evidence for preformed embryos.
As new evidence came to light, however, Rouxs
conclusion was challenged. In 1892, another scientist,
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Hans Driesch, conducted a similar experiment with a
different design. First, Driesch used a
different organism, a sea urchin.
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Second, Driesch actually separated the
two cells and watched to see what
would develop from each one. (Roux
had killed one cell and left them both in
place.) Drieschs results supported a
view of development that was opposite
to Rouxs. Driesch observed that whole
embryos developed from each of the
separate cells. This evidence supported
the idea that the organism forms during
development, not that it is preformed.
Driesch was astonished with this
observation. How could he account for
his results? His first response was that
sea urchin eggs are not frog eggs.
Perhaps he simply was seeing a
difference between the two types of organisms. Did his
results actually mean that frogs and urchins develop in
completely different ways? Because that answer did not
seem satisfactory, he suggested that perhaps Roux had
not really isolated the frog cells. Roux had killed one
cell. But the dead cell remained in contact with the live
one. Possibly the dead cell was exerting an influence on
the development of the live cell. In fact, in 1910, a
scientist named J. F. McClendon removed one cell of a
two-cell frog embryo by sucking it up into a tiny
eyedropper. Like Driesch, he isolated one cell of a two-
cell embryo. He also found that the remaining cell
developed into a normal, although small, embryo. This
result also suggested that the structure of an embryo is
formed as it develops.
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Rouxs experiment Drieschs experiment

Roux allowed a Driesch allowed a

fertilized frog fertilized sea urchin
egg to divide egg to divide into

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into 2 cells. 2 cells.

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He then killed
1 of the cells He then separated

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with a needle. the 2 cells.

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The living cell
continued to
divide and Each cell
develop. formed a

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Eventually, a complete larva.
nearly normal
half-embryo
developed.

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a b

Figure 13.2 Early experiments in developmental biology. (a) Roux killed one of the first two cells of a

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frog embryo. The remaining cell developed tissues corresponding to half of a normal frog embryo. The results
would have been different if Roux had removed the dead cell. (b) Driesch experimented with sea urchin eggs.
He demonstrated that the presence of the dead cell influenced the development of the live cell.

Figure 13.2a illustrates Rouxs historic experiment. develops. We also have learned how many other

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Why do we remember it, despite Rouxs incorrect aspects of development happen as well. Yet we still
conclusions? We remember it largely because it helped have unanswered questions. In 1994, 100 years after
mark the beginning of the science of developmental the establishment of Rouxs journal, the publishers of

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biology. Rouxs work and the work of other scientists of
his time highlighted the importance of asking questions
about development that we can answer by doing
experiments. Sometimes the questions that we can
answer are only parts of larger questions that we wonder
about. We gain scientific knowledge from piecing
together the answers to small questions. These answers
in turn, shed light on more complicated questions.
In 1894, Roux helped start a scientific journal to
communicate new discoveries and to air new
discussions about development. Today, after more than
100 years of asking questions, performing experiments,
and building answers, developmental biologists have a
much better understanding of how a fertilized egg
Science magazine performed a survey. They asked
scientists what questions about development were
most interesting to them and what questions were
most likely to be answered from experiments
conducted during the 1990s. The top two questions
that scientists named were these:
1. How are the bodys tissues and organs formed?
2. What clues does development reveal about the
process of evolution?
Today, scientists continue to explore these questions.
As you read this chapter, they are devising new
experiments and using new technologies to study those
complex questions. New data emerge daily to help
biologists find answers to the puzzles of development.

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A Start in Development Explore

Simple observation reveals changes in size and shape as a human baby grows to Explain
an adult (see Figure 13.3). The 19th-century scientists Roux and Driesch were able
to watch the early development of a fertilized egg because the technology of
microscopes improved their view. Today, more advanced microscopes and other
technological tools, such as fiber optics and ultrasound, give scientists an even closer

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look at development.

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a b c

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d e f

Figure 13.3 Life stages. What changes happen during the development that takes
place before birth? What changes occur as organisms develop to maturity?

In this activity, you will use a series of DVD images to begin your study of
development. As you do so, consider the question, How are the bodys tissues and
organs formed?

Materials (per team of 2)

modeling clay
large sheet of paper
DVD and player (watch as a class)

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PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

Part A How Does Development Take Place?
The DVD images that you saw in the previous activity provided some basic
information about development. However, the images did not reveal how much time
each developmental change required. In fact, the time span that elapses between the
stages of life (from fertilized ovum to adult) may be from weeks to years, depending

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on the organism. What happens during that time? The DVD segment A Closer
Look will provide some clues. The images on that segment were filmed using a

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Topic: zygote and embryo
Go to: www.scilinks.org
Code: human3E550a
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combination of technologies. These included fiber optics, high-resolution
microscopes, and video recording equipment. Fiber optics allow tiny cameras to record
images of hard-to-view areas, such as the uterus.

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1. As you view the DVD segment A Closer Look, think about the questions
below. Record your observations and your answers to the questions in your

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journal.
a. What types of changes do you observe in these images?
b. How has technology expanded our ability to observe development?

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Compare the images in A Closer Look with the images in the DVD
Topic: differentiation of segment From Egg to Adult in the previous activity.
cells during animal
development 2. Developmental biologists use the terms growth and differentiation. These

Go to: www.scilinks.org
Code: human3E550b
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terms describe the fundamental processes that take place during development.
Complete the following tasks in your journal:
a. Explain the difference between growth and differentiation.

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b. List 4 specific examples from the DVD segment A Closer Look that
show evidence of each of those processes taking place.
Read the essay The Long and Short of Development on page 580. This important

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PAGE 580 background information will help you formulate your answers.

Part B How Does Growth Take Place?

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In Part A, you observed two basic processes involved in development. This part
of the activity helps you explore one of those processesgrowth.

1. Observe the cellular activity in the DVD segment Cell Division that your
teacher presents.
As you watch, try to determine what is happening to the cells involved. Think about
how the events that you see relate to development.
2. Discuss the following with your class:
a. Describe what you saw taking place in the DVD segment. What appeared
to be happening to the cells?
b. How do you think that cellular activity relates to the changes that take
place as humans develop? Give 2 examples to support your answer.

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c. Do you think that cell division (Figure 13.4) is an important aspect of the
development of other organisms? Illustrate your answer with 2 examples.
3. Scientists refer to the cell division activity that you just observed as mitosis.
Watch the DVD segment Cell Division again. Answer the following
questions in your journal:
a. What major cellular structures are most active during mitosis?

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b. What are the functions of the structures that you identified in step 3a?
c. What happens to the chromosomes during mitosis? (Answer as specifically

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as you can.) Figure 13.4 Cell
4. Work with your partner. Use the materials available, including the DVD and division. The
modeling clay, to construct a model of mitosis that shows the following: process of cell division
produces offspring

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A starting cell with 2 pairs of chromosomes cells. When might be
DNA synthesis
a time when your
bodys cells would

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The stages of mitosis need to produce
The division process and cells formed as a result of mitosis
offspring cells?

To help you complete this task, read and use the information in the essay The Cell Cycle

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and Growth Control (page 582). You also may wish to view the DVD segment again.
Compare the DVD segment with the diagrams in Figures E13.3 (mitosis) and E13.4 PAGE 582
(cell cycle). This may help you follow the specific events of the cell cycle more easily.

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5. Look at the anaphase stage of mitosis. What is important about the number
and types of chromosomes that move to opposite ends of the cell? How does
the genetic information in the 2 groups of chromosomes at each end of the

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cell compare with each other?
Answer each question in your journal.
6. Think carefully about the specific manipulations you just completed with your
clay models. In your journal, explain why is it important that

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chromosomes duplicate during mitosis,

chromosomes line up in single file during metaphase of mitosis, and

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the duplicated chromosomes separate during anaphase of mitosis?

Discuss the movement and distribution of the genetic material that take place during Figure 13.5
the stage identified in each question. Model of a cell
with modeling clay
chromosomes.
Analysis
One important skill that most successful scientists develop is recognizing
disagreements between observations and conclusions. They also must be able to
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recognize the difference between the results of an experiment and an established
Topic: cell cycle and mitosis
scientific principle. Sometimes a contradiction shows that either the observation or Go to: www.scilinks.org
the conclusion is wrong. In other cases, however, the contradiction is not real. In Code: human3E551
those cases, scientists may discover that there only appeared to be a contradiction.
This is because they did not understand the bigger context of their experiment.

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Read the following statements. Pay attention to any contradictions you find
between them. Work individually to answer the questions after the statements in
your journal. Then exchange journals with your partner. Let him or her write
comments about your answers. After you have read and commented on each others
answers, retrieve your journal. Then rewrite your answers as necessary. Your teacher
will collect your journal to assess your current understanding of development.
Examine these statements:

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Statement 1: Growth takes place during development because of the mitotic
division of cells.

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Statement 2: Mitosis results in daughter cells that are genetically identical to each
other and to the parent cell that divided.
Statement 3: During development, cells become both structurally and functionally

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different from one another.
1. To the best of your knowledge, is each of the above statements correct as

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written? Write a brief explanation for each statement to support your answers.
2. What contradiction do you see between statements 2 and 3? In other words,
what is it about statement 2 that does not appear to be consistent with

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statement 3? Explain your answer.
3. Say you were a scientist who recognized that contradiction. Describe an
experiment that you might attempt that explains the inconsistency.

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Answer specifically.

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Explore Processes That Generate
Explain
Complexity

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You have seen that the development of a multicellular organism involves
the process of growth. But growth is only half of the story of development.

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Differentiation, the change in cells that happens during development, is the
other half (see Figure 13.6).
Your body, for example, consists of trillions of cells. But those cells include
hundreds of different types. Hold your hands up in front of you. Think about their
complexity for a moment. Your fingers and thumbs are different lengths, yet their
lengths match from one hand to the other. What about the skin, bone, and muscles
that they are made of? These are packaged together in essentially identical and highly
functional ways. There are hundreds of nerves in your hands. These nerves extend to
your brain. Together, they form an extensive communications network that offers
great sensitivity, precision, and coordination. Now consider the rest of your body:
your heart, your brain, your kidneys, and even your big toes. Along with your hands,
all of these complicated structures arose from the same single cell.

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b epidermis

{ phloem

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vein
xylem

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endodermis

mesophyll

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Figure 13.6 Differentiated tissues in plants. (a) How many different tissues can you

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see in this cross section of pine needles? (b) At higher magnification, even more detail is
visible. Xylem and phloem function as support and transport tissues. Xylem permits water to
move from the roots to the leaves. Phloem, on the other hand, conducts the carbohydrates
produced as a result of photosynthesis from the leaves to the stem and roots.

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In this activity, you will continue to examine development processes. As you work,
consider the following questions: How are the bodys tissues and organs formed? How

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can such a wide variety of tissues and organs develop from identical cellular origins?

Materials
DVD and player

PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

1. Observe the DVD segment Cells, Cells, and More Cells. How do these
images relate to the changes that take place as humans develop from a single-
celled zygote to a mature person?
As you watch the segment, compare the physical appearance of the cells within
specific organisms. Think about what this tells you about development.

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2. Examine closely the series of frames that shows the low- and high-
magnification views of the cross section through the trachea. The trachea is
the tube that connects your nose and mouth to your lungs (see Figure 13.7).
Discuss the following questions with your class:
a. Describe some of the specialized cells that you see. How are they
structurally different from each other?

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b. How do these cells compare with each other genetically?
c. How do your answers in steps 2a and 2b relate to the process of differentiation?

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3. Work with your partner. Examine the table in the need to know box Cell Types
That Make Up the Human Trachea. Identify similarities and differences among
the cell types listed. How does gene expression explain how genetically identical

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cells become structurally different? Be prepared to support your answer with
specific examples from the table and to share your answer in a class discussion.
As you examine the information in the table, ask yourself whether the structural

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Figure 13.7 differences that you saw among these cells correlate with any molecular differences
The trachea is among them. Read the two essays Coordinating Growth (page 581) and Differentiation
commonly called the and the Expression of Genetic Information (page 582). These essays will help you learn
windpipe. It is part of more about the processes that lead to differentiation. Use your experiences with genetics

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the respiratory system. from Chapter 12 and the information in the essays to complete the Analysis section.

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PAGE 581 PAGE 582

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CELL T YPES THAT MAKE UP THE HUMAN TRACHEA

Type of cell Function DNA mRNA Major proteins

produced

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Goblet cell Produces Identical mRNA coding for Proteoglycans
mucus to zygote proteins required for and glycoproteins,
basic cell functioning; the major types of
also much mRNA protein in mucus

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coding for proteoglycans
and glycoproteins
(complex protein-
carbohydrate molecules)
Cartilage cell Produces Identical mRNA coding for Collagen, the major
cartilage to zygote proteins required for protein in cartilage
basic cell functioning;
also much mRNA
coding for collagen
Muscle cell Contracts Identical mRNA coding for Actin and myosin,
to zygote proteins required for the major proteins
basic cell functioning; in muscle
also much mRNA
coding for actin and
myosin

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Analysis
Review your work in this and the previous activity. Participate in a class
discussion of the following:
1. Explain at a molecular level how genetically identical cells can differentiate
into structurally and functionally diverse cells.

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Use specific examples from the table in the need to know box to support your answer.
2. How does a human develop from a fertilized egg into an adult?

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3. To what extent do you feel that you understand the answer to question 2?
List at least two areas of understanding that you would have to know more
about to answer this question completely. Explain why that information
would be important to explaining the puzzle of how growth and

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development take place.

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Development Gone Awry Elaborate

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You have seen that the growth of cells and their differentiation into specialized
tissues are highly regulated events. In this activity, you will investigate how sensitive
that regulation is. You will also look at what can

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happen if errors occur during development. A human
embryo, for example, can develop improperly if
harmful environmental influences disrupt the

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regulation of growth or differentiation. Similarly, an
embryos growth and development can proceed
incorrectly if its genetic plan contains mutations.
Developmental errors are not limited to the

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growing embryo. They can happen even after birth.
For example, sometimes harmful changes in hormonal
conditions alter the pattern of growth that normally

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would take place as an organism matures. Likewise,
sometimes body cells stop responding properly to
regulatory signals and grow unrestrained. This causes
cancerous tumors. As you begin this activity, apply
your understanding of the processes of human
Figure 13.8 Early prenatal care helps to assure
development. Consider situations in which human healthy development during gestation.
development has gone awry.

Materials (per person)

resource materials that include news articles, essays, and DVD material
video or audio equipment for recording and playing (optional)
DVD and player

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PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

Imagine that you are a doctor who is handling a case that involves an error in
development. Developmental errors fall into 2 general categories. These are birth
defects and cancer. Follow the steps below to write a conversation in which you
explain the disorder to your patient and describe what may be done about it. In this
conversation, you (the doctor) will need to explain how normal developmental

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processes have been altered to produce the disorder.
1. Work individually. Choose a disorder to be the topic of your script. Good ways

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N S TA to identify possible topics include the following:
Topic: genetic diseases/ Find a news event that relates to either birth defects or cancer. Use this news
genetic screening/ coverage as the basis for your script. You may find interesting news bulletins

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genetic counseling
Go to: www.scilinks.org on the Internet (be sure to select reputable sites), in newspapers, and in
Code: human3E556 publications such as Science News, Discover, and Harvard Health Letter.
Interview a person who has experienced a birth defect or cancer or someone

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who has had a family member with a birth defect or cancer.
Use an idea that occurs to you as you review the resources listed in step 2.

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2. Discuss your idea with your teacher. Ask him or her to approve your topic.
Then collect information about the biology involved in the disorder from the
available resources.

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It may help you to read through the criteria for a good script. These are listed in step 3.
The criteria will help you decide what information you will need.
Read and use the essays Development and Birth Defects (page 586) and Cancer:

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Unregulated Growth (page 589) as resources for this project. The DVD segment
PAGE 586 PAGE 589
Cancer in Humans also contains important background information. The DVD

normal liver tissue cancerous tissue

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Figure 13.9 Liver cancer. The extensive cancerous growths in
this liver are the result of metastasis. The cancer began in the lungs.

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images show cancerous growths in a variety of human tissues. They also show
microscopic images of cancerous blood cells (leukemia), X-ray images of lung cancer
before and after treatment, and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) of brain tumors.
For your project, use any other available resources as well.
3. Develop your script of a conversation between a doctor (you) and a patient
suffering from the disorder you chose in step 1. (The conversation may take N S TA

place between the doctor and family members as well.) Topic: cancer, cancer

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genes (oncogenes)
You will know you have a good script when it does the following: Go to: www.scilinks.org
Code: human3E557
Describes in detail the disorder you chose

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Explains the probable role (if any) of external (environmental) factors in
producing the disorder
Explains the probable role (if any) of genetic factors in producing the disorder

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Describes how and when (that is, in what way, and if known, through
what specific events or mechanisms) growth and/or differentiation have

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been affected
Describes the long-term effects of the disorder

Mentions any treatments and their likelihood of working

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Assume that the patient or family members of the patient are just learning of the
diagnosis and are struggling to deal with it. Your goal is to explain (a) what the
disorder is, (b) how it came about, and (c) what can be done about it, if anything.

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Present the information in a way that meets the criteria listed above. Imagine
what questions the patient or family members might ask and how the doctor
would respond.

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Your teacher will tell you if you are to submit your script in writing. You might
enlist the help of other students and perform it for your class. Another option may
be to record your script on video or audio.

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Analysis
Your study should have convinced you that development involves the expression

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of a genetic plan within a set of environmental conditions. These conditions can
influence and/or modify the plans execution. Write a response in your journal to the
following questions. Use your knowledge of development and the information in this
activity about developmental errors. After you have written your answers, join the
class in a discussion of this topic.
1. Do personal choices have a greater influence in determining an individuals
risk of developing cancer or in causing a risk of birth defects? Explain your
response.
2. Give three examples of developmental problems that scientists believe are
largely or entirely genetic in origin.
3. Give three examples of developmental problems that scientists believe are
largely or entirely environmental in origin.

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4. Give three examples of developmental problems that scientists believe result

from both genetic and environmental causes.
5. Is it possible for a person to make choices that could result in environmentally
induced developmental errors? Explain and support your answer with an
example.

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Evaluate Evaluating Where We Stand

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How many arms and legs do humans have? Now, how many limbs do oak trees
have? You can see from this simple comparison that different species show qualitative

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differences in their developmental patterns. The basic processes of development are
essentially the same in all multicellular species, but the results vary greatly.
In this part of the activity, you will apply your knowledge of developmental

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processes and patterns to a new challenge. You will describe a developmental scheme
for the critter that you discovered in Chapter 3. This will be your opportunity to
show what you have learned up to this point. Keep in mind that how you apply your

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knowledge to explain your critters processes of growth and development will help
your teacher determine how much you have accomplished.

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Materials (per person)

descriptions and diagrams of your critter from Chapter 10

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PROCESS AND PROCEDURES
1. Describe in your journal what you have learned about how the bodys tissues

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and organs are formed.
Keep in mind that development involves more than just getting bigger.
2. If you took a snapshot of an outdoor scene, you would record a moment in the

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lifetime of a variety of organisms. Some of those organisms likely would be in
different developmental stages. For example, you might see trees with bright
red and orange leaves, adult animals foraging for food, and a caterpillar eating
a leaf to build up its energy stores before changing into a moth. In the
diversity captured by such a snapshot, you would see many different
developmental stages and evidence of many different behaviors.
Consider the developmental stages that you might see in various organisms.
Choose 2 multicellular organisms that interest you. Identify as many
significant developmental events or stages as you can that might take place in
the lifetime of those organisms. Record them in your journal. Provide specific
examples to illustrate your list.

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Figure 13.10 Giant water bugs. These male water bugs (Abedus indentatus) are
caring for the eggs that will produce the next generation. What developmental stages
will the offspring pass through before becoming adults?

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Read the essay Patterns of Development on page 593 to help you with this step. As
you generate your list, ask yourself when each event typically takes place and what

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each event or stage accomplishes for the organism. For example, what does puberty PAGE 593
accomplish in the developmental pattern of humans? What does flowering accomplish
in the developmental pattern of flowering plants?

Analysis

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1. Use your answers from step 2 in Process and Procedures to help you create a
developmental pattern for your critter. Draw your critter in its various

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developmental stages. Label these stages with enough detail so that someone
looking at the illustration will understand what is happening.
Note: If your critter is single-celled, ask your teacher how to do this step.
2. Obtain a critter rubric from your teacher. Study the criteria. Participate in a
class discussion about the criteria for this project.
3. On a page that you will include with your critter, write a detailed description
of your critters growth and development processes. Explain how your critter
grows and develops through the stages that you drew and labeled. Where it is
appropriate, explain how your critters genetic plan interacts with
environmental conditions to direct and regulate development.
Review the essays, particular activities, and notes in your journal to meet the goals outlined
in the need to know box Project Goals: Growth and Development in Your Critter.

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Project Goals: Growth and Development

in Your Critter
1. Your critter project should describe the basic processes of development.

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Show your understanding by
a. identifying growth and differentiation as key processes of

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development,
b. describing what these processes do and how they work (use specific
examples)
c. applying those concepts to a description of your critters development.

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2. Your critter project also should describe patterns in developmental biology.
Show your knowledge by

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a. identifying key developmental steps in the critters life span and
comparing them to the steps of another species, and
b. recognizing that the developmental steps in the critters life involve
much more than just increasing in size.

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3. In addition, your critter project should explain how developmental
processes can malfunction.
Show your understanding by

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a. identifying the major developmental problems that affect your critters
species, and
b. explaining the developmental causes of those problems.

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4. Creatively apply your knowledge of development to a new situation
(your critter).
Show your creativity in this area by
a. thinking of an interesting and logical way that your critter undergoes
development, and

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b. presenting your ideas in a clear and interesting manner.
5. Finally, your critter project should describe how scientific study is done.
Show your understanding by

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a. explaining why certain questions may be of interest to scientists for
many years, and
b. describing the process scientists use to find answers to complex
questions.

Further Challenges
At the beginning of this chapter, you read about two questions regarding
development that were of particular interest to scientists in 1994. The first question
(How are the bodys tissues and organs formed?) is basically the same question
that earlier developmental biologists asked. It is possible that early scientists also
wondered about the second question (What clues does development reveal about the

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process of evolution?). Throughout this chapter, you have learned about many aspects
of development that are related to these two questions. Think about what you know
about the processes of science. Answer the following questions in your journal:
1. Years of experimentation have produced much data relating to the events and
processes of development. Why, then, do scientists continue to ask these two
questions:

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How are the bodys tissues and organs formed?

What clues does development reveal about the process of evolution?

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2. Most developmental biologists likely would say that we understand the
answers to the first question far better than we understand the answers to the
second question.

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a. Does this mean that the second question is invalid or unanswerable?
Should we stop pursuing answers to it? Explain your reasoning.
b. What does the history of our attempts to answer the first question suggest

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about how we should go about answering the second? How long might it
take to answer this question? Illustrate your answer with specific references
to the history of developmental biology.

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