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Module 2
Cells use a large number of clearly defined signalling pathways to regulate their activity. In this module,
attention is focused on the On mechanisms responsible for transmitting information into the cell. These
signalling pathways fall into two main groups depending on how they are activated. Most of them are
activated by external stimuli and function to transfer information from the cell surface to internal effector
systems. However, some of the signalling systems respond to information generated from within the
cell, usually in the form of metabolic messengers. For all of these signalling pathways, information is
conveyed either through proteinprotein interactions or it is transmitted by diffusible elements usually
referred to as second messengers. Cells often employ a number of these signalling pathways, and
cross-talk between them is an important feature. In this section, attention is focused on the properties
of the major intracellular signalling pathways operating in cells to regulate their cellular
activity.
During the processes of development, specific cell types select out those signalling systems that are
suitable to control their particular functions. One of the aims of this website is to understand how these
unique cell-specific signalsomes function to regulate different mammalian cell types.
Intracellular signalling pathways the sensors that then engage the effectors that activate cel-
There are a large number of intracellular signalling path- lular responses. The main features of the signalling path-
ways responsible for transmitting information within the ways summarized in Module 2: Figure cell signalling path-
cell. They fall into two main categories. The majority re- ways are outlined below:
spond to external stimuli arriving at the cell surface, usu-
ally in the form of a chemical signal (neurotransmitter, 1. Cyclic AMP signalling pathway. One of the first sig-
hormone or growth factor), which is received by recept- nalling systems to be characterized was the cyclic
ors at the cell periphery that function as molecular an- AMP signalling pathway, which led to the second mes-
tennae embedded in the plasma membrane. These recept- senger concept that applies to many other signalling
ors then transfer information across the membrane using systems. The idea is that the external stimulus arriving
a variety of transducers and amplifiers that engage a di- at the cell surface is the first messenger, which is then
verse repertoire of intracellular signalling pathways (Path- transformed at the cell surface by adenylyl cyclase
ways 116 in Module 2: Figure cell signalling pathways). (AC) into a second messenger, cyclic AMP, which is
The phosphoinositide signalling and Ca2+ signalling sys- part of the signalling cascade that then activates down-
tems (Pathways 26) have been grouped together because stream effectors.
they contain a number of related signalling pathways that 2. Cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) signalling and nicotinic
often interact with each other. The other categories are acidadenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) sig-
the pathways that are activated by signals generated from nalling systems function in Ca2 + signalling. An ADP
within the cell (Pathways 17 and 18). There are a number of ribosyl cyclase (ADP-RC) is responsible for generat-
metabolic messengers that act from within the cell to ini- ing these two second messengers.
tiate a variety of signalling pathways. GTP-binding pro- 3. Voltage-operated channels (VOCs) contribute to
teins often play a central role in the transduction process Ca2 + signals by controlling the entry of external Ca2 +
responsible for initiating many of these signalling path- in excitable cells.
ways. 4. Receptor-operated channels (ROCs) contribute to
All of these signalling pathways generate an internal Ca2 + signals by controlling Ca2 + entry in both excit-
messenger that is responsible for relaying information to able and non-excitable cells.
5. Stimuli that activate phospholipase C (PLC) to hy-
Green text indicates links to content within this module; blue text drolyse PtdIns4,5P2 (also known as PIP2 ) generate a
indicates links to content in other modules. number of signalling pathways:
Please cite as Berridge, M.J. (2014) Cell Signalling Biology; Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2+ signalling
doi:10.1042/csb0001002 cassette
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Licensed copy. Copying is not permitted, except with prior permission and as allowed by law.
Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r2
Diacylglycerol (DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC) sig- 15. Wnt signalling pathways. These pathways play an im-
nalling cassette portant role in both development and cell prolifera-
PtdIns4,5P2 signalling cassette tion.
Multipurpose inositol polyphosphate signalling 16. Hedgehog signalling pathway. This pathway re-
pathway sembles the Wnt signalling pathway in that it also
6. PtdIns 3-kinase signalling is activated by stimuli that functions to regulate development and cell prolifer-
stimulate PtdIns 3-kinase to phosphorylate PIP2 to ation. The ligand Hedgehog (Hh) acts through the
form the lipid second messenger PtdIns3,4,5P3 (PIP3 ). transcription factor GLI.
7. Nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic GMP signalling pathway. 17. Hippo signalling pathway. This pathway has a core
Nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) generates the gas protein kinase cascade that has some similarities to the
NO that acts both through cyclic GMP and nitrosyla- MAP kinase cascade in that a series of serine/threonine
tion reactions. NO has a particularly important role protein kinases function to regulate the transcription
in modulating the activity of other pathways such as of a number of genes that function in cell growth,
Ca2 + signalling. proliferation and apoptosis.
8. Redox signalling. Many receptors act through 18. Notch signalling pathway. This is a highly conserved
NADPH oxidase (NOX) to form reactive oxygen signalling system that functions in developmental pro-
species, such as the superoxide radical (O2 ) and cesses related to cell-fate determination particularly in
hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), which act to regulate the stem cells. The notch receptor generates the transcrip-
activity of specific signalling proteins such as tyrosine tion factor NICD (Notch intracellular domain).
phosphatases, transcription factors and ion channels. 19. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signalling. The en-
The O2 participates in the nitrosylation reaction in doplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signalling pathway
Pathway 7. concerns the mechanisms used by the ER to transmit
9. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling. information to the nucleus about the state of protein
This is a classical example of a protein phosphoryla- processing within the lumen of the ER.
tion cascade that often begins with Ras and consists of 20. Metabolic messengers. There are a number of meta-
a number of parallel pathways that function to control bolites that can function as messengers to regulate a
many cellular processes and particularly those related number of different processes. The AMP signalling
to cell proliferation, cell stress and apoptosis. pathway is regulated by adenosine monophosphate
10. Nuclear factor B (NF-B) signalling pathway. This (AMP), which functions as a metabolic messenger to
signalling system has a multitude of functions. It is activate an important pathway for the control of cell
particularly important in initiating inflammatory re- proliferation.
sponses in macrophages and neutrophils as part of an
innate immune response to invading pathogens. Not included in Module 2: Figure cell signalling path-
11. Phospholipase D (PLD) signalling pathway. This is a ways are some additional signalling pathways that are re-
lipid-based signalling system that depends upon the lated to cellular metabolism. The sterol sensing and cho-
hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by phospholipase lesterol biosynthesis controls the level of cholesterol in
D (PLD) to give phosphatidic acid (PA), which func- cell membranes. Another example is found in the NAD
tions as a second messenger to control a variety of signalling pathways, where NAD + functions to regulate
cellular processes. a number of cellular processes, including energy metabol-
12. Sphingomyelin signalling pathway. Certain growth ism, gene transcription, DNA repair and perhaps ageing
factors and cytokines hydrolyse sphingomyelin to as well. The gastrotransmitter hydrogen sulphide (H2 S),
generate two second messengers that appear to have which is released from cysteine, acts to regulate multiple
opposing effects in the cell. Ceramide seems to pro- cellular processes (Module 2: Figure H2 S generation).
mote apoptosis, whereas sphingosine 1-phosphate These cassettes then engage a variety of effectors that
(S1P) stimulates cell proliferation. S1P may also re- are responsible for activating cellular responses. All of
lease Ca2 + from internal stores. The action of S1P is these mechanisms (Module 1: Figure signal transmission
complicated in that it is released from the cell, where mechanisms) depend upon information transfer mech-
it can act as a hormone to stimulate external receptors. anisms whereby information is transferred along an or-
13. Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of derly sequence of events to activate the internal effect-
transcription (STAT) signalling pathway. This is a fast- ors responsible for inducing a great variety of cellular re-
track signal transduction pathway for transferring in- sponses.
formation from cell-surface receptors into the nucleus.
The Janus kinases (JAKs) are tyrosine kinases that Cyclic AMP signalling pathway
phosphorylate the signal transducers and activators Cyclic AMP is a ubiquitous second messenger that
of transcription (STATs), which carry the information regulates a multitude of cellular responses. Cyclic
into the nucleus. AMP formation usually depends upon the activation of
14. Smad signalling pathway. This pathway mediates the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that use heterotri-
action of the transforming growth factor (TGF-) meric G proteins to activate the amplifier adenylyl cyclase
superfamily, which controls transcription through the (AC), which is a large family of isoforms that differ consid-
Smad transcription factors. erably in both their cellular distribution and the way they
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r3
1 AC cAMP
2 ADP-RC NAADP
cADPR
3 VOC Ca 2+
4 ROC
IP 3
DAG
5 PLC
PIP2
CELLULAR RESPONSES
cGMP
7 NOS NO
Nitrosylation
8 NOX O + H O2
EFFECTORS
2 2
SENSORS
STIMULI
JNK
9 Ras Erk1/2
p38
10 IkBs
NF-kB
11 PLD PA
13 JAK STAT
14 TGF- Smad
15 Wnt b-catenin
16 Hh GLI
18 Notch NICD
ATF6, PERK
ER 19
SCAP, bHLH
Metabolism 20 AMP AMPK
Summary of the major signalling pathways used by cells to regulate cellular processes.
Cells have a number of signalling systems that are capable of responding either to external stimuli or to internal stimuli. In the case of the former, external
stimuli acting on cell-surface receptors are coupled to transducers to relay information into the cell using a number of different signalling pathways
(Pathways 118). Internal stimuli derived from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or from metabolism activate signalling pathways independently of
external signals (Pathways 19 and 20). All of these pathways generate an internal messenger that then acts through an internal sensor to stimulate
the effectors that bring about different cellular responses. As described in the text, the names of these signalling pathways usually reflect a major
component(s) of the pathway.
are activated. There are a number of cyclic AMP signalling cellular localization of PKA as well as a number of other
effectors such as protein kinase A (PKA), the exchange signalling components. The OFF reactions responsible for
proteins activated by cyclic AMP (EPACs) that activate removing cyclic AMP are carried out by either cyclic AMP
the small GTP-binding protein Rap1 and the cyclic nuc- hydrolysis or by cyclic AMP efflux from the cell.
leotide-gated channels (CNGCs). These various effectors
are then responsible for carrying out the cyclic AMP sig- Cyclic AMP formation
nalling functions that include control of metabolism, gene The formation of cyclic AMP can be activated by a
transcription and ion channel activity. In many cases, these very large number of cell stimuli, mainly neurotrans-
functions are modulatory in that cyclic AMP often acts to mitters and hormones (Module 1: Figure stimuli for
adjust the activity of other signalling pathways and thus cyclic AMP signalling). All these stimuli are detec-
has a central role to play in the cross-talk between sig- ted by G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that use
nalling pathways. This modulatory function is particu- heterotrimeric G proteins, which are the transducers that
larly evident in the case of Ca2 + signalling in both neur- are responsible for either activating or inhibiting the en-
onal and muscle cells. Many of the functions of cyclic zyme adenylyl cyclase (AC) (Module 2: Figure heterotri-
AMP depend upon the precise location of PKA relative meric G protein signalling). In the case of AC stimulation,
to both its upstream and downstream effectors. A family the external stimulus binds to the GPCR that functions
of A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs) determines this as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) to replace
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r4
TM 1-6 TM 7-12
C1 C2 AC 1 - 9
C1 C2 AC 10
Plasma membrane
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
C1 C2
O O
O P O P O
O O Pyrophosphate
NH 2 NH 2
N N
N N
H H O O O H H
N C O P O P O P O N C
N O N O O
O O O
O P
ATP OH OH Cyclic AMP OH O O
GDP with GTP, which dissociates the heterotrimeric com- Ca2 + through a direct action. Entry of Ca2 + through
plex into their G and G subunits (Module 2: Figure store-operated channels (SOCs) seems to be particularly
cyclic AMP signalling). The GS GTP complex activates important for activating AC1 and AC8. This tight coup-
AC, whereas Gi GTP inhibits AC. The G subunits have ling occurs at lipid rafts where there is a direct coupling
GTPase activity that hydrolyses GTP to GDP, thus ter- between AC8 and the Orai1 entry channel. This Ca2 + -
minating their effects on AC. The endogenous GTPase of sensitive AC8 is thus positioned close to the microdomain
GS GTP is inhibited by cholera toxin and this causes the of Ca2 + that forms as Ca2 + enters the cell through the
persistent activation of the intestinal fluid secretion that Orai1 channel.
results in the symptoms of cholera.
Cyclic AMP signalling effectors
Adenylyl cyclase (AC) Cyclic AMP is a highly versatile intracellular messen-
The adenylyl cyclase (AC) family is composed of ten iso- ger capable of activating a number of different effectors
forms: nine of them are membrane-bound (AC1AC9), (Module 2: Figure cyclic AMP signalling). An example of
while one of them is soluble (AC10) (Module 2: Table such effectors is the exchange proteins activated by cyc-
adenylyl cyclases). The domain structure of AC1AC9 is lic AMP (EPACs), which act to stimulate Rap. Another
characterized by having two regions where there are six group of effectors are the cyclic nucleotide-gated channels
transmembrane regions (Module 2: Figure adenylyl cy- (CNGCs) (Module 3: Figure Ca2+ entry mechanisms) that
clase structure). The large cytoplasmic domains C1 and play a particularly important role in the sensory systems
C2, which contain the catalytic region, form a heterodimer responsible for smell and taste. Most of the actions of cyclic
and co-operate with each other to convert ATP into cyclic AMP are carried out by protein kinase A (PKA).
AMP. Some of the isoforms are Ca2+ -sensitive adenylyl
cyclases. Protein kinase A (PKA)
Many of the actions of cyclic AMP are carried out by pro-
Ca2 + -sensitive adenylyl cyclases tein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates specific sites
Four of the AC isoforms are sensitive to Ca2 + . AC1 on downstream effector processes (Module 2: Figure cyc-
and AC8 are stimulated by Ca2 + acting through calm- lic AMP signalling). PKA is composed of two regulatory
odulin (CaM), while AC5 and AC6 are inhibited by (R) subunits and two catalytic (C) subunits. The way in
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r5
which cyclic AMP activates PKA is to bind to the R sub- cyclic AMP concentrations found globally within the bulk
units, which then enables the C subunits to phosphorylate cytoplasm.
a wide range of different substrates [Module 2: Figure pro-
tein kinase A (PKA)]. Of the two types of PKA, protein
Protein kinase A (PKA) II
kinase A (PKA) I is found mainly free in the cytoplasm
A characteristic feature of Type II protein kinase A (PKA)
and has a high affinity for cyclic AMP, whereas protein
is that the regulatory dimer is made up of RII subunits.
kinase A (PKA) II has a much more precise location by be-
Since this RII subunit has a much higher affinity for the
ing coupled to the A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs).
A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs), PKA II is usually
The AKAPs are examples of the scaffolding proteins that
docked to this scaffolding protein and thus has a much
function in the spatial organization of signalling pathways
more precise localization to specific cellular targets.
by bringing PKA into contact with its many substrates.
The substrates phosphorylated by cyclic AMP (Module
The scaffolding function of the AKAPs is carried out by
2: Figure cyclic AMP signalling) fall into two main groups:
various domains such as the conserved PKA-anchoring
the cyclic AMP substrates that regulate specific cellular
domain [yellow region in Module 2: Figure protein kinase
processes and the cyclic AMP substrates that are compon-
A (PKA)], which is a hydrophobic surface that binds to
ents of other signalling systems.
an extended hydrophobic surface on the N-terminal di-
Cyclic AMP substrates that regulate specific cellular
merization region of the R subunits. At the other end of
processes:
the molecule, there are unique targeting domains (blue)
that determine the way AKAPs identify and bind specific In neurons, cyclic AMP acts through PKA to phos-
cellular targets in discrete regions of the cell. phorylate Ser-845 on the AMPA receptor (Module 3:
Figure AMPA receptor phosphorylation).
Cyclic AMP acting through PKA stimulates the
Protein kinase A (PKA) I fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase component to lower the
Type I protein kinase A (PKA) associates with the RI iso- level of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, which reduces glyco-
forms. As for all isoforms, the R subunits form dimers lysis and promotes gluconeogenesis (Module 2: Figure
through their N-terminal dimerization/docking domains AMPK control of metabolism).
[yellow bar in Module 2: Figure protein kinase A (PKA)]. In insulin-secreting -cells, the salt-inducible kinase 2
In addition to holding two R subunits together, this (SIK2) that phosphorylates transducer of regulated cyc-
N-terminal region is also responsible for docking to the lic AMP response element-binding protein (TORC)
A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs), as occurs for PKA is inhibited by a cyclic AMP/PKA-dependent phos-
II. However, the RI isoforms have a very low affinity for phorylation (Module 7: Figure -cell signalling).
the AKAPs and are thus mainly soluble. Cyclic AMP acts PKA phosphorylates the hormone-sensitive lipase
by binding to the tandem cyclic AMP-binding domains to (HLS) that initiates the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol
release active C subunits that then phosphorylate specific to free fatty acids and glycerol in both white fat cells
substrates. Since the RI subunits have a higher cyclic AMP- (Module 7: Figure lipolysis and lipogenesis) and in
binding affinity, PKA I will be able to respond to the lower brown fat cells (Module 7: Figure brown fat cell).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r6
S GDP i
Cholera GDP
toxin
- GTP
S + - i
GTP
ABCC4
HCO + Cyclic
3
Soluble adenylyl cyclase AMP PDE 5AMP
EPAC + + CNGC
Rap1 PKA
PLC
+ Ca2+
+ P
InsP 3
DAG
+ + CFTR
+ + + +
P
Cyclic
GMP P + + Ca2+
AMPAR
P P
cGMP PDE
P P P RYR
CREB P
5GMP P CaV1.1
F-2,6-P2 P
phosphatase Lipase Phosphorylase PLN Ca V1.2
kinase ER/SR
SERCA
PKA phosphorylates the phosphorylase kinase that In the small intestine, PKA phosphorylates the cystic
converts inactive phosphorylase b into active phos- fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)
phorylase a in skeletal muscle (Module 7: Figure skeletal channel (Module 3: Figure CFTR channel) that is re-
muscle E-C coupling) and in liver cells (Module 7: Fig- sponsible for activating fluid secretion (Module 7: Fig-
ure glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis). ure intestinal secretion). Uncontrolled activation of cyc-
PKA activates the transcription factor cyclic AMP re- lic AMP formation by cholera toxin results in cholera.
sponse element-binding protein (CREB) (Module 4: In kidney collecting ducts, cyclic AMP acts through
Figure CREB activation). This activation is a critical PKA to phosphorylate Ser-256 on the C-terminal cyto-
event in the induction of gluconeogenesis in liver cells plasmic tail of aquaporin 2 (AQP2), enabling this water
(Module 7: Figure liver cell signalling). channel to fuse with the apical membrane to allow wa-
PKA inhibits the salt-inducible kinase 2 (SIK2) that nor- ter to enter the cell (Module 7: Figure collecting duct
mally acts to phosphorylate TORC2, thereby prevent- function).
ing it from entering the nucleus to facilitate the activity In blood platelets, cyclic AMP activates the
of CREB (Module 7: Figure liver cell signalling). phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phos-
PKA phosphorylates inhibitor 1 (I1), which assists the phoprotein (VASP), which is a member of the
protein phosphorylation process by inactivating protein Ena/vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP)
phosphatase 1 (PP1) . family resulting in a decrease in the actin-dependent
PKA contributes to the translocation and fusion of ves- processes associated with clotting (Module 11: Figure
icles with the apical membrane during the onset of acid platelet activation).
secretion by parietal cells (Module 7: Figure HCl secre-
tion). Cyclic AMP substrates that are components of other
PKA phosphorylates the regulatory (R) domain on the signalling systems:
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
(CFTR) to enable it to function as an anion channel Phosphorylation of the cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase
(Module 3: Figure CFTR channel). PDE1A by PKA results in a decrease in its sensitivity
to Ca2 + activation.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r7
PKA I PKA II
RI RI RII RII
C Tandem C
C C
AKAP
cyclic AMP-binding
domains
Substrate Substrate
Cellular target
Cyclic AMP
RI RI
Cyclic AMP
RII RII
AKAP
C
P
C P P
Substrate Substrate
Substrate Substrate
Cellular target
Entry of Ca2 + through the L-type CaV 1.1 channel in insulin-secreting -cells (Module 7: Figure -cell sig-
(Module 3: Figure CaV 1.1 L-type channel) and the L- nalling).
type CaV 1.2 channel (Module 3: Figure CaV 1.2 L-type
channel) is enhanced through PKA-dependent phos- Exchange proteins activated by cyclic AMP
phorylation. (EPACs)
PKA-dependent phosphorylation of dopamine- and Other targets for the second messenger cyclic AMP are the
cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein of apparent mo- exchange proteins activated by cAMP (EPACs). One of the
lecular mass 32 kDa (DARPP-32) functions as a molecu- functions of EPACs is to activate Rap1 and Rap2B, which
lar switch to regulate the activity of protein phosphatase have many functions, many of which are related to con-
1 (PP1). trolling actin dynamics. In addition, the EPAC/Rap path-
The ryanodine receptor 2 (RYR2) is modulated by phos- way can activate phospholipase C (PLC) and this mech-
phorylation through PKA, which is associated with the anism has been implicated in the control of autophagy
cytoplasmic head through an AKAP (Module 3: Figure (Module 11: Figure autophagy signalling mechanisms).
ryanodine receptor structure).
Sarco/endo-plasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase 2a
(SERCA2a) increases its Ca2 + -pumping activity when Cyclic AMP signalling functions
the inhibitory effect of phospholamban (PLN) is The cyclic AMP signalling pathway functions in the con-
removed following its phosphorylation by PKA on trol of a wide range of cellular processes:
Ser-16 (Module 5: Figure phospholamban mode of
Cyclic AMP suppresses spontaneous Ca2 + oscillations
action).
during oocyte maturation .
Cyclic AMP has a potent anti-inflammatory action by
Salt-inducible kinase 2 (SIK2) inhibiting the activity of macrophages (Module 11: Fig-
The salt-inducible kinase 2 (SIK2) functions to phos- ure macrophage signalling) and mast cells (Module 11:
phorylate the transducer of regulated CREB (TORC2), Figure mast cell inhibitory signalling).
thereby preventing it from entering the nucleus to facil- Melanocortin 4 receptors (MC4Rs) on second-order
itate the activity of the transcriptional factor cyclic AMP neurons use the cyclic AMP signalling pathway
response element-binding protein (CREB) (Module 4: Fig- to induce the hypothalamic transcription factor
ure CREB activation). It functions to regulate TORC2 Single-minded 1 (Sim1) to decrease food intake and
in liver cells (Module 7: Figure liver cell signalling) and weight loss (Module 7: Figure control of food intake).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r8
Guanine nucleotide
exchange factors
GEFs
Signalling responses
Cyclic AMP mediates the action of lipolytic hormones Cyclic AMP efflux
in white fat cells by stimulating a hormone-sensitive There are two OFF reactions for the cyclic AMP sig-
lipase (Module 7: Figure lipolysis and lipogenesis). nalling pathway, cyclic AMP hydrolysis and cyclic AMP
Heat production by brown fat cells is controlled by efflux from the cell (Module 2: Figure cyclic AMP sig-
noradrenaline acting through cyclic AMP (Module 7: nalling). The latter is carried out by ABCC4, which is one
Figure brown fat cell). of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (Module
The phosphorylation of dopamine- and cyclic 3: Table ABC transporters).
AMP-regulated phosphoprotein of apparent molecu-
lar mass 32 kDa (DARPP-32) co-ordinates the activ-
ity of the dopamine and glutamate signalling pathways GTP-binding proteins
in medium spiny neurons (Module 10: Figure medium There are a large number of GTP-binding proteins, which
spiny neuron signalling). usually are referred to as G proteins, which play a cent-
Adrenaline-induced glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle ral role in cell signalling as molecular switches (Module
cells depends upon a cyclic AMP-dependent phos- 2: Figure G protein binary switching). These G proteins
phorylation of phosphorylase kinase (Module 7: Figure are also GTPases, and the switching is driven by both the
skeletal muscle E-C coupling). binding of GTP and its hydrolysis to GDP. The G protein
Activation of the cyclic AMP-dependent transcription is inactive when bound to GDP, but when the GDP is ex-
factor cyclic AMP response element-binding protein changed for GTP, the G protein/GTP complex is active and
(CREB) contributes to the regulation of glucagon bio- transfers information down the signalling pathway until
synthesis in glucagon-secreting -cells (Module 7: Fig- the endogenous GTPase activity hydrolyses GTP to GDP.
ure -cell signalling). The G proteins belong to two groups, the heterotrimeric
G proteins and the monomeric G proteins, which have
Cyclic AMP hydrolysis separate, but overlapping, functions.
There are two OFF reactions of the cyclic AMP sig-
nalling pathway, cyclic AMP efflux from the cell and cyclic Guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (GEFs)
AMP hydrolysis. The latter is carried out by a family of The guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (GEFs) are es-
phosphodiesterase enzymes that hydrolyse cyclic AMP to sential signal transducing components in that they receive
AMP (Module 2: Figure cyclic AMP signalling). information from a variety of signalling pathways in order
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r9
G protein (G) subunits; 15 These subunits combine with subunits to form dimers that have a number of control functions
(for details see Module 2: Figure heterotrimeric G protein signalling)
G protein (G) subunits; 111 These subunits combine with subunits to form dimers that have a number of control functions
(for details see Module 2: Figure heterotrimeric G protein signalling)
to activate the GTP-binding proteins (Module 2: Figure G with GTP. The binding of GTP not only activates the
protein binary switching). There are many different GEFs G subunit, but also liberates the G subunit, both of
(Module 2: Table monomeric G protein toolkit). which can activate a range of signalling systems. This signal
transduction process is switched off when the endogen-
Trio ous GTPase activity of the G subunit hydrolyses GTP
Trio is a typical guanine nucleotide-exchange factor (GEF) to GDP and the G/GDP complex recombines with the
(Module 2: Table monomeric G protein toolkit) that func- G subunit to reform the inactive heterotrimeric com-
tions in cell proliferation where it couples G protein- plex. The normal rate of GTPase activity is very low (four
coupled receptors (GPCRs) to components of the MAPK to eight conversions per s), which means that the two sub-
signalling pathway (Module 9: Figure growth factor sig- units have a long time to find their targets. However, there
nalling). are two mechanisms for speeding up the GTPase activity.
Firstly, some of the targets can act to accelerate the GT-
Heterotrimeric G proteins Pase activity. Secondly, a family of regulators of G protein
The heterotrimeric G proteins function as transducers for signalling (RGS) proteins function as GTPase-activating
the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that activate a proteins (GAPs) that accelerate the G subunit GTPase
number of cell signalling pathways (Module 1: Table G- activity more than 1000-fold.
protein coupled receptors). These G proteins are made up There are G-protein receptor kinases (GRKs) such as
from 16 G, five G and 11 G genes (Module 2: Table -adrenergic receptor kinase 1 (ARK1), which phos-
heterotrimeric G proteins). These different subunits are phorylate active receptors to provide binding sites for
characterized by having various lipid modifications that arrestin that prevent the heterotrimeric proteins from
serve to insert them into the plasma membrane, where they binding the receptor and this leads to receptor desensit-
are positioned to detect information coming in from the ization (Module 1: Figure homologous desensitization).
GPCRs and to relay it to various amplifiers. The G sub- The active G/GTP and G subunits are able to re-
units are either palmitoylated or myristoylated near the N- lay information to a large number of signalling pathways,
terminus, whereas the G subunits are prenylated. The which are described in more detail for the different sig-
heterotrimeric G proteins are extremely versatile signalling nalling pathways:
elements, and both the G subunit and the G subunit
are able to relay information to downstream components
(Module 2: Figure heterotrimeric G protein signalling). The cyclic AMP signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure
These heterotrimeric G proteins exist in two states. cyclic AMP signalling).
When the G subunit is bound to GDP, it forms a com- Gq activates phospholipase C (PLC) as part of the
plex with G subunits to form the inactive heterotri- inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2+ signalling cas-
meric complex. When the GPCRs, which are sensitive to a sette (Module 2: Figure PLC structure and function).
wide range of stimuli (Module 1: Figure stimuli for cyclic Gq acting through Trio can stimulate both the JNK and
AMP signalling), are activated, they function as a guan- p38 signalling pathways to regulate cell proliferation
ine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) to replace the GDP (Module 9: Figure growth factor signalling).
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2014 Portland Press Limited www.cellsignallingbiology.org
Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r10
InsP3 Ca 2+
PLC
DAG G responses
Stimulus
q Trio MAPK signalling
AC Cyclic AMP
s
GPCR i AC Cyclic AMP
t Cyclic GMP
P PDE6
GRK
12/13
Arrestins Rho A Cytoskeleton
GTP
GTP GDP + Rac Cytoskeleton
GDP Cytoskeleton
Cdc42
G protein
PI 3-K PIP 3
RGS GIRK V
proteins
CaV1.2 Ca 2+
AC Cyclic AMP
InsP 3 Ca 2+
PLC
DAG
G responses
Modulation of the CaV 2 family of N-type and P/Q-type action domains, such as PDZ, phosphotyrosine-binding
channels (Module 3: Figure CaV 2 channel family). (PTB), pleckstrin homology (PH) and phox homology
Activation of the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway (PX) domains, indicating that, in addition to their GAP
(Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). activity, they may have other functions. One of these might
Activation of phosphodiesterase 6 (PDE6) during pho- be the regulation of the G-protein-activated inwardly rec-
totransduction in photoreceptors (Module 10: Figure tifying K+ (GIRK) channel.
phototransduction). The function of RGS proteins has been clearly defined
Golf functions in sperm motility and chemotaxis. in phototransduction, where RGS9 acts to accelerate GTP
Ggust , which is also known as gustudin, functions in hydrolysis by Gt (step 6 in Module 10: Figure photo-
taste cells and in the L cells that detect food components transduction). The level of RGS4, which modulates the
in the lumen of the intestine L cells (Module 7: Figure activity of the Ca2+ -sensing receptor (CaR), is reduced in
L cells). the brain in Alzheimers disease (AD) and could contrib-
ute to the onset of inflammation in Alzheimers disease
Mutations in CNAQ and GNA11, which encode Gq (Module 12: Figure Inflammation and Alzheimers dis-
and the closely related G11 respectively, have been iden- ease).
tified in most cases of uveal melanoma,
Monomeric G proteins
Regulators of G protein signalling (RGS) The monomeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) be-
The regulators of G protein signalling (RGS) are a large long to a large family of approximately 150 members. Ras
family of approximately 30 proteins that function as was the founding member, and the family is often referred
GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) for the heterotrimeric to as the Ras family of small G proteins. Within this family,
G proteins (Module 2: Figure heterotrimeric G protein sig- it is possible to recognize five subfamilies: Ras, Rho, Rab,
nalling). The G subunit has a low intrinsic GTPase activ- Ran and ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) (Module 2: Table
ity and this is greatly increased by the RGS proteins. RGS monomeric G protein toolkit). The Ran family plays a role
structure is defined by an RGS-box region that is respons- in nuclear transport, whereas the large Rab family func-
ible for binding to G/GTP. However, many of the RGS tions in membrane trafficking. The Ras and Rho family are
proteins contain a number of other proteinprotein inter- primarily involved in cell signalling, where they function as
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r11
binary switches to control a number of cell signalling sys- ceptor (PDGFR) is linked to the mitogen-activated pro-
tems. This binary switch is driven by the binding of GTP, tein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway (Module 1: Fig-
which represents the ON reaction, and is followed by the ure PDGFR activation). SoS binds to the Src homology 3
hydrolysis of the GTP by the endogenous GTPase activ- (SH3)-containing adaptor growth factor receptor-bound
ity. Most attention has focused on a small number of these protein 2 (Grb2), which is attached to the phosphotyr-
signal transducers, and the following will be described in osine residues of the activated receptor. Once it is associ-
detail to illustrate their role in cell signalling: ated with the receptor, SoS comes into contact with Ras
and can begin to facilitate the exchange of GDP for GTP,
Arf signalling mechanisms thus creating the active Ras/GTP complex that begins to
Cdc42 signalling mechanisms stimulate the MAPK signalling pathway (for further de-
Rab signalling mechanisms tails see Module 2: Figure ERK signalling).
Rac signalling mechanisms
Ras signalling mechanisms Ras guanine nucleotide release-inducing factors
Rap signalling mechanisms (RasGRFs)
Rho signalling mechanisms The Ras guanine nucleotide release-inducing factors
(RasGRFs) and Ras guanine nucleotide releasing proteins
Ras signalling mechanisms (RasGRPs) are also important GEFs that can relay inform-
Ras is a small (21 kDa) GTPase that plays a central role ation to Ras. The RasGRFs, which are strongly expressed
as a signal transducer for a number of signalling sys- in brain, are particularly important for the activation of
tems. It was first identified as a transducer for the tyr- the MAPK signalling pathway in neurons, where they re-
osine kinase-linked receptors (Module 1: Figure stimuli spond to activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) re-
for enzyme-linked receptors), where it functions to re- ceptors. One of the functions of the latter is to gate Ca2 + ,
lay information to the mitogen-activated protein kinase which then acts through calmodulin (CaM) to stimulate
(MAPK) signalling pathway. It is now known that ac- RasGRF. This is a highly localized signalling event, be-
tivated Ras is able to relay information to a number cause the RasGRF is associated with the NMDA receptor
of other signalling pathways. Like other G proteins and thus responds to the microdomain of Ca2 + near the
(Module 2: Figure G protein binary switching), Ras func- mouth of the channel. This signalling mechanism func-
tions as a binary switch that is activated by binding GTP. tions in neuronal gene transcription (Module 10: Figure
There are thus two critical aspects to Ras action: how is neuronal gene transcription).
the switch controlled and how is information relayed out
to different signalling pathways (Module 2: Figure Ras Ras guanine nucleotide releasing proteins (RasGRPs)
signalling)?With regard to the first question, the ON reac- The Ras guanine nucleotide releasing proteins (RasGRPs)
tion of the binary switch is controlled by a number of Ras are mainly expressed in haematopoietic cells (Module 2:
guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RasGEFs) such as Table monomeric G protein toolkit). These GRPs are also
Son-of-sevenless (SoS), Ras guanine nucleotide release-in- known as CalDAG-GEFs because they are sensitive to di-
ducing factors (RasGRFs) and Ras guanine nucleotide acylglycerol (DAG) and Ca2 + . They contain a C1 domain
releasing proteins (RasGRPs) (Module 2: Table mono- that binds DAG and they also have a pair of Ca2 + -binding
meric G protein toolkit). This conversion of RasGDP into EF-hands. The sensitivity to both DAG and Ca2 + sug-
RasGTP is inhibited by the tumour suppressor protein gests that these RasGRPs may couple phosphoinositide
merlin. Neurofibromatosis type 2 is caused by mutations signalling to the activation of the various pathways that
in merlin. The inactivation of RasGTP is mediated by a are linked to Ras (Module 2: Figure Ras signalling).
family of Ras GTPase-activating proteins (RasGAPs). Ras GTPase-activating proteins (RasGAPs)
The Ras signalling mechanism relays information to a There are a number of Ras GTPase-activating proteins
number of signalling targets: (RasGAPs) that accelerate the OFF reaction by speed-
It activates Raf to initiate the MAPK signalling pathway ing up the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP by Ras. Ex-
(Module 2: Figure ERK signalling). amples of such RasGAPs include p120 RasGAP, neur-
It activates phospholipase C (PLC) (Module 2: Figure ofibromin, synaptic Ras GTPase activating protein 1
PLC structure and function). (SYNGAP1), Ca2 + -promoted Ras inactivator (CAPRI)
It activates the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway. and Ras GTPase-activating-like (RASAL). The function of
Ras can activate a family of RalGEFs such as Ral- some of these RasGAPs, such as CAPRI and RASAL, are
GDP dissociation stimulator that then activates the Ral attracting considerable attention because they are Ca2 + -
proteins (RalA and RalB) (Module 2: Figure Ras sig- sensitive proteins that rapidly translocate to the membrane
nalling). One of the functions of RalA is to stimulate the through their C2 domains whenever there is an increase in
phospholipase D signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure the level of Ca2 + (Module 2: Figure Ras signalling).
PLD signalling). SYNGAP1, which is expressed mainly in brain, is
also activated by Ca2 + following its phosphorylation by
Son-of-sevenless (SoS) Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII).
Son-of-sevenless (SoS) is a classical Ras guanine nucle- The role of Ca2 + in modulating the activity of both
otide exchange factor (RasGEF). Its mode of action is the RasGEFs and RasGAPs indicates an important feed-
evident in the way the platelet-derived growth factor re- back interaction between the Ca2 + and Ras signalling
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r12
Glutamate Growth
factors
Ca2+
PTKR
Ras responses
NMDAR
Ca2+ DAG
+ +
TK TK
RasGRP
RasGRF SOS Raf ERK1/2
Ca2+ CaM
PI 3-K PIP3
+
Ras GTP GDP Ras InsP3 Ca 2+
PLC
GDP GTP
DAG
pathways. Mutation of the SYNGAP1 gene during brain this family reflects their central role in the regulation of so
development brings about neuronal defects characterized many vesicle trafficking processes.
by an excitation-inhibition imbalance that results in autism The continuous cycling between the cytosol and dif-
spectrum disorders (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID). ferent membrane-bound compartments is shepherded by
a number of protein factors and also requires the pren-
Rap signalling mechanisms ylation of Rab. This post-translational lipid modification
The Ras-related protein (Rap) family are typical small depends on the addition of isoprenes, which are intermedi-
monomeric G-proteins that belong to the Ras superfam- aries in cholesterol biosynthesis. Following its synthesis,
ily (Module 2: Table monomeric G-protein toolkit). The Rab is bound to GDP and is soluble in the cytoplasm
Rap family has four members Rap1A, Rap1B, Rap2A and (Module 2: Figure Rab signalling). This Rab.GDP is then
Rap2B. One of the guanine nucleotide-exchange factors recognized by the chaperone protein Rab escort protein
(GEFs) is the cyclic AMP-dependent GEF EPAC that (REP), which transfers it to the Rab geranylgeranyl trans-
regulates the activation of Rap1 and Rap2B. This pathway ferase (GGT) that adds either one or two geranylgeranyl
can activate phospholipase C (PLC) (Module 2: Figure groups to cysteine residue(s) located at the C-terminus of
cyclic AMP signalling). Such a mechanism has been im- the Rab. Mutation of REP causes choroideraemia, a form
plicated in the control of autophagy (Module 11: Figure of blindness resulting from degeneration of the retinal pig-
autophagy). ment epithelium.
The prenylated Rab enters the Rab membrane cycle
Rab signalling mechanism by binding to the GDP dissociation inhibitor (GDI). The
The Ras-associated binding (Rab) proteins are typical Rab.GDP/GDI complex is then targeted to specific mem-
small monomeric G-proteins that belong to the Ras super- brane sites by interacting with the GDI displacement
family. The primary function of the Rabs is to control mul- factor (GDF). Once Rab has performed its function it
tiple phases of membrane and protein trafficking such as is extracted from the membrane by GDI and remains
vesicle formation, motility, tethering and fusion to the ac- in the cytosol until it is required again to carry out the
ceptor membrane and signalling to other organelles. There same or some other function. Some patients with X-linked
are more than 60 human Rabs (Module 2: Table mono- non-specific mental retardation have mutations in one of
meric G-protein toolkit). The enormous proliferation of the genes for GDI.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r13
Rabs carry out their multiple tasks through the oper- early endosome budding). Rab 4, together with myosin V,
ation of the Rab GTP/GDP cycle regulated by the co- also functions in early endosome to trans-Golgi network
ordinated activity of guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (TGN) trafficking (Module 4: Figure early endosome bud-
(GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) (Module ding).
2: Figure Rab signalling). Examples of the RAB GEFs in-
Rab5
clude Rabex-5, Rabin3 and TRAPP1. Examples of some
Rab5 plays a role in endosome vesicle fusion to early endo-
of the Rab GAPs are Rab3GAP, Rin1, Tbc1d1 and Tbc1d4
somes by targeting vesicles to the early endosome (Module
(also known as AS160). Tbc1d1 and Tbc1d4/AS160 are the
4: Figure endosome vesicle fusion). Such a role is mani-
targets of insulin action resulting in insertion of GLUT4-
fest during phagosome maturation (Module 4: Figure pha-
containing vesicles in skeletal muscle (Module 7: Figure
gosome maturation). Rab5 also has a role in activating
skeletal muscle E-C coupling). The Rab.GTP form has the
hVPS34 to promote vesicle nucleation during autophagy
dynamic conformation and mobility to interact with many
(Module 11: Figure autophagy signalling mechanisms).
different downstream effectors that drive the multiple Rab
Rabex-5 is the guanine nucleotide-exchange factor
responses (Module 2: Figure Rab signalling).
(GEFs) that activates Rab5, which then interacts with the
An allele of Tbc1d4, which reduces the translocation
effector Rabaptin-5. Rab22 may play a role in recruiting
of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle
Rabex-5 to the early endosome.
(Module 7: Figure skeletal muscle E-C coupling), is linked
to a susceptibility to obesity. Rab6
During the process of COPII-mediated transport from
Rab1
ER to Golgi (Module 4: Figure COPII-coated vesicles),
Rab1 functions in vesicle tethering and fusion especially
Rab6 binds to Bicaudal D and thus provides a mechanism
during both ER-to-Golgi and Golgi-to-ER transport (see
to attach the dynein motor complex to the vesicle for its
steps 1 and 2 in Module 4: Figure membrane and protein
transfer between the ER and Golgi membranes (Module
trafficking). During the COPII-mediated transport from
4: Figure dynein)
the ER to the Golgi (Module 4: Figure COPII-coated
vesicles), TRAPP1 is the guanine nucleotide-exchange Rab 7
factor (GEF) that converts inactive Rab1.GDP into act- The two Rab7 proteins (Rab7A and Rab7B), which are
ive Rab1.GTP during vesicle tethering prior to fusion expressed ubiquitously, play a role in regulating vesicle
to the Golgi membrane. The transport from the Golgi trafficking between the endocytic and autophagic com-
back to the ER begins with the golgin protein p115 re- partments. Rab7 is found on the acidic and degradative
cruiting Rab1b, which then activates the Golgi-specific organelles, such as the late endosomes, lysosomes, mul-
brefeldin A resistant factor 1 (GBF1), which is a guan- tivesicular bodies, phagosomes and autophagolysosomes.
ine nucleotide-exchange factor (GEF) for the small mono- These mechanisms regulate the degradation of endocytic
meric G-protein ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (Arf1) that has cargos such as EGF receptors and neurotrophic factor re-
an important role in controlling key events such as coat ceptors such as TrkA and internalized cholesterol. The role
formation, actin polymerization and Golgi vesicle bud- of RAB7 in lysosomal transport depends on the effector
ding during COPI-mediated transport from the Golgi to protein Rab7-interacting lysosomal protein (RILP). Rab7
the ER (Module 4: Figure COPI-coated vesicles). may also play a role in the retrograde trafficking of the
signalling endosomes that supply trophic support to peri-
Rab3
pheral neurons.
There are three Rab3 proteins (Rab3A, Rab3B, Rab3C and
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2B is caused by
Rab3D) that function in regulated exocytosis. These Rab3
mutations in Rab7A.
members tend to be restricted to cells types with high rates
of exocytosis such as neurons and neuroendocrine cells Rab8
(Rab3A and Rab3C). Rab3B is located on tight junctions Rab8A interacts with myosin Vb to carry out non-
and secretory granules in epithelial cells. The more widely clathrin-dependent endocytosis. It also plays a role in the
expressed Rab3D is located on the secretory granules of biogenesis of cilia by interacting with cenexin/ODF2.
non-neuronal cells such as fat cells, adipocytes, exocrine A defect in the transcriptional regulation of Rab8A has
glands and certain haematopoietic cells. Rab3A and Rab3C been linked to Microvillus inclusion disease.
tend to reduce exocytosis, whereas Rab3B and Rab3D have
a more positive role. Rab11
The activation of these Rabs is regulated by a Rab3GAP There are three Rab11 proteins (Rab11A, Rab11B and
which has two components: a catalytic RabGAP1 sub- Rab11C), which function in both endocytic recycling and
unit and a non-catalytic RabGAP2 subunit. Mutations in cytokinesis. Rab11 plays an important role in the trans-
RabGAP1 have been linked to Warburg Micro syndrome port of synaptic vesicles where it is attached to myosin
whereas a milder form called Martsolf syndrome is cause Vb through the Rab11-family interacting proteins (FIPs)
by mutations in RabGAP2. (Module 4: Figure myosin motor). Such trafficking events
leading to receptor insertion are key components in the
Rab4 relationship between Ca2+ and synaptic plasticity during
Rab 4, together with myosin V, functions in early endo- the process of learning (Module 10: Figure Ca2+ -induced
some to plasma membrane trafficking (Module 4: Figure synaptic plasticity).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r14
Rab responses
Rab REP
GDP Rabankyrin-5
PKB PIP
3
REP SNARE Vesicle
PI 3-kinase p115 fusion
Rab
GDP Insulin
Rab11, together with its effector FIP2, also plays a role One of the functions of RAB27A is to move melano-
in the trafficking and insertion of aquaporin-2 (AQP2) somes along actin filaments in retinal pigment epithe-
(Module 7: collecting duct function) and also plays a role lium cells and in melanocytes. A defect in the transport
in controlling the trafficking and insertion of new vesicles of melanocytes results in choroideraemia. In the case
to form the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis (Module of melanogensis, Rab27A interacting with melanophilin
9: Figure cytokinesis). that then uses myosin Va to move melanosomes to the
cell periphery of the melanocytes (Module 7: Figure
melanogenesis).
Rab27 Another function of Rab27A is to regulate the secre-
There are two Rab27 proteins (Rab27A and Rab27B), tion of perforin- and granzyme-containing cytotoxic
which function in intracellular transport of secretory gran- granules at the immunological synapse that forms when
ules and melanosomes (Module 4: Figure myosin mo- cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer
tor). Rab27 exerts its actions through various effectors (NK) cells interacts with their target cells, such as virus-
that fall into three families that have distinct functions. infected cells and tumour cells. Interaction of the T
There are synaptotagmin-like proteins (Slps), Slp lacking cell receptor (TCR) with an antigen-presenting target
C2 domains (Slac2s) and the Rab3-binding domain (RBD) cell induces the rapid polarization of the microtubule-
family. They all have an N-terminal Rab27-binding do- organizing center (MTOC), which orchestrates secre-
main known as the Slp-homology domain (SHD), which tion of the cytotoxic granules at the immunological syn-
binds to the GTP-bound form of Rab27. The Slp and RBD apse. The Rab27 effector hMunc13-4 contributes to the
families also have two C-terminal C2 domains, which maturation and exocytosis of the perforin-containing
enables these effectors to bind to phospholipids at the granules. Several inherited conditions, which lead to
plasma membrane and thus enables Rab27a to regulate functional impairment of this cytotoxic pathway result
the secretory machinery at the vesicle docking step. The from defects in either Rab27A or hMunc13-4. Muta-
Slac2-a/Melanophilin and Slac2-c/MyRIP complexes link tions in Rab27A have been linked to Griscelli syn-
Rab27a to molecular motors such as MyoVa (Module 4: drome type 2 (GS2), whereas mutations in hMunc13-
Figure myosin motor). The active Rab27.GTP carries out 4 cause familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis
a number of functions: type 3 (FHL3).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r15
Insulin granules are tethered to the plasma membrane NADPH oxidase to initiate the reactive oxygen species
using the effector Slp4-a/granuphilin-a to interact with (ROS) signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure plasma
both Rab27A and the SNARE protein syntaxin-1a. membrane ROS formation).
In glucagon-secreting -cells in the pancreas, glucagon B. It stimulates the JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) sig-
granules are targeted to the plasma membrane by Slp2a. nalling pathway (Module 2: Figure JNK signalling).
C. It promotes actin stability by stimulating p21-activated
Rab11-family interacting proteins (FIPs)
kinase (PAK) to phosphorylate LIM kinase, which
The Rab11-family interacting proteins (FIPs) serve as ef-
phosphorylates cofilin to inhibit its ability to cut actin.
fectors for a number of Rabs and ADP-ribosylation factors
D. It contributes to focal adhesion integrin signalling
(Arfs). There are five members, which all have a Rab11-
(Module 6: Figure integrin signalling).
binding domain (RBD) at the C-terminus and are divided
E. It promotes actin remodelling in several ways. It stim-
into two classes:
ulates PtdIns4P 5-kinase to increase the formation
Class I (have a phospholipid-binding C2 domain)
of PtdIns4,5P2 to control actin remodelling (Module
Rip11, which is also known as pp75 or FIP5, functions 4: Figure actin remodelling). It also acts through in-
in the transport of GLUT-4 vesicles to the cell surface sulin receptor substrate p53 (IRSp53), which activ-
when adipocytes are stimulated by insulin. ates Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) to co-
FIP2, which is also known as optineurin (OPTN), func- ordinate the activity of the actin-related protein 2/3
tions to couple Rab 11 to the AMPA-containing syn- complex (Arp2/3 complex) that initiates actin poly-
aptic vesicles (Module 4: Figure myosin motor). Such merization (Module 4: Figure actin remodelling). Such
trafficking events leading to receptor insertion are key a role is evident in neurons during spine morphogenesis
components in the relationship between Ca2+ and syn- (Module 10: Figure postsynaptic density) and during
aptic plasticity during the process of learning (Module the Ca2+ and synaptic plasticity changes that occur dur-
10: Figure Ca2+ -induced synaptic plasticity). ing long-term potentiation (LTP) (Module 10: Figure
Rab-coupling protein (RCP) is also known as FIP1C Ca2+ -induced synaptic plasticity).
ClassII (have typical Ca2 + -binding EF-hands)
Rho signalling mechanisms
FIP3, which is also known as Arfophilin and Eferin, The Rho (Ras homologue) signalling pathway has an im-
contributes to the role of Rab11 in trafficking and in- portant role in regulating a number of systems, in par-
sertion of membrane vesicles during formation of the ticular the operation of the cytoskeleton. It regulates the
cleavage furrow responsible for cytokinesis (Module 9: function of actin in two main ways. Firstly, it controls
Figure cytokinesis). some of the processes that function in actin assembly and
FIP4, which is also known as Arfophilin-2, functions it also operates one of the control mechanisms that regulate
like FIP3 to regulate cytokinesis. the myosin IIactin interaction responsible for contraction
both in smooth muscle cells and non-muscle cells (Module
Mutations in FIP2/optineurin have been linked to
2: Figure Rho signalling). Like other G proteins, Rho func-
some forms of glaucoma and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
tions as a binary switch. It is inactive when bound to GDP,
(ALS).
but when this GDP is exchanged for GTP, the Rho/GTP
complex becomes active. External stimuli can activate this
Rac signalling mechanisms
switch using different Rho guanine nucleotide exchange
The Rac signalling pathway has an important role in ac-
factors (RhoGEFs). There are a large number of such
tivating a number of signalling pathways (Module 2: Fig-
RhoGEFs that are characterized by having a Dbl homo-
ure Rac signalling). Like other G proteins, Rac functions
logy (DH) domain. The term Dbl comes from diffuse B cell
as a binary switch. It is inactive when bound to GDP,
lymphoma, which is the cell line where the first RhoGEF
but when this GDP is exchanged for GTP, the Rac/GTP
was identified. The family of Dbl-containing GEFs has
complex becomes active. External stimuli can activate this
now expanded to 69 members, some of which are shown
switch using different guanine nucleotide exchange factors
in Module 2: Table monomeric G protein toolkit. These
(GEFs) such as T cell lymphoma invasion and metastasis
GEFs are not necessarily specific for Rho: some are rather
(Tiam), Kalirin, Vav, SoS and P-Rex. Arf6, which particip-
promiscuous and will also function as Rac and Cdc42
ates in the Arf signalling pathway, stimulates the Rac GEF
GEFs. In the case of Rho, ephexin appears to be specific for
called downstream of Crk-180 homologue (DOCK180).
coupling ephrin receptors to Rho (Module 2: Figure Rho
Kalirin functions in the Ephrin (Eph) receptor signalling
signalling). Also leukaemia-associated RhoGEF (LARG),
pathway, where it links the EphB receptor to Rac and actin
p115-RhoGEF and PDZ-RhoGEF are specific for coup-
assembly (Module 1: Figure Eph receptor signalling). The
ling G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to Rho activa-
lipid second messenger PtdIns3,4,5P3 , which is produced
tion. Net-1, which appears to be sensitive to PtdIns3,4,5P3
by the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway, is particularly
(PIP3 ), is normally found in the nucleus, but translocates
effective in stimulating many of these GEFs.
to the cytoplasm, where it functions to activate RhoA. An-
The activated Rac/GTP complex has a number of im-
other important GEF is Ect2, which is also found in the
portant actions:
nucleus during interphase, but then associates with micro-
A. Rac is responsible for mediating the action of the tubules during mitosis, where it stimulates the activation
PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway in stimulating the of Rho cytokinesis (Module 9: Figure cytokinesis).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r16
Rac responses
Stimulus Stimulus
PTKR GPCR
+ Ca2+
Arf6
PIP
3
Ca2+
TK
TK CIB1 Cofilin
DOCK P
Vav1 Actin
CaMKII Kalirin 180 Sos GEFs disassembly
TIAM P-Rex Cofilin
PAK1 LIM-K1
P
Rac GTP GDP Rac
GDP GTP Actin
IRS p53 WAVE Arp2/3 assembly
Actin
3BP-1 GAPs polymerization
PtdIns4P
PtdIns4P Actin-Profilin
5-kinase Profilin
PtdIns4,5P2
Rho responses
CaM
MLCK
s
Stimulu Stimulus Myosin II
MLC P
Contraction
P
PPI
GPCR MYPT1
PTKR
PIP
3 12/1 P
PPI
3
MYPT1
TK
TK
ROCK
Net1 LARG p115-RhoGEF
Ephexin
PDZ-RhoGEF
LIM-K1 Cofilin
PtdIns4P Actin
GTP GDP assembly
P
Rho Rho PtdIns4P Cofilin
GDP GTP 5-kinase
Actin
PtdIns4,5P2 polymerization
DLC1 p190Rho
GAPs GAP
mDia
Profilin
Actin-Profilin
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r17
ulus Stimulus
Stim
PIP
3
Cofilin
?
TK
TK
P
ITSN-L Dbs
-Pix GEFs
PAK4 LIM-K1 Cofilin
Actin-Profilin
Profilin
The activated Rho/GTP complex is able to stimulate a Physical interactions between endothelial cells and
number of signalling processes, many of which are directed the extracellular matrix (ECM) activate p190RhoGAP
towards remodelling of actin and its contraction. Many of that is responsible for the mechanosensitive control of
the actions of Rho are carried out through a Rho kinase VEGF receptor expression.
(ROCK). Diaphanous-related forming 1 (Dia1) is one of
the downstream effectors that responds to Rho/GTP by
Cdc42 signalling mechanisms
interacting with profilin to increase actin polymerization.
The Cdc42 signalling mechanism has an important role
Oligophrenin-1 (OPHN1) is a Rho Gap that functions
in controlling the actin cytoskeleton. It regulates some of
to stabilize AMPA receptors at neuronal synapses and thus
the processes that function in actin assembly (Module 2:
plays an important role in both synapse formation and
Figure Cdc42 signalling). Like other G proteins, Cdc42
synaptic plasticity. Mutations in the OPHN1 gene have
functions as a binary switch. It is inactive when bound
been linked to mental retardation.
to GDP, but when this GDP is exchanged for GTP, the
The following are some examples of the function of Rho
Cdc42/GTP complex becomes active. External stimuli ac-
signalling:
tivate this switch using different guanine nucleotide ex-
Activation of smooth muscle contraction (Module 7: change factors (GEFs), such as intersectin-long (ITSN-
Figure smooth muscle cell E-C coupling). L) and PAK-interacting exchange factor (-Pix). Just
Assembly of the actomyosin contractile ring and how these Cdc42 RhoGEFs are activated is still not prop-
activation of the contraction during cytokinesis erly understood. In the case of the Ephrin (Eph) receptor
(Module 9: Figure cytokinesis). signalling pathway, intersectin is activated by binding to
Endothelial cell contraction to open the permeability the EphA receptor (Module 1: Figure Eph receptor sig-
barrier (Module 7: Figure endothelial cell contraction). nalling). The activated Cdc42/GTP complex then stimu-
Assembly of the actin ring in osteoclast podosomes lates various elements that regulate actin polymerization.
(Module 7: Figure osteoclast podosome). It promotes actin stability by stimulating p21-activated
Eph receptor-induced growth cone collapse in develop- kinase (PAK) to phosphorylate LIM kinase, which phos-
ing neurons (Module 1: Figure Eph receptor signalling). phorylates cofilin to inhibit its ability to cut actin. One
Activation of uropod contraction during neutrophil of its main actions is to stimulate the Wiskott-Aldrich
chemotaxis (Module 11: Figure neutrophil chemotactic syndrome protein (WASP) that acts on the actin-related
signalling). protein 2/3 complex (Arp2/3 complex) to initiate actin
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Arf responses
Brefeldin A (BFA) Nucleation and assembly of
coat protein complexes
Rab1
Cortactin
GEFs
GBF1 PICK1-Arp2/3
ARNO
PtdIns
PtdIns4K
II
Arf GTP GDP Arf
GTP Actin Vesicle
GDP PtdIns4P
polymerization budding
AGAPs
ACAPs
ASAPs PtdIns4P
Arf GAPs
Git1/2 ARAPs 5-kinase
GAPs PtdIns4,5P2
PC PLD PA
polymerization (Module 4: Figure actin remodelling). This plex in association with a protein called engulfment and
action is facilitated by Cdc42 acting on profilin through in- cell motility (ELMO). Arf6 has also been implicated in
sulin receptor substrate p53 (IRSp53) and Mena. the endocytosis of AMPA receptors during the process of
The Cdc42 signalling mechanism plays an important Ca2+ -induced synaptic plasticity at synaptic endings (See
role in actin polymerization in synaptic spines as part step 4 in Module 10: Figure Ca2+ -induced synaptic plas-
of the events associated with Ca2+ and synaptic plasticity ticity). This function of Arf6 depends on the activity of
(Module 10: Figure Ca2+ -induced synaptic plasticity). BRAG2, which is an Arf GEF that binds to the Glu2 sub-
unit of the AMPA receptor.
Arf signalling mechanisms Like other monomeric GTP-binding proteins (G-
The ADP-ribosylation factors (Arfs) are best known for proteins), Arf activity is regulated by a balance between
their role in membrane and protein trafficking. There are Arf guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (Arf GEFs) and
six mammalian Arfs that are divided into three classes the Arf GTPase-activating proteins (Arf GAPs) (Module
(Module 2: Table monomeric G-protein toolkit). The Class 2: Figure Arf signalling). Examples of Arf GEFs are Golgi-
I and Class II Arfs are found mainly at the Golgi and specific brefeldin A resistant factor 1 (GBF1) and Arf
also on various endosomal membranes where they func- nucleotide-binding site opener (ARNO). These activation
tion in actin remodelling and formation of the coat pro- mechanisms are counteracted by the Arf GAPs that facil-
tein complexes responsible for the vesicle budding that itate the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP thus converting the
transfers cargo form one compartment to another. Such complex back into its inactive Arf.GDP state. There are 24
a role is evident in the case of COPI-mediated transport human genes coding for Arf GAPs, which are character-
from Golgi to ER (Module 4: Figure COPI-coated ves- ized by having an Arf GAP domain, that can be separated
icles). Class III has a single member Arf6, which functions into two main groups: the Arf GAP1 type and the Arf GAP
at the plasma membrane where it can have marked ef- with ANK repeats and PH domain (AZAPs) (Module 2:
fects on actin polymerization. One action of Arf6 is to Table monomeric G protein toolkit).
induce the trafficking of Rac1 to the plasma membrane The Arf GAP1 group has three genes coding for Arf
where it is activated by the Rac GEF called downstream of GAP1-3, two genes for stromal membrane-associated
Crk-180 homologue (DOCK180) to increase membrane protein 1 and 2 (SMAP1 and SMAP2) and two genes
ruffling and focal adhesion actin attachment (Module 6: coding for G-protein-coupled receptor kinase interact-
Figure integrin signalling). The DOCK180 acts as a com- ors 1 and 2 (Git1 and Git2). Regulation of Arf1 by
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r22
The ASAP family has three genes (ASAP13). The chain kinase (MLCK), resulting in a decrease in the activity
ASAP3Arf6 complex is of interest because it is sensit- of the actinmyosin contractile system. PAK1 can also be
ive to Ca2 + that binds to a specific region at the complex activated independently of Rac through the calcium and
interface. This sensitivity to Ca2 + suggests that there may integrin-binding protein 1 (CIB1) that acts by stimulating
be cross-talk between the Arf and Ca2 + signalling path- PAK1 (Module 2: Figure Rac signalling).
ways. The fragile X mental retardation protein 1 RMRP1,
To carry out its role in vesicle trafficking, the Arfs have which is mutated in fragile X syndrome (FXS), may
two main actions. First, they catalyse the nucleation and act to inhibit the function of PAK particularly during
assembly of coat protein complexes during the process actin remodelling in neuronal spines (Module 10: Figure
of vesicle budding. This role is particularly evident at the Ca2+ -dependent synaptic plasticity ).
Golgi during the formation of COPI vesicles (Module 4:
Figure COPI-coated vesicles). The Arfs also play a role in Myotonic dystrophy kinase-related Cdc42-binding
recruiting various Arf-associated golgins, such as GMAP- kinase (MRCK)
210, to the Golgi membrane. Myotonic dystrophy kinase-related Cdc42-binding kinase
The Arfs also function by activating the PtdIns4,5P2 sig- (MRCK) has a number of functional domains and be-
nalling cassette responsible for controlling multiple func- longs to the same family as Rho kinase (ROK) (Module
tions (Module 2: Figure PtdIns4,5P2 signalling). The Arfs 2: Figure Rho-regulated kinases). MRCK, which is activ-
act by recruiting and stimulating both PtdIns 4 kinase ated by Cdc42GTP, may play a role in actin formation
III and the PtdIns4P 5-kinase (Module 2: Figure Arf sig- during the growth of neurites. One of the downstream
nalling). All of the Arfs are responsible for phospholipase targets of MRCK is the MYPT1 subunit (Module 5: Table
D (PLD) activation (Module 2: Figure PLD signalling). PP1 regulatory and inhibitory subunits and proteins ) that
The subsequent formation of phosphatidic acid (PA), binds protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and which dephos-
which is a bioactive lipid, has two actions: it acts syn- phorylates the myosin light chain (MLC).
ergistically to stimulate PtdIns4P 5-kinase and it alters
membrane curvature during vesicle budding (Module 2: Rho kinase (ROCK)
Figure Arf signalling). Rho kinase (ROCK) is a serine/threonine kinase that
phosphorylates key regulators of actin and myosin func-
Dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8) tion (Module 2: Figure Rho-regulated kinases). ROCK
There is a family of eleven dedicator of cytokinesis acts to stabilize actin by phosphorylating LIM, which
(DOCK) proteins that are guanine nucleotide-exchange then phosphorylates cofilin to prevent it from sever-
factors (GEFs) that appear to act primarily on the ing actin. Rho also acts on diaphanous-related formin
Rac signalling mechanism and the Cdc42 signalling mech- protein (Dia), which belongs to a formin-related pro-
anism. A typical example is DOCK8, which has an N- tein family that interacts with profilin to promote actin
terminal DOCK Homology Region-1 (DHR-1) respons- polymerization.
ible for the guanine nucleotide-exchange reaction and a The other major function of ROCK is to control con-
C-terminal DHR-2 domain that is thought to bind phos- traction by activating myosin II in smooth muscle cells and
pholipids. This family of DOCK proteins may act by re- in non-muscle cells. The activity of myosin II is regulated
modelling actin to carry out a variety of cellular functions by the phosphorylation status of the myosin light chain
such as the control of cell migration, morphology, adhesion (MLC) that is associated with the myosin head. When
and proliferation. During the process of B-cell differenti- MLC is dephosphorylated, myosin is inactive, but when
ation in the lymph node, DOCK8 is activated following it is phosphorylated by the Ca2 + -sensitive myosin light
its interaction with the integrin intercellular adhesion mo- chain kinase (MLCK), myosin can begin to interact with
lecule 1 (ICAM1) (Module 8: Figure B cell maturation actin to induce contraction. ROCK can influence the phos-
signalling). phorylation of MLC by inhibiting the protein phosphatase
Loss-of-function mutations in DOCK8 have been 1 by phosphorylating the scaffolding protein myosin phos-
linked to variants of hyper-IgE syndromes (HIES) and phatase targeting subunit 1 (MYPT1) (Module 5: Table PP1
mental retardation. regulatory, targeting and inhibitory subunits).
ROCK may also function to inhibit endocytosis by
p21-activated kinase (PAK) phosphorylating endophilin.
The p21-activated kinases (PAKs) are some of
the major downstream targets of Rac and Rho
(Module 2: Figure Rho-regulated kinases). They have Ca2 + signalling
been implicated in a large number of processes such as Ca2 + signalling is one of the major signalling systems in
actin remodelling, cell cycle control, transcription and cells (Module 2: Figure cell signalling pathways). It func-
apoptosis. There are six isoforms (PAK1PAK6) with tions to regulate many different cellular processes through-
slightly different functions. Rac acts through LIM kinase 1 out their life history. It triggers new life at the time of
(LIMK1) to phosphorylate cofilin (Module 2: Figure Rac fertilization. It controls many processes during develop-
signalling). Rho acts through PAK4 to phosphorylate the ment, and once cells have differentiated, it governs the
same LIMK1 (Module 2: Figure Cdc42 signalling). An- activity of most cellular processes, effectively determining
other function of PAK1 is to phosphorylate myosin light how we metabolize, secrete, move and think. There also is
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r23
PBD Kinase
P21-activated kinase (PAK)
Kinase PBD
Cdc42
MYPT1 GTP
CRD
LIMK1/2 Rho
FilGAP GTP
CRD
Kinase CC PBD PH
Rho kinase (ROCK)
Kinase CC PBD PH
a darker side to its action, because larger than normal elev- ible for translating Ca2 + signals into a change in cellular
ations can cause cell death, either in the controlled manner activity.
of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or in the more cata-
strophic necrotic changes that occur during processes such
as stroke or cardiac ischaemia. Basic mechanism of Ca2 + signalling
The basic mechanism of Ca2+ signalling is relatively Cells at rest maintain a low intracellular concentration
simple in that it depends upon an increase in the intracel- of Ca2 + (approximately 100 nM), but this increases rap-
lular concentration of this ion. The Ca2 + concentration idly into the micromolar range when cells are stimulated
is low when cells are at rest, but when an appropriate (Module 2: Figure basic Ca2+ signalling mechanism).
stimulus arrives, there is a sudden elevation, which is re- This increase in intracellular Ca2 + can operate over a very
sponsible for a change in cellular activity. However, there wide time domain (e.g. microseconds to hours) to regulate
are multiple variations of this relatively simple theme. The many different cellular processes. This very wide temporal
versatility of Ca2 + signalling is achieved by having an ex- range of Ca2 + signalling is an intrinsic property of the Ca2+
tensive Ca2 + toolkit from which a large number of Ca2+ signalling modules.
signalling signalsomes are assembled. This large toolkit An important feature of Ca2 + signalling is its dynamic
contains many different components that can be mixed and nature, as exemplified by the fact that Ca2 + signals invari-
matched to create many different Ca2+ signalling mod- ably appear as a brief transient. The rising phase of each
ules. There are Ca2+ entry channels, which control the transient is produced by the ON reactions, whereas the
entry of Ca2 + from the outside. There are Ca2+ release falling phase depends on the OFF reactions (Module 2:
channels, which control the release of Ca2 + from internal Figure Ca2+ signalling dynamics). At any moment in time,
stores. The Ca2+ buffers ensure that the concentration of the level of Ca2 + is determined by the balance between
Ca2 + remains within its operation range and does not the Ca2+ ON reactions that increase Ca2 + and the Ca2+
rise to levels that can induce cell death. Once Ca2 + has OFF reactions that remove it from the cytosol. An im-
carried out its signalling function, there are Ca2+ pumps portant aspect of Ca2 + dynamics is that there must be a
and exchangers that remove it from the cytoplasm by precise balance between these ON and OFF reactions in
either extruding it from the cell or returning it to the in- order to maintain intracellular Ca2 + homoeostasis. Such
ternal stores. Ca2+ signalling functions are carried out by homoeostasis is of critical importance where Ca2 + is being
various Ca2+ sensors and Ca2+ effectors that are respons- used repetitively to control processes such as the cardiac
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r24
STIMULUS Time
domain
Exocytosis s
ON REACTIONS
Contraction ms
sec
Ca
2+ Ca2+ Metabolism
Gene
100 nM OFF REACTIONS
1000nM
transcription min
Fertilization
Proliferation hr
Hypertrophy
ventricular cell Ca2+ release and neuronal dopaminergic has a clearly defined subset of toolkit components that will
(DA) neuronal pacemaker mechanisms (Module 10: Fig- be referred to as a Ca2 + signalling signalsome. These cell-
ure tonic oscillation in DA neurons). specific signalsomes are put in place during development
Another important aspect of the ON and OFF reactions when a process of signalsome expression enables each dif-
is their spatial location. An example of this spatial organ- ferentiating cell to select out those signalling components
ization is the ER/mitochondrial Ca2+ shuttle (Module 5: it will require to control its particular functions (Module
Figure ER/mitochondrial shuttle), where events at the ER 8: Figure signalsome expression). There are an enormous
are closely linked to those in the mitochondria. Another number of cell-specific Ca2 + signalsomes (Module 2: Fig-
important spatial aspect is that the ON reactions are often ure cell-specific Ca2+ signalsomes). The important point
closely associated with the effector systems that respond to is that each signalsome generates a cell-specific Ca2 + signal
Ca2 + . For example, voltage-operated channels (VOCs) in with characteristic spatial and temporal properties.
presynaptic endings are associated with the synaptic ves- A signalsome is defined here as the collection of sig-
icles, thus producing a highly localized puff of Ca2 + to nalling components that make up each cell-specific sig-
trigger exocytosis (Module 4: Figure Ca2+ -induced mem- nalling system. The Ca2 + signalsomes of different cell
brane fusion). Similarly, the type 2 ryanodine receptors types often display recurring themes in the form of Ca2+
(RYR2s) of cardiac cells are lined up close to the contract- signalling modules (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ modules).
ile filaments to ensure that Ca2 + will rapidly stimulate
contraction.
In cases where cells need to be stimulated over a long Ca2 + signalling modules
time, these transients are repeated at set intervals to set The Ca2 + signalling system in specific cell types is often
up Ca2+ oscillations. These oscillations are part of the not a single entity, but is made up of distinct modules,
spatiotemporal aspects of Ca2 + signalling. which are mixed and matched to produce the cell-specific
systems found in different cell types. Some of the main
modules used by cells are summarized in Module 2: Figure
Ca2 + signalling signalsome Ca2+ modules:
Cells have access to a large Ca2 + signalling toolkit
(Module 2: Table Ca2+ signalling toolkit). Many of the 1. Agonists such as the neurotransmitters glutamate
toolkit components have similar functions (Module 2: Fig- and ATP act directly on receptor-operated channels
ure Ca2+ signalling toolkit), which represents a generic (ROCs) in the plasma membrane to allow external
Ca2 + signalling system. In reality, however, each cell type Ca2 + to enter the cell.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r25
STIMULUS 2+
[ Ca ]
PMCA
2nd [Ca2+ ]
messengers Resting
+ +
SERCA
ER
Na + Na +
Mitochondria
2+
[Ca2+ ] Ca
Activated
Buffers
2. Second messengers such as diacylglycerol (DAG), cyc- to activate the InsP3 receptor (InsP3 R) to release Ca2 +
lic AMP, cyclic GMP and arachidonic acid acting from from the ER.
the cytoplasmic side open second messenger-operated
channels (SMOCs) in the plasma membrane.
3. Membrane depolarization (V) activates
voltage-operated channels (VOCs) in the plasma Ca2 + ON reactions
membrane to allow a rapid influx of external In response to external stimuli, channels in the plasma
Ca2 + . membrane or ER are opened, and Ca2 + flows into the
4. Membrane depolarization (V) activates a specific cytoplasm to bring about the elevation of cytosolic Ca2 +
VOC isoform, the CaV 1.1 L-type channel, that ac- responsible for cell activation (Module 2: Figure Ca2+
tivates the ryanodine receptor 1 (RYR1) in skeletal signalling dynamics). During these ON reactions, the
muscle through a direct conformational-coupling cell employs a variety of both Ca2+ entry channels and
mechanism. Ca2+ release channels to create Ca2 + signals with
5. Membrane depolarization (V) activates voltage- markedly different spatial and temporal properties.
operated channels (VOCs) in the plasma membrane The entry of Ca2 + across the plasma membrane is car-
to allow a rapid influx of external Ca2 + (see Mod- ried out by many different channels whose names indicate
ule 3) to provide a Ca2 + trigger that then activates the how they are opened:
ryanodine receptor 2 (RYR2) to release Ca2 + stored in
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) through a process of
Ca2+ -induced Ca2+ release (CICR). This mechanism is Voltage-operated channels (VOCs)
found in cardiac muscle and neurons. Agonist-operated channels (AOCs)
6. Agonists acting on cell-surface receptors generate inos- Receptor-operated channels (ROCs)
itol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 ) (Module 2: Figure InsP3 Second messenger-operated channels (SMOCs)
and DAG formation), which then diffuses into the cell Store-operated channels (SOCs)
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r26
Release of Ca2 + from internal stores is carried out by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs). This
different types of channels and control mechanisms: Ca2+ -induced Ca2+ release (CICR) mechanism has
the unique property of being autocatalytic and plays
Ryanodine receptors (RYRs) a central role in generating those Ca2 + signals that ap-
InsP3 receptors (InsP3 Rs) pear as regenerative Ca2 + waves (Module 2: Figure
NAADP control of Ca2+ release Ca2+ -induced Ca2+ release).
One of the major problems in Ca2 + signalling has been Another classical process for releasing internal Ca2 + is
to determine how stimuli arriving at the cell surface gain the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2+ signalling
access to these internal stores. Two main mechanisms have cassette (Ca2 + module 6 in Module 2: Figure Ca2+ mod-
been identified: ules). Other Ca2 + -mobilizing messengers have been de-
scribed such as sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), cyclic
1. Conformational coupling through a proteinprotein
ADP ribose (cADPR) and nicotinic acidadenine dinuc-
interaction. This is a very fast mechanism that depends
leotide phosphate (NAADP).
upon a sensor in the plasma membrane interacting dir-
The channels responsible for these Ca2 + ON reactions
ectly with an internal release channel. The receptor on
usually have powerful inactivation mechanisms that rap-
the cell surface is the CaV 1.1 L-type channel (a voltage
idly curtail the entry or release processes to prevent the
sensor), which is coupled to the type 1 ryanodine re-
cell being swamped with Ca2 + , which can result in cell
ceptor 1 (RYR1) (Ca2 + module 4 in Module 2: Figure
stress and apoptosis. Once the ON reactions have been
Ca2+ modules). Information is transferred through a
curtailed, the Ca 2+ OFF reactions rapidly take over
process of conformational coupling. This mechanism is
to return the activated level of Ca2 + back to its resting
restricted to skeletal muscle (Module 7: Figure skeletal
level.
muscle E-C coupling) and perhaps also to some neur-
ons.
2. Generation of diffusible second messengers. Activa- Ca2 + -induced Ca2 + release (CICR)
tion of receptors or channels on the cell surface gen- A process of Ca2 + -induced Ca2 + release (CICR) plays a
erate second messengers that then diffuse into the cell central role in the way Ca2 + signals are generated. This
to activate release channels. One of the most signific- positive-feedback mechanism whereby Ca2 + triggers its
ant Ca2 + -mobilizing messengers is Ca2 + itself, which own release has two important functions in cells. It en-
is a potent activator of the two main internal release ables Ca2 + entering across the plasma membrane to func-
channels, the ryanodine receptors (RYRs) and the tion as a messenger to release Ca2 + from the internal
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r27
CNGA1-4 PLC1-4
AMPAR
CNGB1 (GluR2) Gq PLC1-2
CNGB3 nAChR G11 PLC1-4
TRPA1 5-HT3 Agonists G14 PLC
TRPC1 NMDAR
G15 PLC1-2
TRPC3-7 (NR1-NR3) GPCRs PTKRs
Ca V 1.1-1.4 G PLC
TRPM2-3 P2X1-7 +
Ca V 2.1-2.3
TRPM7-8 Ca V 3.1-3.3 Orai1
TRPP2 Ca V 1.1 Orai2
Adiponectin
+
RYR1 STIM1
Acidic Ca 2+ STIM2
Ca 2+
AdipoR1/2 stores
Ca 2+
PMCA1-4
NAADP InsP3
Ca 2+ TPC1 +
TPC2 +
InsP 3 R1-3
NCX1-3 ER buffers
Ca 2+
Calsequestrin
Na+ 2+ Calreticulin
+ + Ca GRP78
K+ & Na+ GRP94
Ca 2+ RYR2-3
NCKX1-4
SERCA1-3
Na+
cADPR
Ca 2+
Na/Ca + Cytosolic buffers
exchanger
Ca 2+ CalbindinD-28k
Calretinin
Mitochondrial Parvalbumin
Ca 2+ calcium SPCA1-2
uniporter
+ +
ATP Nucleus
synthesis
MTP ROS
formation + + TRPML1 Chromatin Cell
Apoptosis remodelling remodelling
Ca 2+ Ca 2+
Cell
+ Gene
proliferation
C2 domain EF-hand transcription
Exocytosis Annexin 1-13
+
CaM NCS-1
Otoferin Hippocalcin
TnC
+ Protein kinase C Neurocalcin
Calpains
RASAL Recoverin
Miro1-2
Endocytosis SynaptotagminI-III VILIP1-3
S100A1-14
S100B GCAP1-3 +
KChIP1-4 Protein synthesis
S100C
CaBP1-5
+
S100P hVps34/mTOR
+ MICU1 +
Excitability and
fluid secretion + + + Metabolism
DAG kinase
K+ IP 3 Kinase
BK, SK,IK & TRESK Signalling crosstalk Cytoskeletal Phopho-
Motility diesterase
remodelling
Cl - Cyclic AMP NO ROS MAPK PI 3-K Actin Myosin
Phosphorylase
polymerization
Na+ Actin
TRPM4/5 Ras
TRPV4-6 AC NOS DUOX
Summary of the major components that contribute to the Ca2 + signalling signalsome.
There is an extensive Ca2 + signalling toolkit. The green boxes illustrate the membrane Ca2 + channels, whereas the red boxes are the pumps
and exchangers that move Ca2 + either out of the cell or back into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The purple boxes represent the buffers
located in the cytoplasm or in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). To carry out its signalling function, Ca2 + binds to sensors with C2 or EF-hand
domains that then employ a range of effectors to stimulate cellular processes shown in the yellow boxes. These different components are mixed
and matched to construct various Ca2 + signalling modules (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ modules) that are then assembled to produce cell-specific
signalsomes.
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store (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ -induced Ca2+ release). This as the sparks and puffs produced by the RYRs and InsP3 Rs
function of CICR was first described in cardiac cells, respectively. It is these unitary events that are used to gen-
where the CaV 1.2 L-type channel provides an influx of erate the regenerative waves that make up global Ca2+
trigger Ca2 + that then diffuses into the cell to activate signals.
the ryanodine receptor 2 (RYR2) (Ca2 + module 5 in
Module 2: Figure Ca2+ modules). A similar interaction is
Ca2 + OFF reactions
particularly evident for neuronal Ca2+ entry and release
Cells use a variety of mechanisms to remove Ca2 + from
channels.
the cytoplasm (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ signalling dynam-
The other main function of CICR is to set up
ics). The introduction of Ca2 + into the cell during the
intracellular Ca2+ waves where an elevated level of Ca2 +
Ca2+ ON reactions usually occurs for a relatively brief
in one region of the cell (the initiation site) propagates
period during which there is a rapid increase in the in-
throughout the rest of the cytoplasm as a regenerat-
tracellular concentration of Ca2 + . In fact, the increase in
ive Ca2 + wave. Waves can progress by recruiting either
free Ca2 + that can be measured in the cytoplasm using
RYRs or inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs)
aequorin or fluorescent indicators is a very small propor-
(Module 2: Figure Ca2+ -induced Ca2+ release). These
tion of the total amount of Ca2 + that enters during the
Ca2 + waves are made up of elementary Ca2 + events such
ON reactions. Much of this Ca2 + is rapidly bound by the
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AGONIST
2+
1 Ca
ROC
Second messengers
2 SMOC
2+
Ca
VOC
2+
Ca
3
V
RYR1
SR
4
V 2+
Ca
2+ RYR2
Ca
SR
5
V Ca
2+
InsP3 InsP R
3
AGONIST
ER
6 2+
Ca
cytosolic buffers or is taken up by the mitochondria. As Ca2 + pumps and exchangers are responsible for restor-
the Ca2 + concentration returns to its resting level, Ca2 + ing the status quo by pumping Ca2 + out of the cell or
leaves the buffers and the mitochondria and is returned to back into the ER. These pumps and exchangers operate at
the ER or is pumped out of the cell resulting in a brief different times during the recovery process. The Na+ /Ca2+
Ca2 + transient. exchangers have low affinities for Ca2 + , but have very high
The recovery process thus depends upon a complex in- capacities and this enables them to function at the begin-
terplay between cytosolic Ca2+ buffers, mitochondria and ning of the recovery process to rapidly remove large quant-
Ca2+ pumps and exchangers on the internal stores and on ities of Ca2 + . On the other hand, the plasma membrane
the plasma membrane (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ signalling Ca2+ -ATPase (PMCA) and sarco/endo-plasmic reticulum
dynamics). These Ca2 + OFF reactions operate at differ- Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA) pumps have lower capacities, but
ent stages during the recovery phase of a typical Ca2 + their higher affinities mean that they can complete the re-
spike. The buffers and mitochondria operate early, and the covery process and can continue to pump at lower Ca2 +
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r33
Stimulus
VOC ROC
Ca2+ InsP3
Intracellular CICR
calcium wave
+
+
+
+
CICR CICR
+
+
+
Spark Puff
R R R I I I
Blink
+
+
+
+
+
Ca2+ ER
The role of Ca2 + -induced Ca2 + release (CICR) in mobilizing Ca2 + from internal stores.
The Ca2 + -sensitive channels are the ryanodine receptors (R) and the InsP3 receptors (I) located on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). CICR has two
important functions. Firstly, it provides a mechanism for transferring information from the plasma membrane to these internal release channels. The
primary mechanism is based on the voltage-operated channels (VOCs) that open in response to membrane depolarization to allow a small amount
of Ca2 + to enter, which then diffuses into the cell to activate either R or I. The other important function of CICR is to link together these intracellular
channels so that the Ca2 + being released from one channel diffuses across to neighbouring channels that are excited to release further Ca2 + , thereby
setting up regenerative waves (yellow arrows).
Ca2+ entry
Ca2+ release
Ca 2+ buffers
Mitochondria
Na+ /Ca 2+ exchanger
Ca 2+ pumps
(SERCA/PMCA)
ON OFF
Reactions Reactions
CALCIUM TRANSIENT
The sequence of ON and OFF reactions during the generation of a typical Ca2 + transient.
The rising phase of the Ca2 + spike results from the activation of Ca2 + entry and release mechanisms (yellow bars), which are then terminated by
inactivation processes. Once the ON reactions have been inactivated, a series of OFF reactions operate in a sequential manner to restore Ca2 + to
its resting level (blue bars). During the rising phase of the Ca2 + transient, large amounts of Ca2 + are rapidly bound to the Ca2 + buffers (calbindin
D-28k and parvalbumin) and are taken up by the mitochondria. The mitochondria and cytosolic buffers help to shape the Ca2 + signal by reducing
the impact of the ON reactions. In effect, they enable the cell to generate very fast transients without running the risk of being overwhelmed by Ca2 + .
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r34
levels, thus enabling them to maintain the internal stores The major cytosolic buffers in cells are parvalbumin
and the resting level (Module 5: Figure Ca2+ uptake and (PV), calbindin D-28k (CB) and calretinin (CR). The
extrusion). major buffers that operate within the lumen of the ER
Some of these OFF reactions interact with each other are calsequestrin (CSQ) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of
during the recovery period, and this is particularly evid- muscle cells and calreticulin (CRT) in the ER of non-
ent in the case of the ER/mitochondrial Ca2+ shuttle muscle cells. The latter is unusual in that it functions both
(Module 5: Figure ER/mitochondrial shuttle). When as a cytosolic and a luminal buffer. The role of calseques-
Ca2 + is released from the ER, Ca2 + is rapidly taken trin is discussed elsewhere and here we concentrate on the
up by the mitochondria and this is then released slowly function of the cytosolic buffers. The latter have subtly
back to the ER once Ca2 + has returned to the resting different Ca2 + -binding properties and are expressed in
level. cells in differing combinations and concentrations to cre-
In addition to its role of returning the level of Ca2 + ate Ca2 + signals that are tailored to carry out different
to its resting level following a stimulus, the Ca2 + OFF functions. For example, neurons such as Purkinje cells ex-
reactions are in constant operation to maintain the rest- press large amounts of PV and CB. As a consequence,
ing level of Ca2 + within a fairly narrow range. This cal- Purkinje cells have a large endogenous Ca2 + buffering ca-
ciostat is a dynamic system in that the OFF reactions pacity, e.g. their buffers bind approximately 2000 Ca2 +
are operating continuously to reverse the constant basal ions for each free ion. Lower capacities of 50100:1 are
rate of Ca2 + entry through various Ca2 + leak pathways found in other cells. Motor neurons have a very low buf-
that remain poorly defined. There is increasing evidence fering capacity and consequently have large Ca2 + signals
that presenilins may function as such a leak channel and in both the soma and dendrites during normal physiolo-
this has been incorporated into the calcium hypothesis gical responses, and this makes them particularly suscept-
of Alzheimers disease (see step 10 in Module 12: Figure ible to neurodegeneration. Buffer concentration is one of
amyloid processing and Ca2+ signalling). The latter can the important parameters in determining buffer capacity.
result in an elevation of cytosolic Ca2 + if the OFF reac- The other key parameters include affinity for Ca2 + and
tions are inhibited. For example, agents such as thapsigar- other metal ions, the kinetics of Ca2 + binding, release and
gin, which inhibit the SERCA pumps on the ER, will result mobility.
in an increase in Ca2 + concentration. Indeed, the rate at Alterations in Ca2 + buffers have been linked to
which the Ca2 + concentration rises following pump in- schizophrenia.
hibition provides a measure of the activity of these leak
pathways. Parvalbumin (PV)
In pathological situations, the lack of oxygen reduces Parvalbumin (PV) is a slow-onset buffer. It has relatively
the supply of energy, thus compromising the function of low on and off rates, which means that it cannot respond
the OFF reactions, resulting in the rise of Ca2 + that is so to the rapid onset of most Ca2 + signals. However, PV
damaging during stroke or cardiac ischaemia. Under nor- can soak up Ca2 + once the signal has appeared and thus
mal circumstances, however, the fully energized OFF reac- influences the rate at which Ca2 + recovers. It is strongly
tions can rapidly reduce the pulse of Ca2 + introduced by expressed in skeletal muscle, where it plays an important
the ON mechanisms, thus generating a brief Ca2 + transi- role in facilitating the rate of relaxation. In PV / mice,
ent (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ transient mechanisms). Such there is a slowing in the recovery of the Ca2 + transient.
brief pulses of Ca2 + are a characteristic feature of the Ca2 + Some of the effects of removing PV are compensated for by
signalling pathway and contribute to the spatiotemporal an increase in the volume of mitochondria that has a similar
aspects of Ca 2+ signalling. ability to PV of removing free Ca2 + from the cytoplasm
during the recovery phase.
Reductions in the level of PV have been recorded in
Ca2 + buffers schizophrenia.
Cells express a large number of Ca2 + -binding proteins,
which fall into two main groups: Ca2 + sensors and Ca2 + Calbindin D-28k (CB)
buffers. The Ca2+ sensors respond to changes in intracellu- Calbindin D-28k (CB) is one of the major cytosolic buf-
lar Ca2 + by activating some downstream effector process. fers, particularly in neurons. It is a fast buffer that can
In a sense, all proteins capable of binding Ca2 + will act as have a major effect on both the spatial and temporal prop-
a buffer, and this applies to the sensors. However, the con- erties of Ca2 + transients. CB thus plays a major role in
centration of these sensors is usually rather low, so they restricting the size of the elementary Ca2 + events that
have little buffering capacity. The role of Ca2 + buffering form around Ca2 + channels. CB is thus of central im-
is carried out by the other major group of Ca2 + -binding portance for the ability of neurons to create the highly
proteins. Cells have a number of buffers (Module 2: Table localized Ca2 + events that occur in spines. The existence
Ca2+ signalling toolkit) that are capable of binding to Ca2 + of these buffers has enabled neurons to increase the num-
both in the cytoplasm and within the lumen of the endo- bers of their synaptic connections, and this neuronal mini-
plasmic reticulum (ER). The sole function of these Ca2 + aturization greatly enhances the signal processing capacity
buffers is to bind Ca2 + , and this has an important func- of the brain. Some support for such a notion emerged
tion in shaping both the spatial and temporal properties of from the finding of a remarkable compensatory mechan-
Ca2 + signals. ism whereby the volume of the spines increases markedly
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r35
in neurons when these buffers are knocked out. In effect, and pumps. When the Ca2 + level within the lumen gets too
the lack of these buffers reduces the capacity of neurons to high, CRT and calnexin inhibit the sarco/endo-plasmic re-
miniaturize the Ca2 + component of their signalling sys- ticulum Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA) pump and, when Ca2 + is
tems. released, this inhibition is relieved and the SERCA pumps
The ability of CB to buffer internal Ca2 + may play an can restore Ca2 + to its normal level. In addition to its role
important role in facilitating Ca2+ reabsorption by the kid- as an ER buffer, CRT may play an active role in ensur-
ney tubule (Module 7: Figure kidney Ca2+ reabsorption). ing that the Ca2 + concentration within the ER lumen is
In the case of Ca2+ reabsorption by the intestine, the flux maintained at the optimal level for protein folding to occur.
of Ca2 + is facilitated by calbindin D-9k (Module 7: Figure
intestinal Ca2+ reabsorption). Ca2 + signalling function
An important aspect of the calcium hypothesis of The function of Ca2 + as an intracellular second messen-
Alzheimers disease is that there is a decrease in the ex- ger is carried out by a combination of Ca2+ sensors and
pression of CB, which increases the sensitivity of neurons Ca2+ effectors (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ signalling toolkit).
to the enhanced Ca2 + signals that arise during the onset of The major sensors are the EF-hand proteins troponin C
Alzheimers disease (Module 12: Figure amyloid cascade (TnC), calmodulin (CaM), neuronal Ca2+ sensor pro-
hypothesis). teins (NCS) and the S100 proteins. However, there are a
number of other sensors (Module 2: Table Ca2+ signalling
Calretinin (CR) toolkit).
Calretinin (CR) is an EF-hand Ca2 + -binding protein that These sensors are then responsible for relaying inform-
is closely related to calbindin D-28k (CB). It has six ation through a range of effectors:
EF-hand domains all of which can bind Ca2 + except for
domain VI. CR is usually located in the cytoplasm, but can Ca2+ -sensitive K+ channels
also be found localized to specific sites in the cell where Ca2+ -sensitive Cl channels (CLCAs)
it may function as a buffer to regulate microdomains of Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CaMKs)
Ca2 + . This Ca2 + buffer is an excellent biochemical marker Calcineurin
for certain GABAergic inhibitory interneurons such as the Phosphorylase kinase
CajalRetzius neurons and double bouquet neurons in the Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK)
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) (Module 10: Fig- Ca2 + -promoted Ras inactivator (CAPRI) (Module 2:
ure dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). Figure Ras signalling)
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r36
CALCIUM TRANSIENT
ON OFF
Reaction Reaction
attracted considerable attention as a putative messenger to is abundant, an increase in cADPR will set the stage for
regulate the Ca2 + signalling pathway. cADPR generation Ca2 + signalling to occur.
and metabolism is unusual in that it is carried out by the Secondly, the cADPR control of Ca2+ release
same enzyme that possesses both synthase and hydrolase may occur indirectly through an activation of the
activity. The cADPR control of Ca2+ release is somewhat sarco/endo-plasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA)
controversial, as its precise mode of action is still unclear. pump to increase the uptake of Ca2 + into the endoplas-
A cADPR working hypothesis has been put forward to mic reticulum/sarcoplasmic reticulum. This increased
provide a framework to understand some of the current loading of the internal store will serve to sensitize re-
information on how this messenger appears to operate. A lease channels such as the RYRs, thus leading to an in-
relationship between cADPR and cell regulation has been crease in Ca2 + signalling. This messenger should thus
established in a number of different cell types. be considered as a modulator rather than a mediator of
Ca2 + signalling.
cADPR working hypothesis
There is sufficient evidence to take seriously the possibility cADPR generation and metabolism
that cADPR functions to regulate Ca2 + signalling. What The generation and metabolism of cADPR are described
seems to be in question is exactly how it functions. This together because both processes are carried out by the
working hypothesis has two main components: same enzyme: the ADP-ribosyl cyclase (Module 2: Fig-
ure cADPR metabolism). The hydrolysis of cADPR pro-
Firstly, the generation of cADPR is closely coupled to duces ADPR, which has been implicated as a messenger
cellular metabolism, as described in cADPR generation regulating melastatin-related transient receptor potential 2
and metabolism (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP (TRPM2), which is a Ca2 + channel in the plasma mem-
function). The idea is that cADPR may function as a brane (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP function). This
metabolic messenger responsible for relaying informa- is a highly versatile enzyme. In addition to synthesizing
tion about the state of metabolism to various systems in and metabolizing cADPR, it is also responsible for syn-
the cell, especially those that require a heavy expenditure thesizing NAADP. In mammals, this bifunctional enzyme
of energy. An example would be Ca2 + signalling and the appears to be the lymphocyte antigen CD38, which is ex-
downstream elements regulated by Ca2 + . When energy pressed widely and is located both in the plasma membrane
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r37
and at internal sites. With regard to the former location, its In CD38 / mice, there is a decrease in the amount
enzymatic region is located on the outside. This is unusual of oxytocin (OT) released from hypothalamic neurons.
because its substrate and its site of action are on the inside Such mice show defects in maternal nurturing and in social
of the cell. It has been suggested that the enzyme might use behaviour.
NAD + derived from dying cells at sites of infections to
generate cADPR, which is then transported into the cell.
The intracellular enzyme is more likely to be the one cADPR control of Ca2 + release
that functions in most cells. Just how the cyclase is activ- One of the major uncertainties about cADPR is its mode of
ated is still unclear. One suggestion is that the formation of action in controlling the release of Ca2 + . There have been
cADPR and NAADP is sensitive to cellular metabolism suggestions that it is a Ca2 + -mobilizing second messenger
(Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP function). In other that acts by stimulating the ryanodine receptors (RYRs) to
words, cADPR and NAADP might be metabolic messen- release Ca2 + . However, direct evidence for this assertion is
gers that are capable of relaying information about the not particularly convincing. Early single channel record-
state of cellular metabolism to the Ca2 + signalling path- ings seemed to provide such evidence by showing that
ways. Such a notion is supported by the fact that cADPR cADPR could open RYRs in lipid membranes, but these
metabolism by the hydrolase is inhibited by either ATP observations were challenged on the basis that the cADPR
or NADH. Another suggestion is that it might be ac- was acting through the ATP-binding site. When cADPR is
tivated by agonists acting through cell-surface receptors, injected into cells, it usually fails to release Ca2 + , but after a
but the coupling mechanism remains to be established period of time, it can begin to enhance the sensitivity of the
(Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP function). This ab- RYRs. An example of such an effect is shown in heart cells,
sence of a coupling mechanism might be explained by the where there is a gradual increase in spark frequency fol-
cADPR working hypothesis if the external agonist en- lowing addition of cADPR (Module 2: Figure cADPR ac-
hanced cADPR formation indirectly by first increasing tion in heart cells). This observation on cardiac cells forms
cellular metabolism. Such a mechanism could explain the the basis of the second part of the cADPR working hypo-
ability of -adrenergic agents to increase cADPR levels in thesis, which argues that cADPR acts indirectly as a modu-
heart. Likewise, the glucose-dependent increase in cADPR lator of Ca2 + release (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP
in -cells can be directly linked to the metabolism of gluc- function) by stimulating the sarco/endo-plasmic reticulum
ose, with the resulting increase in ATP acting to reduce Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA) pump to increase the load of Ca2 +
the hydrolase activity (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP within the lumen of the store. This increase in luminal
function). Ca2 + then sensitizes the RYRs so that they either begin to
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r38
Ca 2+ Ca 2+ AGONISTS
VOC TRPM2
Ca 2+ Cellular Ca 2+
metabolism +
Ca2+
+ ATP
RYR NADH ADPR ?
NAD
NADP
+ +
+ Ca 2+ H S
ADP ribosyl cyclase
SERCA
Ca 2+ + cADPR
TPC1/2 + NAADP
Phosphatase
Ca 2+
Lysosome-related
+ NAAD
+ H organelle
H
open spontaneously to give Ca2 + sparks (Module 2: Fig- 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs) or the ryanodine
ure cADPR action in heart cells) or begin to produce larger receptors (RYRs). A relationship between NAADP and
Ca2 + transients when activated by a pulse of trigger Ca2 + cell regulation seems to depend upon its interaction with
as occurs in neurons (Module 2: Figure cADPR action in the other Ca2 + -mobilizing messenger systems.
neurons).
NAADP generation and metabolism
cADPR and cell regulation NAADP (Module 2: Figure NAADP structure) is another
A role for cADPR has been implicated in a number of member of the NAD signalling pathways. Its synthesis
different cell types: from NADP is closely linked to that of cADPR in that
they both share the same enzyme: the ADP-ribosyl cyc-
Insulin-secreting -cells (Module 7: Figure -cell sig- lase (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP function). This
nalling) enzyme uses NAD + to make cADPR through a cycliza-
Hypothalamic neurons: in CD38 / mice, there is a tion reaction, or it can use NADP as a substrate to produce
decrease in the amount of oxytocin (OT) released from NAADP through a base-exchange reaction during which
hypothalamic neurons. Such mice show defects in ma- the nicotinamide group is exchanged for nicotinic acid.
ternal nurturing and in social behaviour. Unlike cADPR, which is hydrolysed by the same en-
zyme, NAADP is degraded to NAAD by phosphatases
such as alkaline phosphatase.
Nicotinic acidadenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NAADP) signalling NAADP control of Ca2 + release
NAADP is one of the messengers associated with the NAADP functions as a Ca2 + -mobilizing messenger to
NAD signalling pathways. NAADP has attracted consid- release Ca2 + from an internal store (Module 2: Fig-
erable attention as a Ca2 + -mobilizing second messenger. ure cADPR/NAADP function). This NAADP-sensitive
NAADP generation and metabolism is unusual in that it store, which is distinct from the endoplasmic retic-
is closely allied to that of cADPR in that the same en- ulum/sarcoplasmic reticulum store that is regulated by the
zyme synthesizes both messengers. The NAADP control inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs) and the
of Ca2+ release depends upon this messenger acting on a ryanodine receptors (RYRs), is still being defined. On the
store that is different from that controlled by the inositol basis of studies carried out in sea urchin eggs, this novel
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r39
store appears to reside in a lysosome-related organelle. The the control of secretion by pancreatic acinar cells (Module
receptors for NAADP appear to be a family of two-pore 7: Figure control of pancreatic secretion).
channels (TPC), with TPC1 being located on the endo-
somal membranes, whereas TPC2 is on lysosomal mem-
ADP-ribosyl cyclase
branes.
ADP-ribosyl cyclase is the enzyme responsible for syn-
thesizing the Ca2 + mobilizing messengers cADPR and
NAADP. During cADPR generation and metabolism it
NAADP and cell regulation uses NAD + to make cADPR through a cyclization reac-
The amount of Ca2 + released by NAADP is relatively tion (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP function). The
small and is unlikely to have a direct role in Ca2 + sig- same enzyme is also responsible for the hydrolysis of
nalling. However, there are suggestions that it may act cADPR to ADPR. This enzyme can also use NADP as a
indirectly to trigger the release of Ca2 + by the other re- substrate to produce NAADP through a base-exchange re-
lease channels [ryanodine receptors (RYRs) or the inositol action during which the nicotinamide group is exchanged
1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs) (Module 2: Figure for nicotinic acid.
cADPR/NAADP function)]. In mammals, there are two ribosyl cyclases: CD38
NAADP has been implicated in the control of insulin re- and bone marrow stromal cell antigen-1 (BST-1). Most
lease by -cells (Module 7: Figure -cell signalling) and in is known about CD38, which takes its name from the fact
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r40
that it was originally identified as a lymphocyte antigen metabolism, which describes the way in which the parent
CD38. This bifunctional enzyme is expressed widely and molecule PtdIns is metabolized to form a number of lipid
is located both in the plasma membrane and at internal intermediates, some of which are key elements in differ-
sites. ent signalling cassettes. Secondly, there is inositol phos-
phate metabolism, which is a complex pathway respons-
ible for metabolizing soluble inositol phosphates. Some
Phosphoinositide signalling of the inositol phosphates generated by this metabolism
Signalling through the phosphoinositide lipids is com- have been implicated as messengers operating within the
plex because there are a number of signalling cassettes multipurpose inositol polyphosphate signalling pathway.
associated with both the synthesis and hydrolysis of the PtdIns4,5P2 is of particular interest because it is
phosphoinositides. Phosphoinositide metabolism can be the precursor used to generate the second messen-
divided into two main parts. Firstly, there is inositol lipid gers inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (InsP3 ) and diacylglycerol
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r41
4 Inositol lipid
PtdIns3P PtdIns3,5P 2
13
1
metabolism
11
14 6
2 5 7 12
PtdIns 15 PtdIns4P PtdIns3,4P 2 PtdIns3,4,5P 3
9 8
3 12 8
9 10
PtdIns5P 6 PtdIns4,5P 2
11
PtdIns3,5P 2
Lipid resynthesis
Phospholipase C
DAG Ins1,4,5P 3
G-6-P
Inositol phosphate
Inositol synthase Inositol metabolism
(DAG) that function in the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate Inositol lipid metabolism concerns the pathways re-
(InsP3 )/Ca2+ signalling cassette and the diacylglycerol sponsible for converting PtdIns into a variety of
(DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC) signalling cassette respect- phosphoinositide lipid signalling molecules.
ively. PtdIns4,5P2 is also a precursor that is metabolized to Inositol phosphate metabolism is responsible for creat-
PtdIns3,4P2 and PtdIns3,4,5P3 , which function as second ing a large array of inositol phosphates, some of which
messengers to activate protein kinases in the PtdIns 3-k- function in the multipurpose inositol polyphosphate
inase signalling pathway. In addition to being a precursor signalling pathway. This metabolic pathway also forms
for these various signalling pathways, PtdIns4,5P2 can also the inositol that is used to resynthesize the lipid pre-
function as a messenger for the PtdIns4,5P2 signalling cas- cursor PtdIns.
sette, where localized synthesis or hydrolysis of this lipid
These two pathways are connected by the processes of
functions to regulate a number of cellular systems such as
lipid hydrolysis and lipid synthesis. The hydrolysis occurs
the actin cytoskeleton, membrane trafficking, exocytosis,
when external signals activate phospholipase C (PLC) to
ion channels and exchangers.
hydrolyse PtdIns4,5P2 to form the second messengers in-
Alterations in the activity of this phosphoinositide
ositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins1,4,5P3 ) and diacylglycerol
lipid signalling pathway have been implicated in vari-
(DAG). The Ins1,4,5P3 is one of the major inputs into the
ous diseases such as manic-depressive illness, Lowes
inositol phosphate metabolic pathway that produces the
oculocerebrorenal (OCRL) syndrome and Cowdens
inositol required for lipid synthesis.
disease.
This complex phosphoinositide metabolic network par-
ticipates in a number of highly versatile signalling cas-
settes (Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide signalling sys-
Phosphoinositide metabolism tems):
Phosphoinositide metabolism can be separated into two
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2+ signalling cas-
main components (Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide
sette
metabolism):
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r42
Phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns)
C C
O O
C C C O P
H2 H H2
O OH
HO 1
OH
HO HO
3 5
4
Diacylglycerol (DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC) sig- also be formed by removal of the 3-phosphate from
nalling cassette PtdIns3,4P2 by phosphatase and tensin homologue
PtdIns 3-kinase signalling deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN).
PtdIns4,5P2 signalling cassette 3. The PIKxyve kinase is thought to be responsible for
Multipurpose inositol polyphosphate signalling path- adding a phosphate to the 5-position of PtdIns to form
way PtdIns5P.
4. The PIKfyve also adds a phosphate to the 5-position
Inositol lipid metabolism of PtdIns3P to form PtdIns3,5P2 . The formation of
The different phosphoinositide signalling pathways are PtdIns3,5P2 , which changes in cells following osmotic
derived from the parent molecule phosphatidylinositol stress, is a key component of the PtdIns3,5P2 sig-
(PtdIns) (Module 2: Figure PtdIns structure). Unlike nalling cassette (Module 2: Figure PIKfyve activa-
the other phospholipids found in cellular membranes, tion).
PtdIns is unique in that the free hydroxy groups at the 5. Types I and II PtdIns 3-kinase (PtdIns 3-K) add
3-, 4- and 5-positions on the inositol ring can be phos- a phosphate to the 3-position of PtdIns4P to form
phorylated further to create a family of phosphoinositides PtdIns3,4P2 . PtdIns3,4P2 has been suggested to func-
(Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide metabolism). One tion as a messenger operating within the plasma mem-
of the more important lipids involved in phosphoinos- brane, where it serves to recruit and activate protein
itide signalling is phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate kinases such as protein kinase B (PKB). PtdIns3,4P2
(PtdIns4,5P2 ), which is a nodal point for a number of can also be formed by other enzymes (see Steps 6 and
signalling systems (Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide 7).
signalling systems). 6. PtdInsP kinase II adds a phosphate to the 4-position
The metabolism of PtdIns is carried out by a collection of PtdIns3P to form PtdIns3,4P2 . The same enzyme
of inositol lipid kinases and inositol lipid phosphatases. can add a phosphate to the 4-position of PtdIns5P to
The numbers below refer to the different reactions shown form PtdIns4,5P2 .
in Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide metabolism: 7. Inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase such as Src
homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing inositol phos-
1. The Class III PtdIns 3-kinase (PtdIns 3-K) adds phatase (SHIP) removes a phosphate from the 5-
a phosphate to the 3-position of PtdIns to form position of PtdIns 3,4,5P3 to form PtdIns3,4P2 .
PtdIns3P. 8. A PtdIns4P 5-kinase (PtdIns4P 5-K) adds a phos-
2. PtdIns 4-kinase (PtdIns 4-K) adds a phosphate to phate to the 5-position of PtdIns4P to form
the 4-position of PtdIns to form PtdIns4P. It can PtdIns4,5P2 . The latter can also be formed by
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r43
Steps 6 and 9. PtdIns4P5-K can also phosphorylate are separated by a p110-binding domain, enabling them to
PtdIns3,4P2 to form PtdIns3,4,5P3 . interact with a p85-binding domain located on the three
9. Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on catalytic subunits (p110, p110 and p110). The different
chromosome 10 (PTEN) and transmembrane phos- binding domains on the regulatory subunits enhance the
phoinositide 3-phosphatase and tensin homologue 2 versatility of the Class IA enzyme by enabling the cata-
(TPTE2) removes a phosphate from the 3-position of lytic subunit to be activated by interacting with a variety
PtdIns3,4,5P3 . of signalling molecules:
10. A Class I PtdIns 3-kinase adds a phosphate to the
3-position of PtdIns4,5P2 to form PtdIns3,4,5P3 . The Src homology (SH2) domains of the regulatory sub-
PtdIns3,4,5P3 , which functions as one of the second unit enable the enzyme to associate with phosphotyr-
messengers in the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway, osine residues on the cytoplasmic domains of recept-
can also be formed by the addition of a phosphate to ors such as the platelet-derived growth factor receptor
the 5-position of PtdIns3,4P2 by the PtdIns4P 5-k- (PDGFR) (Module 1: Figure PDGFR activation) or the
inase (PtdIns4P 5-K) (i.e. the same enzyme used for CD19 B cell co-receptor (Module 9: Figure B cell activ-
Step 8). ation).
11. The myotubularins remove the 3-phosphate from The Src homology 3 (SH3) domain can bind to proline-
PtdIns3P and also from PtdIns3,5P2 . rich regions of Shc, Cbl and dynamin.
12. The 5-phosphate on PtdIns4,5P2 is removed by vari- The proline-rich regions can bind to the SH3 domains
ous lipid phosphatases such as oculocerebrorenal of Abl, Src, Lck, Lyn, Fyn and growth factor receptor
syndrome of Lowe (OCRL), inositol polyphosphate bound protein 2 (Grb2).
5E-phosphatase (INPP5E), inositol polyphosphate-5 The p85 inhibitory subunit is a target for miR-126,
phosphatase-like 1 (INPPL1) and the synaptojanins. which plays an important role in the regulation of
13. The 5-phosphate on PtdIns3,5P2 is removed by angiogenesis.
inositol polyphosphate 5E-phosphatase (INPP5E)
The Class IB enzyme has a different activation mechan-
and by the Sac domain phosphatase Sac3, which is an
ism in that it is stimulated by heterotrimeric G proteins
orthologue of yeast Fig4.
(Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). It has a
14. The inositol polyphosphate 4-phosphatase type II
p110 catalytic subunit and two regulatory subunits (p101
(INPP4B) dephosphorylates PtdIns3,4P2 to form
and p84) (Module 2: Figure PI 3-K family). These regulat-
PtdIns3P.
ory subunits may mediate the translocation of the p110
15. Synaptojanin 1 (SJ1) can remove the phosphates from
catalytic subunit to the membrane by binding to the G
PtdIns3P and PtdIns4P to produce PtdIns. The sup-
subunit.
pressor of actin mutation 1-like (SACM1L) can also
The Class I enzymes interact strongly with the onco-
dephosphorylate PtdIns4P to regulate Golgi mem-
gene Ras (Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling) and
brane morphology and the mitotic spindle.
this can have important consequences for both upstream
and downstream events, depending on the cellular context.
Inositol lipid kinases With regard to the former, the binding of Ras can enhance
There are a number of inositol lipid kinases that function enzyme activation and the generation of lipid messengers.
to phosphorylate hydroxyls on the inositol headgroup of On the other hand, the association with Ras might mediate
phosphatidylinositol. some of the downstream effects of the PtdIns 3-kinases.
Class I PtdIns 3-kinases are strongly inhibited by the
PtdIns 3-kinase (PtdIns 3-K) fungal metabolite wortmannin (an irreversible inhibitor)
The PtdIns 3-kinases (PtdIns 3-Ks) are a family of en- and by LY294002 (a reversible inhibitor).
zymes that have been classified into three classes (Module
2: Figure PI 3-K family). Class II PtdIns 3-kinase
The Class II PtdIns 3-kinase has a more restricted substrate
Class I PtdIns 3-kinases range in that it phosphorylates just PtdIns and PtdIns4P.
The primary function of the Class I PtdIns 3-kinases is to There are no regulatory subunits, and the three catalytic
phosphorylate PtdIns4,5P2 to form the lipid second mes- subunits (PI3KC2, PI3KC2 and PI3KC2) are charac-
senger PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase terized by having a C-terminal phox homology (PX) do-
signalling). These Class I enzymes are divided into two main and a C2 domain (Module 2: Figure PI 3-K family).
groups: five regulatory subunits and three catalytic sub- The PI3KC2 plays an important role in the maturation of
units (Module 2: Figure PI 3-K family). clathrin-coated pits during endocytosis (Module 2: Figure
The Class IA enzymes are heterodimers that are formed localized inositol lipid signalling).
from a regulatory subunit combining with a catalytic sub-
unit. There are five regulatory subunits (p85, p85, p55, Class III PtdIns 3-kinase
p50 and p55), which are typical adaptor proteins. The The Class III PtdIns 3-kinase has a restricted substrate
p85 regulatory subunit contains an Src homology 3 (SH3) range in that it phosphorylates just PtdIns to form
domain, a breakpoint-cluster-region homology (BH) do- PtdIns3P. The prototype of this class is vacuolar pro-
main, two proline-rich regions (P) on either side of the tein sorting 34 (Vps34) protein found in Saccharomyces
BH domain and two Src homology (SH2) domains that cerevisiae of which there is a human homologue (hVps34).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r45
Class IA
p85, p85 SH3 P BCR P SH2 p110 binding SH2
Regulatory
subunits
p110, p110, p110 p85 Ras C2 Helical Kinase
Catalytic subunits
Class II
PI3KC2
PI3KC2 P P Ras C2 Helical Kinase PX C2
PI3KC2 Catalytic subunits
The activity of hVps34 is regulated by Ca2 + and this con- for signalling. The enzymatic activity of PtdIns 4-kinase is
tributes to the regulation of the target of rapamycin (TOR), greatly enhanced in various cancer cells.
which functions in cell growth control (see steps 4 and 5 in The Type III PtdIns 4-K, which has - and -isoforms,
Module 9: Figure target of rapamycin signalling). There is is sensitive to the drug wortmannin. The PtdIns 4-KIII
a Ca2 + -dependent CaM-binding domain located between found in the endoplasmic reticulum and the PtdIns 4-
residues 318 and 334 in the accessory domain (Module 2: KIII found in the cytosol and Golgi are responsible
Figure PI3-K family). for producing PtdIns4P, which is one of the localized
The hVps34 plays an important role in intracellular traf- phosphoinositide lipid signalling molecules used for ves-
ficking such as the early endosome to plasma membrane icle trafficking (Module 2: Figure localized inositol lipid
trafficking (Module 4: Figure early endosome budding), signalling). The PtdIns 4-KIII at the Golgi is controlled
early endosome protein sorting and intraluminal vesicle by the Arf signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure Arf sig-
formation (Module 4: Figure intraluminal endosomal ves- nalling). It is the Type III PtdIns 4-K isoform that is ac-
icle formation) and endosome vesicle fusion to early en- tivated by the neuronal Ca2+ sensor-1 protein (NCS-1)
dosomes (Module 4: Figure endosome vesicle fusion). In to enhance exocytosis. Originally, it was considered that
the case of autophagy, hVps34 plays a central role in driv- PtdIns4P functioned solely as a precursor for the forma-
ing the early induction, nucleation and elongation steps tion of PtdIns4,5P2 , but there is increasing evidence for a
responsible for forming the autophagic vacuole (Module role as part of a PtdIns4P signalling cassette.
11: Figure autophagy signalling mechanisms).
PtdIns phosphate kinases
PtdIns 4-kinase (PtdIns 4-K) There is a family of PtdIns phosphate kinases that are di-
PtdIns 4-kinase catalyses phosphorylation of PtdIns on the vided into three subfamilies (Types IIII) that are localized
4-position of the inositol ring to produce PtdIns4P (Step to different compartments and function to phosphorylate
2 in Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide metabolism). En- different phosphoinositides.
zyme activity is found in most cellular membranes (plasma
membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, nuclear mem- PtdIns4P 5-kinase (PtdIns4P 5-K)
brane and secretory vesicles). Cells have two classes of This versatile family of Type I PtdIns phosphate kinases
PtdIns 4-K: Type II and Type III. (also abbreviated as PIPKI) is composed of three isoforms
The Type II PtdIns 4-K, which contains wortmannin- (, and ) that are located in different cellular regions
insensitive - and -isoforms, may be responsible for gen- such as the plasma membrane, focal adhesions, Golgi and
erating the lipid substrates in the membrane that are used nucleus. Their primary role is to phosphorylate PtdIns4P
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r46
to PtdIns4,5P2 (Step 8 in Module 2: Figure phosphoinos- 5-position to form PtdIns5P (see Step 3). This PIKfyve
itide metabolism). kinase has a FYVE domain to target it to endomembranes
where it functions in the PtdIns3,5P2 signalling cassette
PtdIns4P 5-kinase I
(Module 2: Figure PIKfyve activation).
This enzyme functions at multiple locations in the cell. It is
Mutations in PIKfyve have been linked to
the major enzyme responsible for forming PtdIns4,5P2 at
Francois-Neetens Mouchetee fleck corneal dystrophy
the plasma membrane. It is also found within the nucleus
(CFD).
at nuclear speckles that are sites of mRNA processing.
PtdIns4P 5-kinase I
This isoform is found on membranes surrounding the nuc- Inositol lipid phosphatases
leus. There are a large number of inositol lipid phosphatases that
contribute to inositol lipid metabolism (Module 2: Figure
PtdIns4P 5-kinase I phosphoinositide metabolism). The situation is complic-
The PtdIns4,5P2 function in focal adhesions depends upon ated in that some of these phosphatases have a broad range
a spliced form of this enzyme, which is targeted to focal of substrates and can act on both inositol lipids and inos-
adhesions by interacting with talin (Module 6: Figure in- itol phosphates. The following are the phosphatases that
tegrin signalling). Talin contains a FERM domain, which is act predominantly on inositol lipids:
used to bring PtdIns4P 5-kinase I into the adhesion com-
plex. Similarly, this isoform plays a major role the control
of endocytosis (Module 4: Figure endocytosis). Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromo-
This Type I enzyme can be regulated by two separate some 10 (PTEN)
mechanisms. Firstly, its activity is stimulated by phospha- 5-Phosphatase II
tidic acid (PA) that is formed either by the phospholipase Inositol polyphosphate 5E-phosphatase (INPP5E)
D (PLD) signalling pathway where phosphatidylcholine Myotubularins
(PC) is hydrolysed by phospholipase D (Module 2: Fig- Oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe (OCRL)
ure PLD signalling) or by the phosphorylation of diacyl- Proline-rich inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase
glycerol (DAG) by diacylglycerol kinase (DAG) kinase (PIPP)
(Module 2: Figure InsP3 /DAG recycling). Secondly, en- Skeletal muscle and kidney enriched inositol phos-
zyme activity can be enhanced by small monomeric G phatase (SKIP)
proteins such as Rho (Module 2: Figure Rho signalling). Synaptojanins
During its activation, PtdIns4P 5-kinase I translocates to
the plasma membrane through an activation mechanism
that is dependent upon Rac and Rho. This G protein reg- 5-Phosphatase II
ulation results in the localized synthesis of PtdIns4,5P2 , 5-Phosphatase II, which is also known as inositol
which then acts as a second messenger for the PtdIns4,5P2 polyphosphate 5B-phosphatase (INPP5B), is a 75 kDa
signalling cassette. For example, it can influence a variety protein that preferentially hydrolyses PtdIns4,5P2 and
of proteins to regulate processes such as actin remodel- PtdIns3,4,5P3 , but can also act on the inositol phosphates
ling, exocytosis, the PLD signalling pathway (Module 2: Ins1,4,5P3 and Ins1,3,4,5P4 . This 5-phosphatase II closely
Figure PLD signalling) and the permeability of ion chan- resembles oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe (OCRL)
nels. both in structure and function. Like OCRL, it has a cent-
The PtdIns4P 5-K has an additional role in that it can ral 5-phosphatase catalytic domain followed by an ASH
phosphorylate PtdIns3,4P2 to form the lipid second mes- domain and a RhoGAP domain. The ASH domain enables
senger PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Step 8 in Module 2: Figure phos- it to interact with Rab5. The C-terminal end has a CAAX
phoinositide metabolism). region that can be prenylated to facilitate its membrane
localization.
PtdInsP kinase II 5-Phosphatase II is located on the Golgi where it may
This enzyme, which is found in the cytosol, endoplasmic function in the trafficking of vesicles to both the ER and
reticulum and nucleus, but not in the plasma membrane, to the early endosome.
is a PtdInsP 4-kinase (PIP4K) capable of phosphorylat-
ing both PtdIns3P and PtdIns5P to produce PtdIns3,4P2
and PtdIns4,5P2 respectively (Steps 6 in Module 2: Figure Inositol polyphosphate 5E-phosphatase (INPP5E)
phosphoinositide metabolism). Inositol polyphosphate 5E-phosphatase (INPP5E), which
is also known as Type IV 5-phosphatase, is widely ex-
PtdInsP kinase III (PIKfyve) pressed where it functions to remove the 5-phosphate
This type III PtdInsP kinase, which is known as from PtdIns4,5P2 , PtdIns3,5P2 and PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Module
PhosphoInositide Kinase for five position containing 2: Figure phosphoinositide metabolism). INNP5E plays a
a Fyve finger (PIKfyve), phosphorylates PtdIns3P to vital role in the function of the primary cilium in regulating
PtdIns3,5P2 (Step 4 in Module 2: Figure phosphoinos- both development and multiple cellular processes. Muta-
itide metabolism). Despite being classified as a PtdInsP tions in the INNP5E gene have been linked to MORM
kinase, this kinase may also phosphorylate PtdIns on the syndrome.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r47
Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on coiled-coil domain that links these enzymes to other pro-
chromosome 10 (PTEN) teins. One of the isoforms, MTMR6, appears to have a
PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on specific role in the PtdIns3P signalling cassette. Hydro-
chromosome 10) is a lipid phosphatase that is mutated lysis of PtdIns3P may control the activity of the Ca2 + -
in many human cancers. Its gene is a tumour suppressor, activated intermediate-conductance (IK) channel (KCa 3.1),
which functions in cell migration, proliferation and sur- and this may be of particular significance for the relation-
vival. PTEN inactivates the 3-phosphorylated lipid second ship between K+ channels and cell proliferation.
messengers that operate within the PtdIns 3-kinase sig- These enzymes are of interest because mutations
nalling cassette. It functions to remove the phosphate from in MTM1 are responsible for X-linked recessive
the 3-position of PtdIns3,4P2 and PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Module myotubular myopathy and MTMR2 is mutated in
2: Figure phosphoinositide metabolism). Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease 4B. Missense mutations in
PTEN is a redox-sensitive enzyme, which may contrib- MTMR14 have also been described in centronuclear my-
ute to a positive-feedback loop that enhances redox sig- opathy (CNM).
nalling (Module 2: Figure plasma membrane ROS form-
ation). It is inhibited by H2 O2 , which induces Cys-124
in the active site to form a disulphide bond with Cys-71. Oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe (OCRL)
This disulphide bond formation is specifically reversed by Oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe (OCRL) is a
thioredoxin. A reversible inactivation of PTEN may thus Rho-GAP-domain-containing enzyme that can hydro-
contribute to the accumulation of PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Module lyse both inositol phosphates (Ins1,4,5P3 and Ins1,3,4,5P4 )
2: Figure plasma membrane ROS formation), which may and the phosphoinositides PtdIns4,5P2 and PtdIns3,4,5P3 .
thus help to promote proliferation by switching off the OCRL also contains an ASH [ASPM (abnormal spindle-
metabolism of the 3-phosphorylated lipid second messen- like microcephaly-associated protein/SPD2 (spindle pole
gers. This reversible inactivation of PTEN contributes to body2)/hydin] domain, which is thought to provide a
the accumulation of PtdIns3,4,5P3 by setting up a positive- binding site for microtubules. One of the functions of
feedback loop, since the formation of this lipid messen- OCRL is to control membrane and protein trafficking
ger is responsible for stimulating the production of H2 O2 during endocytosis where it operates primarily at the in-
(Module 2: Figure plasma membrane ROS formation). terface between the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and the
There are additional enzymes that hydrolyse the 3- endosomes.
phosphorylated position. One of these is transmembrane A deficiency of this enzyme is responsible for Lowes
phosphoinositide 3-phosphatase and tensin homologue 2 oculocerebrorenal (OCRL) syndrome. Some patients with
(TPTE2), which is localized at the plasma membrane. The Dents disease also carry mutations in OCRL.
other is PTEN homologous inositol lipid phosphatase
(TPIP) that occurs as and isoforms. The TPIP iso-
form hydrolyses PtdIns3,4,5P3 , PtdIns3,5P2 , PtdIns3,4P2 Synaptojanin
and PtdIns3P. It has N-terminal transmembrane domains There are two synaptojanins: synaptojanin 1 (SJ1) and
that appear to localize the protein to the ER. synaptojanin 2 (SJ2).
PTEN is a potent tumour suppressor that is frequently
inactivated in many different cancers, e.g. endometrial, Synaptojanin 1 (SJ1)
prostate, mammary carcinomas, melanomas and thyroid Synaptojanin 1 (SJ1) is a multi-functional inositol poly-
tumours. When PTEN is inactivated in neurons, there is a phosphate 5-phosphatase that has an important role in
progressive increase in cell size and increased phosphoryla- the process of endocytosis (Module 4: Figure endocyt-
tion of protein kinase B (PKB) that create cerebellar ab- osis). There are two lipid phosphatase domains arranged
normalities resembling those seen in human Lhermitte in tandem: an N-terminal Sac1 domain, which dephos-
Duclos disease (LDD). phorylates PtdIns3P and PtdIns4P, and an adjacent 5-
Germline mutations in the PTEN gene have been im- phosphatase that acts on PtdIns4,5P2 and PtdIns3,4,5P3 .
plicated in the development of Cowdens disease and The C-terminal region has a proline-rich domain (PRD)
BannayanZonana syndrome, where there is an increased that targets synptojanins to the SH3 domains of dynamin,
risk of breast and thyroid cancers. An increase in the ex- endophilin, intersectin and amphiphysin on clathrin-
pression of PTEN by the tumour suppressor p53 may coated pits (Module 4: Figure scission of endocytic ves-
contribute to p53-induced apoptosis. icles). Alternative splicing of this region gives rise to the
SJ1-145 and SJ1-170 isoforms. The former is strongly ex-
Myotubularins pressed in presynaptic terminals. SJ1 has a primary role
There is a large family of myotubularins that function as in coat removal in the final stages of endocytosis and is
lipid phosphatases that dephosphorylate PtdIns3P and also particularly important for synaptic vesicle recycling. Since
PtdIns3,5P2 (Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide meta- SJ1 is distributed throughout the neuron, it also plays a
bolism). They may also act on PtdIns3,5P2 . Mammalian role in postsynaptic endocytosis.
cells express 15 myotubularins. The founding member is The activity of SJ1 is regulated by a phosphoryla-
MTM1 and the remainder are MTMR2MTMR14. These tion/dephosphorylation cycle operated by the
enzymes have a phosphatase domain, and a GRAM do- dual-specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation regulated
main, which associates with membranes and a C-terminal kinase 1A (DYRK1A) and calcineurin (CaN) respectively.
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The InsP3 / Ca 2+
signalling cassette
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form Ins1,4P2 or it can be phosphorylated by InsP3 3- a role in inhibiting signalling. In B cells, for example, the
kinase to form Ins1,3,4,5P4 (step 4). Both Ins1,4P2 and FcRIIB receptor has an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based
Ins1,3,4,5P4 are putative messengers in the multipurpose inhibitory motif (ITIM) to which SHIPs attach causing a
inositol polyphosphate signalling pathway. The Ins1,4P2 reduction in Ca2 + signalling by hydrolysing PtdIns3,4,5P3
is sequentially dephosphorylated to free inositol. The and thereby reducing the stimulatory effect of the Tec
Ins1,3,4,5P4 is dephosphorylated to Ins1,3,4P3 , which oc- tyrosine kinase family on phospholipase C (Module 2:
cupies an important position in the metabolic pathway Figure ROS effects on Ca2+ signalling). SHIPs perform a
in that either it is dephosphorylated down to inositol, similar function in mast cells (Module 11: Figure mast cell
as part of an inositol recycling pathway, or it can be inhibitory signalling). SHIP1 functions to localize PIP3 at
phosphorylated further to form additional inositol poly- the front of the cell during neutrophil chemotaxis (Module
phosphates. The inositol phosphates in the pink boxes in 11: Figure neutrophil chemotaxis).
Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate metabolism have been
implicated as intracellular messengers. InsP3 mobilizes in- Inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase
ternal Ca2 + and the putative functions of the others are Steps 2 in Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate meta-
described in the multipurpose inositol polyphosphate sig- bolism. This enzyme dephosphorylates both Ins1,3,4P3
nalling pathway. and Ins1,4P2 . This enzyme has been implicated in the
Metabolism of the inositol phosphates is carried out by signalling pathways of compensatory hypertrophy and is
a large number of inositol phosphate kinases and phos- up-regulated in human colorectal cancer.
phatases (Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate metabol-
ism): Inositol monophosphatase
Steps 3 in Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate metabol-
Inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (INPPs) ism. The free inositol that is formed by this enzyme is
This large family of enzymes, which are products of mul- then used to resynthesize PtdIns, which is returned to
tiple genes and splice variants, removes the 5-phosphate the plasma membrane, where it can be reused to function
group from inositol lipids and, in some cases, can also act as the precursor for the phosphoinositide signalling lip-
on inositol phosphates. All members of the family share a ids (Module 2: Figure phosphoinositide metabolism). This
central conserved catalytic domain: inositol monophosphatase is inhibited by lithium (Li + ),
which thus acts to reduce the supply of inositol (Module
5-Phosphatase I 2: Figure InsP3 /DAG recycling). This ability of Li + to
5-Phosphatase II lower the level of inositol is the basis of an inositol de-
Oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe (OCRL) pletion hypothesis to account for its action in controlling
Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing inositol manic-depressive illness.
phosphatase (SHIP)
Proline-rich inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase Ins1,4,5P3 3-kinase
(PIPP) Step 4 in Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate metabolism.
Skeletal muscle and kidney enriched inositol phos- This kinase is one of the major pathways for metabolizing
phatase (SKIP) the second messenger Ins1,4,5P3 . There are three isoforms
Synaptojanins of this enzyme (InsP3 3-kinase A, B and C). Both type
5-Phosphatase I A and type B are activated by Ca2 + /calmodulin, with the
The 5-phosphatase I functions to hydrolyse the inos- type B being the most sensitive. This enzyme is also sens-
itol phosphates Ins1,4,5P3 and Ins1,3,4,5P4 (Steps 1 in itive to other signalling pathways in that both forms are
Figure 2 inositol phosphate metabolism). If this enzyme inhibited by PKC. On the other hand, protein kinase A
is deleted, there is an increase in the level of InsP3 , (PKA) activates type A but inhibits type B.
and this was associated with a transformed phenotype.
This enzyme is inhibited following phosphorylation by Inositol polyphosphate 4-phosphatase type II
Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). (INPP4B)
Type I, which hydrolyses the inositol phosphates, is direc- Steps 5 in Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate metabol-
ted to the membrane by isoprenylation of the C-terminal ism. A multifunctional phosphatase capable of dephos-
region. If these membrane attachment sites are removed, phorylating both Ins3,4P2 and Ins1,3,4P3 , as well as the
allowing the enzyme to disperse into the cytosol, InsP3 inositol lipid PtdIns3,4P2 . This enzyme might be a regu-
metabolism is severely curtailed. It seems that much of the lator of cell proliferation, since it is absent in hyperprolif-
InsP3 is metabolized close to its site of action at the plasma erative megakaryocytes that lack the transcription factor
membrane. GATA-1. The INPP4B also plays an important role in
the maturation of clathrin-coated pits during endocytosis
Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing inositol (Module 2: Figure localized inositol lipid signalling).
phosphatases (SHIP)
The Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing inositol Inositol polyphosphate 3-phosphatase
phosphatases (SHIP1 and SHIP2) hydrolyse Ins1,3,4,5P4 Steps 6 in Module 2: Figure inositol phosphate metabol-
and PtdIns3,4,5P3 . The SHIPs, which come in different ism. A multifunctional phosphatase capable of dephos-
forms, are found in haematopoietic cells, where they play phorylating both Ins1,3P2 and PtdIns3P.
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PPInsP5 (InsP7 )
ADP + Pi
14 15
ATP InsP6 PP-InsP4
17
Histone 14
13 12
deacetylase
regulation
Ins1,3,4,5,6P5
11 10
12 8
17 9
Ins1,4,5,6P4 Ins1,3,4,5P4 Ins1,3,4,6P4 Ins3,4,5,6P
4
12 7 +
11 4
1 -
Ins1,4,5P3 Ins1,3,4P3
Inositol 2
phosphate 1
17
5 Cl
-
signalling
Ins1,4P2 Ins4,5P2 Ins1,3P2 Ins3,4P2
2 6 5
3 3 3
lipid PtdIns4,5P2 is hydrolysed by phospholipase C (PLC) nalling pathway is curtailed by the metabolism of InsP3
to produce both InsP3 and DAG. The family of PLCs and the resynthesis of PtdIns.
can be distinguished by the way they are coupled to cell-
surface receptors. In general, the GPCRs use the PLC
isoforms, whereas the receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) Metabolism of InsP3 and DAG and the resynthesis of
are coupled to the PLC isoforms (Module 2: Figure PLC PtdIns
structure and function). The metabolism of InsP3 and DAG and the resynthesis
DAG functions to activate the diacylglycerol of PtdIns are the OFF reactions that terminate the ac-
(DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC) signalling cassette, tions of these two messengers. There are two pathways
whereas the InsP3 diffuses into the cytosol to activate the for diacylglycerol (DAG) metabolism. Similarly, there are
InsP3 receptors to release Ca2 + stored in the endoplasmic two separate mechanisms of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate
reticulum. The signalling function of this bifurcating sig- (InsP3 ) metabolism.
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Agonist
Receptor
PtdIns PtdIns4P PtdIns4,5P 2 Diacylglycerol
Plasma
membrane
Protein
PtdIns PtdIns4P phosphorylation
4-kinase 5-kinase P
InsP P P
3
Calcium signalling
Agonist-dependent formation of the second messengers inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 ) and diacylglycerol (DAG).
The inositol lipids that function in signalling are embedded in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. The precursor lipid is phosphatidylinositol
(PtdIns), which is successively phosphorylated, first on the 4-position to form PtdIns4P and then on the 5-position to form PtdIns4,5P2 . Activated
cell-surface receptors are coupled through the G protein Gq/11 to phospholipase C (PLC) that hydrolyses PtdIns4,5P2 to generate inositol 1,4,5-
trisphosphate (InsP3 ). InsP3 activates Ca2 + signalling, and diacylglycerol (DAG) stimulates protein kinase C (PKC) to initiate protein phosphorylation
(Module 2: Figure PKC structure and activation). An animated version of this figure is available.
Diacylglycerol (DAG) metabolism for removing the DAG that is produced following the
The second messenger DAG is metabolized via two separ- hydrolysis of inositol lipids.
ate pathways. It can be phosphorylated by diacylglycerol The 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) formed by DAG
(DAG) kinase to form phosphatidic acid (PA) or it is hy- lipase is one of the endocannabinoids that has multiple
drolysed by diacylglycerol (DAG) lipase. The PA is trans- messenger functions.
ferred to the endoplasmic reticulum, where it interacts
with CTP to form the CDP/DAG complex, which is a Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 ) and Ca2 + signalling
precursor in the resynthesis of PtdIns (Module 2: Figure The primary function of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate
InsP3 /DAG recycling). (InsP3 ) is to function as a second messenger to release
Ca2 + from the internal stores. The 1,4,5-trisphosphate re-
Diacylglycerol (DAG) kinase ceptors (InsP3 Rs) located on the endoplasmic reticulum
Diacylglycerol (DAG) kinase (DAGK), which is one respond to InsP3 by releasing puffs of Ca2 + (Module 3:
of a family of nine mammalian isotypes, has a number Figure InsP3 R activation). These InsP3 Rs are sensitive to
of domains, including Ca2 + -binding EF-hand motifs and both InsP3 and Ca2 + and can thus function as co-incident
an N-terminal recoverin homology domain that is related detectors (Module 2: Figure Ca2+ -induced Ca2+ release).
to the recoverin family of neuronal Ca2+ sensors. These This InsP3 /Ca2 + signalling system controls many differ-
two domains appear to function as a unit during Ca2 + - ent cellular processes in a large number of different cell
induced activation of DAGK. In response to an increase types (Module 2: Figure InsP3 /Ca2+ signalling functions).
in Ca2 + , DAGK translocates to the membrane, where it
phosphorylates DAG to phosphatidic acid (PA) (Module Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 ) metabolism
2: Figure InsP3 /DAG recycling). DAG kinase functions The inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 ) that is formed dur-
in the scission of COPI-coated vesicles that bud off from ing signalling enters the pathways of inositol phosphate
the Golgi (Module 4: Figure COPI-coated vesicles). metabolism from which it emerges as free inositol. It is
dephosphorylated by Type I inositol polyphosphate 5-
Diacylglycerol (DAG) lipase phosphatase (Steps 1 in Module 2: Figure inositol phos-
A diacylglycerol (DAG) lipase is responsible for removing phate metabolism) to form Ins1,4P2 or it can be phos-
one of the fatty acid tails from the sn-position of DAG phorylated by InsP3 3-kinase to form Ins1,3,4,5P4 (Step 4).
to form monoacylglycerol (Module 2: Figure InsP3 /DAG These two products then enter a complex metabolic path-
recycling). This hydrolysis of DAG, which is a Ca2 + - way that plays an important role in recycling the inositol
sensitive process, may represent the primary mechanism headgroup. Cells have access to three separate sources of
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r53
Proliferation
Metabolism T cell Fertilization
Exocytosis
Contraction Liver cells Mesangial cell
b-Cell
Smooth muscle Smooth muscle
L Cell
Mesangial cell Brown fat cell
Mast cell,
Modulation of Macrophage
ventricular and Parathyroid gland
atrial cell contraction Piuitary cells
Astrocytes
Fluid secretion Renin-producing
Intestinal cell granular cells
Parietal cell
Pancreas 2+ Chemotaxis
Salivary gland InsP3 /Ca Neutrophils
Sweat gland Osteoclast
precursors (?)
Aldosterone
secretion
Glomerulosa cell Differentiation
Osteoclasts
Brown fat cells
Aggregation
Blood platelets Neuronal synaptic Ion channel
Sensory systems plasticity opening
Taste cells Purkinje neurons Astrocytes
Hippocampal neurons T Cells
inositol: recycling the second messenger InsP3 , de novo lysed by monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) to glycerol
synthesis from glucose 6-phosphate or uptake of diet- and arachidonic acid.
ary inositol circulating in the plasma (Module 2: Figure 5. PA is transferred from the plasma membrane to the ER
InsP3 /DAG recycling). Drugs such as lithium and val- where it interacts with CTP to form CDP/DAG by a
proate may control manic-depressive illness by reducing CDP/DAG synthetase. The inositol, which can be pro-
the supply of inositol by inhibiting the inositol mono- duced through three mechanisms (de novo synthesis,
phosphatase and inositol synthase respectively. The sup- recycling or uptake of dietary inositol), is attached
ply of free inositol is one of the essential precursors for the to CDP/DAG by the PtdIns synthetase [cytidine di-
synthesis of PtdIns. phosphate (CDP)/diacylglycerol (DAG):myo-inositol
3-phosphatidyltransferase] located on the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) to form PtdIns.
Synthesis of PtdIns
6. The PtdIns is then transported from the ER back to the
The two second messengers that are formed during phos-
plasma membrane by a PtdIns transfer protein (PITP).
phoinositide signalling can be recycled back to the pre-
Cells express two PITPs, an and a isoform, pro-
cursor lipid PtdIns4,5P2 through a series of steps (Module
duced by separate genes. The latter appears to be the
2: Figure InsP3 /DAG recycling):
housekeeping isoform that is essential for cell survival,
whereas the isoform has a more specialized function.
1. Conversion of PtdIns into the precursor lipid
When PtdIns is added back to the plasma membrane, it
PtdIns4,5P2 .
can once again be converted through the two phos-
2. The agonist-dependent activation of phospholipase C
phorylation reactions to maintain the supply of the
(PLC), which hydrolyses PtdIns4,5P2 to generate the
PtdIns4,5P2 that is the precursor for the phosphoin-
second messengers inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )
ositide signalling pathway.
and diacylglycerol (DAG).
7. Cells can also use plasma inositol, which is taken up
3. The InsP3 is recycled back to free inositol by a com-
by a sodium-dependent myo-inositol cotransporter-1
plex metabolic pathway illustrated in Module 2: Figure
(SMIT1).
inositol phosphate metabolism.
4. DAG is phosphorylated by the Ca2 + -sensitive enzyme
DAG kinase to form phosphatidic acid (PA) or it is hy- Phospholipase C (PLC)
drolysed by DAG lipase to form monoacylglycerols Phospholipase C (PLC) hydrolyses the lipid precursor
(MAGs) such as 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), which PtdIns4,5P2 to produce both InsP3 and DAG. It is made
is one of the endocannabinoids. The 2-AG is hydro- up of five subclasses, which have variable isoforms PLC
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r54
SMIT1
PtdIns PtdIns4P PtdIns4,5P2 PLC DAG DAG MAG (2-AG)
G DAG lipase
1 q/11 kinase 4
2
MAG 7
InsP 3 + lipase
G-6-PO4
Valproate
Ca 2+
InsP 3 InsP 3
- Inositol
Pase kinase
Glycerol
synthase Arachidonic
PITP acid
de novo InsP 2 InsP4 PA
synthesis
Lithium InsP 1 3
Recycling
- -Inositol
monophosphatase
PITP
PtdIns Dietary
inositol
Inositol
CTP
6
PtdIns CDP.DAG PA
PtdIns 5 CDP.DAG
synthetase synthetase
Endoplasmic reticulum
(14), PLC (14), PLC (1 and 2), PLC and ubiquitous, whereas PLC2 and PLC4 have more lim-
PLC (Module 2: Figure PLC structure and function). All ited tissue distributions.
forms of the enzyme have an absolute requirement for
Ca2 + that plays a critical role in the catalytic site. The PLC isoform distribution and function
PtdIns4,5P2 is cleaved through two sequential reactions: PLC1 is highly concentrated in brain (pyramidal cells of
first, the phosphodiester bond is cleaved to DAG and in- hippocampus, Purkinje cells and granule cells). The knock-
ositol 1,2-cyclic phosphate, the latter is then hydrolysed to out phenotype is characterized by seizures leading to sud-
give the acyclic InsP3 that is released into the cytoplasm. den death. These seizures are similar to those seen dur-
The domain structure of the different PLC isoforms re- ing epilepsy. Many of the defects are found in the central
veals a number of common structural features related to nervous system (CNS). Activation of PLC by muscarinic
the way the enzyme associates with the membrane and receptors is suppressed in the temporal lobe, cerebellum
functions to hydrolyse PtdIns4,5P2 . The catalytic domain and hippocampus, and this could decrease the inhibitory
is made up from the X and Y regions. They have at least tone, leading to the seizures.
two potential lipid-binding domains: the pleckstrin homo- PLC2 is mainly expressed in cells of the immune sys-
logy (PH) domain and the C2 domain (Module 6: Figure tem. Knockout mice show some disruption of chemokine
modular lipid-binding domains). In the case of PLC1, the signalling. For example, neutrophils fail to respond to
enzyme may first associate with the membrane through its the chemoattractant fMet-Leu-Phe with the usual changes
PH domain, which has a high affinity for PtdIns4,5P2 . Fur- in PLC activation, Ca2 + release and superoxide radical
ther interactions may then occur through the C2 domain, (O2 ) production. However, the response to lipopolysac-
which has an extensive interface with the catalytic domain charide (LPS) is normal. Despite this absence of PLC activ-
and may thus enable the catalytic site to integrate itself into ation in leucocytes, chemotactic responses are enhanced,
the membrane to hydrolyse the lipid. The main difference suggesting that this signalling pathway may normally ant-
between these PLC isoforms concerns the way in which agonize the signalling pathways normally used to control
they are activated. chemotaxis.
PLC3 is found mainly in brain, parotid, smooth
muscle and liver. Disruption of this gene is lethal, with
the mice dying by day 2.5. The embryos are highly dis-
Phospholipase C (PLC) organized and have low cell numbers, suggesting a role
The PLC isoforms are mainly activated by G protein- for this isoenzyme in cell division. This isoform has two
coupled receptors (GPCRs). PLC1 and PLC3 are fairly sites (Ser-26 and Ser-105) that are phosphorylated by cyclic
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r55
EF hands
PLC(1 - 4) PH X Y C2
PLC(1 - 4) PH X Y C2
PLC RasGEF PH X Y C2 RA RA
EF hands
PLC X Y C2
PTKR
GPCR PLC PLC PLC
PLC
G PH C2 G PH PH C2 RA PH C2
EF EF SH2 P P
BLNK
Gq EF XY + RA EF XY
XY P P
XY SH2 RasGEF
P
G Ras
Translocation +
G IP IP IP IP
3 3 Ca 2+ 3 3
Trio
Ca 2+ PH Ca 2+ Ca 2+ Ca 2+
EF SH2
ERK1/2 JNK and p38 XY SH2
GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) resulting in a de- While Gq and G11 are found in most tissues, the other
crease in enzyme activity (Module 7: Figure smooth muscle three are restricted to cells of haematopoetic origin. The
cell cyclic GMP signalling). function of these G proteins is complicated because the
PLC4 is found in cerebellum and granule cells. Knock- PLC isoforms are sensitive to both the and compon-
out mice appear to have defects in the cerebellum, result- ents of the heterotrimeric complex. PLC1 and PLC4 are
ing in poor motor co-ordination due to a decrease in PLC most sensitive to stimulation through subunits, whereas
stimulation through metabotropic glutamatergic and mus- is more effective at activating PLC2 and PLC3.
carinic receptors. There also are defects in the processing This sensitivity to subunits may explain the pertussis-
of visual information. toxin-sensitive stimulation of PLC by the Gi family of G
The primary activation mechanism of the PLC iso- proteins. For example, the adenosine A1 , muscarinic M2 ,
forms is through the Gq family of heterotrimeric G pro- somatostatin and -, - and -opioid receptors can couple
teins (Gq , G11 , G14 , G15 and G16 ) (Module 2: Figure PLC to PLC through Gi and Go . Of the five G and 11 G
structure and function). Gq is a highly versatile G pro- subunits, there appears to be little specificity with regard
tein in that it can relay information to a number of sig- to the activation of PLC. In general, G is less efficacious
nalling pathways. For example, the Gq dissociates into than G in stimulating PLC.
G that can stimulate PLC and it can also activate Trio The two G protein subunits interact with PLC at dif-
that then activates both the JNK signalling pathway and ferent sites. The subunit interacts with a region within
the p38 pathway. These two pathways have very different the long C-terminal tail, whereas the subunit interacts
kinetics: stimulation of PLC is very fast and terminates with a site within the Y region of the catalytic site (Module
quickly because the PLC has endogenous GAP activity 2: Figure PLC structure and function).
that hydrolyses the GTP on G to inactivate signalling. PLC also contains GAP (GTPase-activating protein)
On the other hand, the G associated with Trio inactiv- activity that stimulates the intrinsic GTPase activity of the
ates very slowly thus producing long-lasting signals ideally subunit. When an agonist binds to the GPCRs, it induces
suited to stimulate proliferation (Module 9: Figure growth a conformational change that is transmitted to the under-
factor signalling). The G is also active and can stimulate lying G protein, causing it to dissociate. At this time the
the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway GDP bound to the subunit is exchanged for GTP. The
(Module 2: Figure ERK signalling). active GTP/ subunit complex can then activate PLC
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r56
and this activation process is terminated when the intrinsic The enzymatic activity of PLC is also stimulated by
GTPase activity of the subunit hydrolyses GTP back the PtdIns3,4,5P3 produced by the PtdIns 3-kinase sig-
to GDP allowing the GDP/ subunit to once again bind nalling pathway and thus represents a major point of in-
to the subunit to form the inactive complex. The in- teraction between these two signalling pathways. This in-
trinsic GTPase activity of the subunit is rather low, but teraction is particularly important during lymphocyte ac-
is greatly enhanced by two mechanisms. There is a GAP tivation, where the Tec tyrosine kinase family are activ-
activity associated with the long C-terminal tail of PLC. ated by PtdIns3,4,5P3 to phosphorylate and activate both
Therefore PLC plays a direct role in terminating its own PLC1 and PLC2. Both isoforms bind strongly to this
activity. In addition, there are regulators of G protein sig- highly charged lipid through the N-terminal PH domain,
nalling (RGS) proteins. There are about 20 of these RGS and this interaction enhances enzymatic activity.
proteins, of which RGS2RGS4 seem particularly effect- The Src homology 3 (SH3) domain, which binds to
ive in interacting with Gq . The GTPase activity of Gq proline-rich sequences, may enable PLC to bind to other
is enhanced 25-fold by RGS4. There is considerable dis- components, such as the cytoskeleton and the protein dy-
crimination with regard to how individual RGS proteins namin.
bind to specific receptor/Gq complexes enabling them
to exert an agonist-specific inhibitory mechanism. This Phospholipase C (PLC)
mechanism could explain the different types of Ca2 + sig- Less is known about the activation of PLC. Unlike PLC
nals observed in hepatocytes following stimulation with and PLC, PLC appears not to be regulated by receptors
different agonists. directly. Once PLC1 has associated with the membrane,
it appears to be activated by an elevation in cytosolic Ca2 + .
Modulation of PLC by other signalling pathways This sensitivity to changes in intracellular Ca2 + is thought
In general, the phosphorylation of PLC, particularly iso- to depend on the C2 domain (Module 2: Figure PLC struc-
forms 2 and 3, by protein kinase A (PKA) results in inhib- ture and function).
ition of the enzyme. Crystallographic studies of PLC1 have begun to reveal
how PLC enzymes function to cleave their lipid substrates
that are embedded in the plasma membrane.
Phospholipase C (PLC)
PLC functions predominantly in early development and
in the signalling pathways that control cell proliferation. Phospholipase C (PLC)
PLC1 knockout mice die at embryonic day 9, by which Phospholipase C (PLC) differs from the other isoforms
time the embryos appear normal, albeit somewhat smaller. by having two Ras-association domains (RA) at its C-
PLC is characterized by having a large insert between terminus (Module 2: Figure PLC structure and function).
the X and Y domains (Module 2: Figure PLC structure and It binds specifically to the GTP-bound forms of Ha-Ras
function). This insert contains an additional pleckstrin ho- and Rap1A. The enzyme is targeted to the membrane
mology (PH) domain, which is itself split by another insert through its ability to bind to these G proteins. It also has
containing two Src homology 2 (SH2) domains and a single a Cdc25 homology domain that is a guanine nucleotide
Src homology 3 (SH3) domain. The SH2 domains play a exchange factor (GEF) motif for Rap1, which enables it to
critical role in the activation of PLC because they provide translocate to the perinuclear region following epidermal
a docking module that enables the enzyme to translocate to growth factor (EGF) stimulation, where it can activate the
the membrane to dock to phosphorylated tyrosine residues mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling path-
on activated receptors or associated scaffolding proteins. way. There is evidence that cyclic AMP acting through the
This tyrosine phosphorylation occurs during activation of exchange protein activated by cAMP (EPAC) can stimu-
protein tyrosine kinase-linked receptors (PTKRs) or the late Rap1 to activate PLC (Module 2: Figure cyclic AMP
non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases (e.g. Src, Syk, Btk, signalling) and this mechanism has been implicated in the
Lck, Fyn). This sequence of events is well illustrated by control of autophagy (Module 11: Figure autophagy sig-
the activation of PLC1 during activation of the T cell re- nalling mechanisms).
ceptor (Module 9: Figure TCR signalling) or PLC2 fol-
lowing B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) activation (Module Phospholipase C (PLC)
9: Figure B cell activation). This translocation to the cell Phospholipase C (PLC) has a restricted expression in
surface has two important consequences for the activation that it is only found in mammalian sperm. PLC lacks
of the enzyme. Firstly, it brings the enzyme close to its the N-terminal PH domain (Module 2: Figure PLC struc-
substrate in the membrane. Secondly, by interacting with ture and function), which means that there is no obvious
tyrosine kinases, PLC1 is itself phosphorylated on tyr- mechanism for it to bind to phospholipids. PLC has a
osine residues located at positions 771, 783 and 1254 (black sensitivity to Ca2 + that is 100-fold greater than that of
triangles in Module 2: Figure PLC structure and function). PLC1. Both the C2 and the tandem EF-hands are neces-
Phosphorylation at Tyr-783 is particularly important for sary for PLC to hydrolyse PtdIns4,5P2 to generate the
switching on enzyme activity. The PLC2 isoform is ac- InsP3 that plays a central role in sperm-induced oocyte ac-
tivated by phosphorylation of tyrosine residues 753 and tivation during fertilization (Module 8: Figure mammalian
759, mainly by the tyrosine kinase Btk (Module 2: Figure fertilization).
ROS effects on Ca2+ signalling). Mutations in PLC have been linked to male infertility.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r57
Diacylglycerol (DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC) The nPKCs, which are also activated by DAG, have
signalling cassette a much slower activation process because the Ca2 + -
The diacylglycerol (DAG) that is formed when dependent facilitation of membrane translocation is ab-
PtdIns4,5P2 is hydrolysed by phospholipase C (PLC) re- sent.
mains within the plane of the membrane where it acts as a
lipid messenger to stimulate some members of the protein Protein kinase C (PKC)
kinase C (PKC) family (Module 2: Figure InsP3 and DAG This is one of the atypical PKC isoforms (aPKC),
formation). This PKC family contains a number of iso- which fails to respond to diacylglycerol (DAG) or Ca2 + ,
forms with diverse structures and activation mechanisms. but is sensitive to low levels of ceramide (Module 2:
The PKC signalling function is equally diverse, and it has Figure sphingomyelin signalling). PKC is also activ-
proved difficult to pin down its precise function in the ated following phosphorylation by kinases from other
regulation of specific cellular processes. signalling pathways. For example, PKC is activated
by phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1/2 (PDK1/2)
Protein kinase C (PKC) (Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). In some
The protein kinase C family has been divided into three cells, it is responsible for activating nuclear factor B (NF-
subgroups (Module 2: Figure PKC structure and activa- B). PKC can also phosphorylate the glucose transporter
tion): in skeletal muscle (Module 7: Figure skeletal muscle E-C
coupling).
Conventional PKCs (cPKCs: , 1, 2 and ) contain
C1 and C2 domains Protein kinase C (PKC)
Novel PKCs (nPKCs: , , and ) contain a C1 and a Protein kinase C (PKC) is one of the novel PKCs
C2-like domain (nPKCs) that plays an important role in lymphocyte ac-
Atypical PKCs (aPKCs: , and ) contain a truncated tivation where it is concentrated in the central region of
C1 domain theimmunological synapse (Module 9: Figure immunolo-
gical synapse structure). The PKC functions by activating
The activation of these different PKC families is com- the nuclear factor B (NF-B) signalling pathway by phos-
plex in that it depends on a number of processes such phorylating the scaffolding protein CARMA1 (Module 9:
as priming, translocation and association with scaffolding Figure TCR signalling).
proteins. The priming process is driven by a sequence of
multisite phosphorylation events that have to occur before PKC signalling functions
the enzyme can perform its signalling function. The newly The different PKC isoforms function to regulate a wide
synthesized proteins are inactive and undergo a prim- range of cellular processes:
ing process that begins when phosphoinositide-dependent
protein kinase 1 (PDK1), which is part of the PtdIns 3-k- PKC functions to control the N-type Ca2 + channel
inase signalling pathway, phosphorylates a site in the C4 (Module 3: Figure CaV 2 channel family).
domain (Module 2: Figure PKC structure and activation). PKC is one of the kinases responsible for phosphorylat-
This is then followed by intramolecular autophosphoryla- ing the transcription factor p53 (Module 4: Figure p53
tion reactions of two further sites in the C-terminal tail. domains).
The primed enzyme is now ready to perform its signalling PKC functions to regulate the calmodulin (CaM)-
function by responding to both diacylglycerol (DAG) binding properties of proteins such as neuromodulin
and Ca2 + . The cPKCs and most of the nPKCs are lipid- and neurogranin.
sensitive enzymes in that they are activated by DAG that Protein kinase C functions in the modulation of CaV 1.2
binds to the C1 domain. This C1 domain is also respons- L-type channels from heart muscle (Module 3: Figure
ible for binding the tumour-promoting phorbol esters. In CaV 1.2 L-type channel).
the case of the cPKCs, Ca2 + also plays an important role The activity of the myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase
as a cofactor that binds to the C2 domain to increase its substrate (MARCKS) protein is regulated by PKC.
affinity for acidic phospholipids and is thus responsible for
inducing the translocation of cPKCs to the plasma mem- Myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate
brane. (MARCKS)
The activation of the cPKC isoforms follows a set The myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MAR-
sequence of events that begins with the hydrolysis of CKS) protein can interact with a variety of molecules such
PtdIns4,5P2 to form DAG and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate as actin, calcium/calmodulin and membrane phospholipids
(InsP3 ). The InsP3 releases Ca2 + , which initiates the activa- and particularly phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate
tion process by binding to the C2 domain to induce a con- (PtdIns4,5P2 ). This lipid binding enables MARCKS to as-
formational change that greatly enhances the membrane sociate with cell membranes.
affinity of cPKC and thus promotes its translocation to The function of MARCKS is regulated through both
the membrane where it is activated when it makes contact Ca2 + signalling and the diacylglycerol (DAG)/protein
with DAG. The pseudosubstrate (PS) domain swings away kinase C (PKC) signalling cassette. Under resting con-
from the active site, which is now free to phosphorylate its ditions, MARCKS is associated with membranes and
substrates. this membrane attachment and interaction with actin is
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r58
Plasma membrane
R
PLC
DAG C1 C2
PtdIns4,5P Translocation C4
2
InsP3 P P
P
C1 C2 Substrate
P
C2
C4
C4
2+ PS P P P
Ca
C1
P P P
Substrate Substrate
cPKC
Structure of PKC isoforms and activation mechanism of the conventional protein kinase C (cPKC) isoforms.
The nine genes that code for protein kinase C (PKC) fall into three families. Conventional PKCs (cPKCs) have a domain structure that has an N-terminal
pseudosubstrate (PS) domain followed by regulatory domains (C1 and C2), which are responsible for binding the diacylglycerol (DAG) and Ca2 +
responsible for membrane targeting, an ATP-binding C3 domain and the C4 catalytic domain. The C1 region is present as a tandem repeat (C1A
and C1B). The PS domain has an autoinhibitory function in that it associates with the catalytic site on C4, thus preventing it from phosphorylating its
substrates. Novel PKCs (nPKCs) have a similar domain structure, except that they have a C2-like domain that does not bind Ca2 + . Atypical (aPKCs)
also lack a C2 domain, and the C1 domain is small and fails to bind DAG. The illustration at the bottom indicates how cPKC is activated, as described
in the text.
reversed following its phosphorylation by PKC or its in- sengers such as InsP3 , DAG and PtdIns3,4,5P3 . The latter
teraction with Ca2 + that associates with calmodulin that is a particularly important messenger because the forma-
is bound to MARCKS. tion of PtdIns3,4,5P3 drives the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling
In neurons, MARCKS protein is located both pre- and system that controls a great variety of cellular processes
post-synaptically. It may function to attach actin filaments (Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). In addition,
to the plasma membrane (see 3 in Module 10: Figure PtdIns4,5P2 is a messenger in its own right in that local-
Ca2+ -induced synaptic plasticity). There are indications ized formation of this lipid can control endocytosis, actin
that MARCKS may function in the stabilization of the remodelling, ion channels and phagocytosis (Module 2:
actin cytoskeleton in membrane spines during learning. Figure localized inositol lipid signalling).
The main role for this protein seems to be the clustering There is increasing evidence that some of the other lipids
of PtdIns4,5P2 at the membrane where it performs the may also play signalling roles as described in the PtdIns3P
multiple functions of the PtdIns4,5P2 signalling cassette. signalling cassette, the PtdIns4P signalling cassette, the
In endothelial cells it can regulate movement and may PtdIns5P signalling cassette and the PtdIns3,5P2 signalling
act to link actin filaments to the plasma membrane. MAR- cassette. In the case of the latter, the PtdIns3,5P2 in the
CKS may be susceptible to redox-sensitive reorganization late endosome activates the TRPML1 channels to produce
of the cytoskeleton as an increase in ROS seems to contrib- the Ca2 + signals necessary to trigger the membrane fusion
ute to the control of endothelial regulation of paracellular events that form the lysosomes.
permeability by disrupting the cytoskeleton.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r59
PtdIns3P
Trans-Golgi
network (TGN)
Ca 2+
To recycling
Golgi endosome
To Golgi
PtdIns4P PtdIns Early endosome
PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Module 2: Figure localized inositol lipid cytokines. Inositol lipids play a significant role in transmit-
signalling). Secondly, PtdIns4,5P2 can also function as a ting information from the plasma membrane to a variety of
lipid messenger (Module 2: Figure PtdIns4,5P2 signalling). cell signalling systems (Module 2: Figure localized inositol
Such a signalling role is supported by the observation that lipid signalling). The formation of PtdIns4,5P2 functions to
cell stimulation can result in highly localized increases in control actin remodelling (Module 4: Figure actin remod-
PtdIns4,5P2 . The localized formation of this lipid messen- elling). Its main actions are to uncap the barbed end of actin
ger can be activated by the monomeric G proteins and in filaments and to facilitate actin nucleation and polymeriz-
particular the family of Rho proteins. For example, Rac ation by controlling a variety of actin regulatory proteins.
and Rho can function to target PtdIns4P 5-kinase I to the A critical component of the signalling network is the Rho
plasma membrane. In addition, Rho-GTP can activate this family of monomeric G proteins (Arf, Rho, Cdc42 and
kinase directly to form PtdIns4,5P2 (Module 2: Figure Rho Rac) that relay information from various signalling path-
signalling). ways such as the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway to the
There is increasing evidence that a variety of cellular effector molecules that are directly responsible for remod-
processes are activated in response to a change in the level elling the actin network. One of the signalling molecules
of this lipid: is PtdIns4,5P2 .
The signalling cascade begins when external signals act-
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of actin remodelling
ing through guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs)
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of membrane trafficking and en-
stimulate members of the Rho family of G proteins by
docytosis
catalysing the exchange of GDP for GTP. The active G
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of exocytosis
proteins can then have a number of functions. For example,
PtdIns4,5P2 activation of phospholipase D
one function of Rac-GTP is to activate actin polymeriz-
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of ion channels and exchangers
ation (Module 2: Figure Rac signalling). Similarly, Cdc42
PtdIns4,5P2 function in focal adhesions
also stimulates actin remodelling (Module 2: Figure Cdc42
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of phagocytosis
signalling). The consequence of this remodelling varies de-
pending on which G protein is operating. For example,
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of actin remodelling the Cdc42 and Rac polymerization of actin results in the
There are a number of cellular processes, such as chemo- formation of filopodia and ruffles respectively (Module 4:
taxis, locomotion, phagocytosis, shape change and cy- Figure actin remodelling ).
tokinesis, where there are rapid changes in the cytoskeleton The formation of PtdIns4,5P2 contributes to
in response to external stimuli such as growth factors and actin remodelling by acting on a number of the
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r60
DAG + InsP 3 2+
Ca
PtdIns3,4,5P3
Rac Rho Arf PA
PLD PA SPHK S1P
Cytoskeleton
PtdIns PtdIns4P PtdIns4,5P2
Phagocytosis 2+
Ca
Exocytosis
(Primes vesicles)
Endocytosis
(Recruits AP-2 to
form clathrin-coated pits)
Ion channels
(Agonist-induced hydrolysis of
PtdIns4,5P2 activates TRPV1
but inhibits potassium channels)
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r61
AGONIST
Channel open + Channel closed
membrane K membrane
hyperpolarized depolarized
R
PtdIns PLC
PtdIns4P
4-Kinase 5-Kinase PtdIns4,5P
PtdIns PtdIns4P 2
InsP3
DAG
DAG
Inositol Kinase
phosphate
metabolism
PtdIns
Inositol
Phosphatidic
PtdIns acid
synthase
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of phagocytosis channel, whereas the TRPC6 channel, TRP melastatin 4
When macrophages engulf foreign particles, PtdIns4P 5-k- (TRPM4), TRP melastatin 7 (TRPM7) and TRP melast-
inase (PtdIns4P 5-K) I is recruited to the plasma mem- atin 8 (TRPM8) channels are closed (Module 2: Figure
brane at the phagosome cup, where it induces a local pulse PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of TRP channels). In the case of
of PtdIns4,5P2 , which is then rapidly degraded by phos- the inward rectifying K + channels, lipid hydrolysis results
pholipase C (PLC) to leave behind diacylglycerol (DAG). in channel opening (Module 2: Figure PtdIns4,5P2 regula-
This local formation of PtdIns4,5P2 seems essential for the tion of K+ channels). Modulation of the TRPV1 channel is
early process of phagocytosis. particularly important in hyperalgesia (Module 10: Figure
The localized transient increase in PtdIns4,5P2 may nociception).
function in the initial recruitment of actin to the phagocyte. Much of the information on this regulatory function
of PtdIns4,5P2 has emerged from studies on K + chan-
PtdIns4,5P2 activation of phospholipase D nels. Stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC) by G protein-
Phospholipase D (PLD), which catalyses the hydrolysis coupled receptors (GPCRs) causes a reduction in the level
of phosphatidylcholine (PC) to generate phosphatidic acid of PtdIns4,5P2 , which results in a reduction in the activity
(PA), exists as two isoforms, PLD1 and PLD2. The PLD1 of some of the voltage-dependent K+ (Kv ) channels:
is primarily located on vesicles associated with the en-
dosomal/lysosomal pathway, whereas PLD2 is mainly The human ether-a-go-go-related (HERG) K + channel
found on the plasma membrane. An interaction between (Kv 11.1 channel)
PtdIns4P 5-kinase (PtdIns4P 5-K) and the PLDs en- The Kv 7.1 channel, which is coded for by the KCNQ1
sures that there is a local generation of PtdIns4,5P2 that gene, is regulated by PtdIns4,5P2 . This inositol lipid
plays an important role in regulating PLD activity (Module keeps the channel open, but when PtdIns4,5P2 is hy-
2: Figure PLD signalling). drolysed by angiotensin II, the channel closes. Such
lipid regulation is seen in adrenal zona glomerulosa cells
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of ion channels and exchangers (Module 7: Figure glomerulosa cell signalling) and also
A number of ion channels and exchangers appear to be in the heart. Mutation of KCNQ1 causes long QT) syn-
regulated by PtdIns4,5P2 . In some cases, the hydrolysis of drome (LQT).
PtdIns4,5P2 results in channel opening as occurs for the The Kv 7.2 and Kv 7.3 heteromultimer, which is coded
transient receptor potential (TRP) vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) for by KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 respectively, is responsible
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r62
AGONIST Cations
TRPC6
TRPM4 TRPM4
TRPM7 TRPM7
TRPV1 TRPM8
TRPM8
opens closes
TRPV1
R
PLC
PtdIns PtdIns4P
4-Kinase 5-Kinase PtdIns4,5P
PtdIns PtdIns4P 2
InsP3
DAG
Inositol
phosphate
metabolism DAG
Kinase
PtdIns
Inositol
PtdIns Phosphatidic
synthase acid
for the M current that contributes to the tonic excitatory signalling is one of the major pathways used by the insulin
drive that regulates neuronal activity (Module 10: Fig- receptor to regulate energy uptake and storage.
ure tonic excitatory drive and neuronal rhythms). Al- This lipid signalling pathway has a special relationship
terations in Kv 7.3 has been linked to a form of epilepsy to Ca2 + signalling in that it can regulate the way in which
known as benign familial neonatal convulsions. external signals can maintain information flowing through
KCNQ4, which codes for Kv 7.4 (Module 3: Table the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2+ signalling
voltage-dependent K+ channels), is the delayed rectifier cassette.
that controls K + efflux from sensory hair cells of the in- Operation of the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling cassette can
ner ear. KCNQ4 mutations cause autosomal dominant be considered in two parts:
nonsyndromic deafness type 2 (DFNA2).
The opening of TRPV1 channels in histamine-sensitive Generation and metabolism of the 3-phosphorylated
Itch neurons depends on the hydrolysis of PtdIns4,5P2 lipid messengers
(Module 10: Figure Itch signal transduction mechan- Mode of action of the 3-phosphorylated lipid messen-
ism). gers
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r63
Growth factor
PtdIns3,4,5P3 GPCR
PTKRs
Ras
P P Ras
p110
p101/ /
P P p85 p110 p84
PtdIns- ,, PtdIns-
P P Class IB
4,5P2 Class IA PI 3-K 4,5P2
PI 3-K
PDK1/2 Rac
Rho Superoxide
formation
Cdc42
Btk PKB
Itk
Cytoskeletal
rearrangement
PLC
PKCs
, S6K TOR BAD GSK3 FOXO
IP DAG
3
Protein Cell Glycogen Gene
transcription
Ca 2+ PKCs synthesis survival metabolism
,
3-kinase signalling pathway. This highly phosphorylated Contribution to liver cell signalling mechanisms to
lipid is generated in cells following activation of either control glycogen metabolism (Module 7: Figure liver
G protein-coupled or tyrosine kinase-coupled receptors cell signalling).
(Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). Functions in the insulin control of skeletal muscle gly-
These 3-phosphorylated lipid messengers are metabol- cogen synthesis (Module 7: Figure skeletal muscle E-C
ized either by the type II inositol polyphosphate 5-phos- coupling).
phatases or by phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted Functions in white fat cells to control lipid metabolism
on chromosome 10 (PTEN). (Module 7: Figure lipolysis and lipogenesis).
Functions in the control of cell proliferation (Module 9:
Figure growth factor signalling).
Mode of action of the 3-phosphorylated lipid PtdIns 3-kinase signalling in cardiac hypertrophy is
messengers an example where this signalling system carries out mul-
The lipid messengers PtdIns3,4P2 and PtdIns3,4,5P3 act tiple roles in the same cell (i.e. inhibits apoptosis, activ-
within the plane of the plasma membrane by binding ates protein synthesis and facilitates a programme of
to a great variety of target proteins (Module 2: Figure foetal gene transcription (Module 12: Figure hyper-
PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). Most of these downstream trophy signalling mechanisms).
targets are soluble proteins that translocate to the mem- Modulation of InsP3 -induced Ca2 + release by phos-
brane by binding to the lipid messengers through various phorylation of the InsP3 receptor, and this could provide
lipid-binding domains [e.g. pleckstrin homology (PH), a possible mechanism for the action of insulin in liver
Phox homology (PX), C2 domains and basic amino acid cells (Module 7: Figure liver cell signalling).
regions] (Module 6: Figure modular lipid-binding do- PtdIns3,4,5P3 activates the monomeric G proteins Rac
mains). Once drawn on to the membrane, these target (Module 2: Figure Rac signalling), Rho (Module 2: Fig-
proteins are activated and function as effectors to control ure Rho signalling) and Cdc42 (Module 2: Figure Cdc42
a large number of cellular processes: signalling).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r64
Formation of osteoclast podosomes (Module 7: Figure contain a polypyrimidine tract at the 5 transcriptional start
osteoclast podosomes). site. The control of S6K1 is complex in that it depends upon
Contributes to the amplification of the early polarity a priming step that is followed by series of phosphoryla-
signalling during neutrophil chemotaxis (Module 11: tion events at multiple sites that are sensitive to a number of
Figure neutrophil chemotactic signalling). kinases. The priming step depends on Ca2 + , which appears
Functions as a regulator of autophagy (Module 11: Fig- to act by opening up the enzyme so that it becomes sensit-
ure autophagy). ive to phosphorylation by different kinases. One of these is
phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1), which car-
Phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1) ries out the wortmannin-sensitive phosphorylation. In ad-
One of the main functions of phosphoinositide-dependent dition there are rapamycin-sensitive sites phosphorylated
kinase 1 (PDK1) is to phosphorylate protein kinase B by the target of rapamycin (TOR) (Module 9: Figure target
(PKB), which translocates to the membrane, where it binds of rapamycin signalling).
to PtdIns3,4,5P3 (Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase sig-
nalling). This binding alters the conformation of PKB so
that critical sites become available to PDK1. Like PKB, Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3)
PDK1 has pleckstrin homology (PH) domains that also One of the primary functions of insulin is to act through
bind to the 3-phosphorylated lipid messengers that serve glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) to stimulate the con-
to activate their kinase activity. PDK1 is also responsible version of glucose into glycogen by increasing the activity
for phosphorylating and activating other signalling mo- of glycogen synthase (Module 7: Figure skeletal muscle
lecules such as ribosomal S6 protein kinase 1 (S6K1) and E-C coupling). GSK-3 is a proline-directed protein kinase
atypical protein kinase C (PKC). that usually requires a priming kinase to add a phosphate
to its substrate before it can carry out further phosphoryla-
Protein kinase B (PKB) tions. Casein kinase I (CKI) often acts as the priming kinase
Protein kinase B (PKB), which is also known as Akt, as it does for -catenin in the Wnt signalling pathway
is a serine/threonine protein kinase that functions in (Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical pathway).
the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway (Module 2: Fig- GSK-3 also has a number of other signalling func-
ure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling). PKB has three members tions:
(PKB, PKB and PKB) that are activated through a
two-stage process. Firstly, it translocates to the mem- It phosphorylates nuclear factor of activated T cells
brane by binding to either PtdIns3,4P2 or PtdIns3,4,5P3 (NFAT) and thus contributes to the NFAT shuttle
through pleckstrin homology (PH) domains. The latter (Module 4: Figure NFAT activation).
appears to be particularly important when cells are stud- It contributes to the Wnt signalling pathway (Module
ied in vivo. The next stage depends upon its interaction 2: Figure Wnt canonical pathway).
with phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1), which It functions in dorsoventral specification during devel-
then completes the activation process by phosphorylating opment (Module 8: Figure dorsoventral specification).
PKB on Thr-308. In addition, a DNA-dependent protein It is one of the kinases that phosphorylates the tran-
kinase (previously called PDK2) phosphorylates Ser-473. scription factor p53 (Module 4: Figure p53 domains).
The activated PKB then functions to stimulate a variety It contributes to Myc degradation.
of molecular targets, including glycogen synthase kinase-3 It phosphorylates the neuron-specific microtubule-
(GSK-3) (which mediates the effect of insulin on glycogen associated protein tau, which forms tangles in neurons
metabolism) and the pro-apoptotic factor Bad. PKB also during the onset of Alzheimers disease (Module 12:
plays a role in redox signalling in apoptosis. Figure amyloid plaques and tangles).
PKB is a key player in cell growth control, where it It plays a significant role in cardiac gene transcription,
functions by phosphorylating tuberous sclerosis 1 and 2 where it has an important role in the NFAT shuttle
(TSC1/2), which integrate a number of inputs that control (Module 12: Figure hypertrophy signalling mechan-
the activity of the target of rapamycin (TOR) (Module isms).
9: Figure target of rapamycin signalling). PKB can also GSK-3 activity can be regulated by disrupted in schizo-
translocate into the nucleus, where it phosphorylates the phrenia 1 (DISC1), which is mutated in some patients
Forkhead box O (FOXO) transcription factors (Module 4: with schizophrenia. When mutated, DISC1 alters both
Figure FOXO control mechanisms) that play an important the structure and function of fast-spiking interneurons
role in regulating the cell cycle. (Module 12: Figure schizophrenia).
A reduction in PKB activity by various mechanisms GSK-3 phosphorylates Tat interactive protein 60
seems to be responsible for the onset in insulin resistance (TIP60), which acetylates and activates ULK1 to initi-
(Module 12: Figure insulin resistance). ate autophagy (Module11: Figure autophagy signalling
mechanisms).
Ribosomal S6 protein kinase 1 (S6K1) Expression of the nuclear factor erythroid 2 related
This kinase plays an important role in regulating protein factor 2 (NRF-2), which is a stress-sensing transcription
synthesis by phosphorylating the S6 ribosomal protein factor that responds to reactive oxygen species (ROS) is
(a component of the 40S ribosomal subunit), which then regulated by GSK-3 (Module 4: Figure NRF-2 antiox-
enhances the translation of those mRNA transcripts that idant function). An increase in the activity of GSK-3
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r65
has been observed in mouse models of Alzheimers dis- 3. The insulin receptor substrate (IRS), which is a scaf-
ease (AD) and Parkinsons disease (PD). folding domain (Module 6: Figure IRS domain struc-
ture), attaches itself to juxtamembrane phosphotyr-
Tec tyrosine kinase family osine residue 972. Once it is drawn into the vicinity
All members of this tyrosine kinase family are cytoso- of the receptor, the tyrosine kinase domain also phos-
lic, but they translocate rapidly to the membrane through phorylates IRS on multiple residues.
pleckstrin homology (PH) domains that are particularly 4. The phosphotyrosine residues on IRS then function as
sensitive to PtdIns3,4,5P3 . A prominent member of this docking sites for Class IA PtdIns 3-kinase (PI 3-K).
family is Brutons tyrosine kinase (Btk). Once bound to 5. The PI 3-K then phosphorylates PtdIns4,5P2 to form
the membrane, these enzymes are also phosphorylated by the lipid second messenger PtdIns3,4,5P3 .
Src family tyrosine kinases such as Lyn and Src. Activa- 6. The PtdIns3,4,5P3 then activates the PtdIns 3-kinase
tion thus requires both translocation to the membrane and signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase
phosphorylation on tyrosine residues. One of the func- signalling) that controls a number of cellular pro-
tions of these Tec tyrosine kinases is to enhance Ca2 + sig- cesses:
nalling by maintaining the activity of phospholipase C It stimulates lipogenesis in white fat cells (Module 7:
(PLC). This enhancement of PLC activity by the Tec Figure lipolysis and lipogenesis).
kinases represents a major point of interaction between the It stimulates glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis
inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2 + signalling cas- in skeletal muscle cells (Module 7: Figure skeletal
sette and the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling cassette. muscle E-C coupling).
It stimulates glycogen synthesis in liver cells (Module
Brutons tyrosine kinase (Btk) 7: Figure liver cell signalling).
Brutons tyrosine kinase (Btk) is one of the non-receptor
protein tyrosine kinases (Module 1: Figure non-receptor The onset of diabetes (i.e. Type 2 diabetes) begins when
tyrosine kinases) that plays an important role in B cells cells become resistant to the action of insulin in energy
where it functions to activate PLC2 (Module 9: Figure B uptake and storage.
cell activation). It has a similar mode of action in the mast
cell FcRI signalling pathway (Step 7 in Module 11: Figure PtdIns3,5P2 signalling cassette
FcRI mast cell signalling). The PtdIns3,5P2 signalling cassette functions in membrane
Inactivation of Btk results in Brutons type X-linked and protein trafficking and particularly in the events that
agammaglobulinaemia. occur during the early endosome maturation to lysosome
(see step 10 in Module 4: Figure membrane and protein
Inducible T cell kinase (Itk) trafficking). The early endosome is rich in PtdIns3P that
As for Brutons tyrosine kinase (Btk) in B cells, inducible is converted into PtdIns3,5P2 (Module 2: Figure localized
T cell kinase (Itk) has a similar function in controlling inositol lipid signalling), which then orchestrates the traf-
the maturation of T cells by activating phospholipase C1 ficking events responsible for the transformation of the
(PLC1) (Module 9: Figure TCR signalling). early endosome into the multivesicular endosome (MVE)
that end up as lysosomes. The PtdIns3,5P2 seems to act
Insulin receptor by stimulating TRPML1 channels to create the local do-
Insulin has a major role to play in regulating a variety of mains of Ca2 + necessary to activate the endosome fusion
cellular processes, with particular emphasis on the regula- to form the lysosomes. The formation of PtdIns3,5P2 is
tion of energy uptake and storage. The action of insulin is carried out by PhosphoInositide Kinase for five position
carried out by the insulin receptor, which is a disulphide- containing a Fyve finger (PIKfyve), which has a number
linked homodimer that belongs to the large family of re- of protein interaction domains that enables it to inter-
ceptors that have tyrosine kinase domains (Module 1: Fig- act with a number of other proteins to form a functional
ure tyrosine kinase-linked receptors). An important com- PIKfyveArPIKfyveSac3 (PAS) complex (Module 2: Fig-
ponent of the signal transduction mechanism used by the ure PIKfyve activation). The N-terminal FYVE domain
insulin receptor is the insulin receptor substrate (IRS), binds to the substrate PtdIns3P. The Cpn160_TCP1 do-
which is a classical scaffolding protein (Module 6: Figure main interacts with the associated regulator of PIKfyve
IRS domain structure). (ArPIKfyve), which forms a dimer and functions as a
The function of the insulin receptor depends upon the scaffolding protein to assemble the PAS complex. The C-
activation of the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling pathway that terminal kinase domain is then positioned to catalyse the
occurs through the sequence of events shown in Module conversion of PtdIns3P into PtdIns3,5P2 . The suppressor
2: Figure insulin receptor: of actin 3 (Sac3), which is the mammalian orthologue
of Fig4 in yeast, is a SAC domain lipid phosphatase
1. Insulin binds to the extracellular domain to induce a that removes the 5-phosphate from PtdIns3,5P2 to form
conformational change in the receptor resulting in the PtdIns3P. Sac3 is part of the PAS complex and has an im-
activation of the intracellular tyrosine kinase domains. portant structural role in that it also helps to facilitate the
2. Once activated, the tyrosine kinase domains undergo kinase activity of PIKfyve.
autophosphorylation whereby they phosphorylate up Mutations in Sac3/Fig3 have been linked to
to six tyrosine residues on the opposite chain. Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease 4J.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r66
1
Cysteine-rich domain
L1
SS SS SS SS
SS SS
PtdIns4,5P PtdIns3,4,5P
2 3
972 P 5
P IRS
P p85
1158 P P P P
1162 PI 3-K
P P
1163 P 2 P
PDK1/2
3
1328
P P
6
1334 P P 4
PKB
ArPIKfyve
PIKfyve
Ph Sac3/Fig4
os
C Kinase ph
ata
E se
N FYV
PtdIns3,5P
3P 2
PtdIns PtdIn
s3P
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r69
Cellular responses
2+ eNOS cGK I Protein
Ca iNOS GCKGC targets
nNOS cGK II
sGC
NO GC
cGMP GMP
PDE5
O2-
2+
GSH Mn NADPH
RNS +
NADP
signalling TRXR
HNO
ONOO- GS-NO
2+ SH SH S S
Mn - NO
TRX TRX
GSH GSNO
Protein NADH
target Cellular responses GSNOR GSNHOH
NAD+
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r70
Reductase domain
O
2
Oxidase domain CAM
Arginine
Oxidase domain
Haem BH4
CAM FMN FAD NADPH
Reductase domain
Ca 2+ S1177
Citrulline NO
in many disease states, such as hypertension, diabetes and Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)
hypercholesterolaemia. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) was first described
in neurons, but has since been found in other cell types such
as skeletal muscle, which has an alternatively spliced vari-
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) ant that has a 34-amino-acid insert between exons 16 and
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which is also 17. In both neurons and muscle, nNOS is closely associated
known as immunocyte NOS, was first described in mac- with the plasma membrane where it binds to various pro-
rophages, where its expression is up-regulated by inflam- teins through its PDZ domains. In neurons, nNOS binds
matory mediators. Although macrophages are the main to the postsynaptic density (PSD) proteins such as PSD-
cells that express iNOS, it is also found in other cell types 93 and PSD-95 (Module 10: Figure postsynaptic density),
(cardiac cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and glial cells). whereas in skeletal muscle it interacts with 1-syntrophin
Unlike the other isoforms, the activation of iNOS does (a binding partner of dystrophin).
not require an elevation of Ca2 + . However, iNOS does
bind calmodulin (CaM), which is essential for its activa- Cyclic GMP signalling pathway
tion. Since the enzyme is constitutively active, its primary The cyclic GMP signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure NO
regulation depends upon its induction by inflammatory re- and cGMP signalling) is governed by the second messen-
ceptors such as those that respond to interferon- (IFN-) ger cyclic GMP, which is synthesized by guanylyl cyclase
or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). As large amounts of enzyme (GC). The latter comes in two different forms: there are
are produced, this is a high-output pathway capable of de- the soluble GC (sGC) and membrane-bound particulate
livering NO for prolonged periods as part of the cells de- guanylyl cyclases (pGCs). Many of the signalling func-
fence against invading micro-organisms. As such, it does tions of cyclic GMP are carried out by cyclic GMP-de-
not strictly function as a messenger. However, the large pendent protein kinase (cGK). In addition, cyclic GMP
production of NO at the sites of inflammation will spill can act directly to open cyclic nucleotide-gated channels.
over to affect neighbouring cells. The large up-regulation Cyclic GMP hydrolysis is carried out by a cyclic GMP-
of iNOS may account for the fall in blood pressure during specific phosphodiesterase (PDE5). Through these differ-
endotoxic shock. ent signalling pathways, cyclic GMP functions to regulate
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Myristic
eNOS acid
Inactive
Caveolin Palmitic
CAM FAD BH4
acid
FMN Heme
Calcium-induced
NOS activation
eNOSActive
Arginine Citrulline
NADPH NADP
2+ O2
Ca NO
a diverse collection of cellular processes. There are those NO/cyclic GMP and synaptic plasticity
where cyclic GMP mediates the action of NO: The enzymes responsible for NO formation and its action
are richly expressed in the nervous system. Although the
NO/cyclic GMP and smooth muscle relaxation precise function of NO is still debated, there are indica-
NO/cyclic GMP and synaptic plasticity tions that it might function in synaptic plasticity by con-
NO/cyclic GMP and cardiac hypertrophy tributing to cerebellar cell long-term potentiation (LTP) at
the parallel fibre/Purkinje cell synapse.
In those cases where cyclic GMP is formed by the pGC,
cyclic GMP acts independently of NO to regulate cellular Guanylyl cyclase (GC)
processes such as phototransduction (Module 10: Figure Guanylyl cyclase (GC) is the enzyme that synthesizes cyc-
phototransduction overview). Certain strains of Escheri- lic GMP from ATP (Module 2: Figure NO and cyclic
chia coli, which secrete the STa toxin, increase intestinal se- GMP signalling). It comes in two main forms, soluble GC
cretion and cause diarrhoea by activating the cyclic GMP (sGC), which is activated by NO, and membrane-bound
signalling pathway by stimulating the particulate guanylyl particulate guanylyl cyclases (pGCs). The latter belongs to
cyclase C (pGC-C) receptor that is normally activated by a group of single membrane-spanning receptors that use
guanylin (Module 7: Figure intestinal secretion). an enzyme to transduce information. In this case, it is the
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r72
guanylyl cyclase region of the cytoplasmic domain that out the nitrosylation reaction. These nitrosylation reac-
functions both as a transducer and an amplifier to generate tions are reversed by denitrosylation reactions. Many of
the second messenger cyclic GMP. the functions of NO are carried out by this nitrosylation-
sensitive signalling pathway and there is growing evidence
Cyclic GMP hydrolysis for nitrosylation dysfunction in disease.
The enzyme that reverses the second messenger action of
cyclic GMP by hydrolysing it to GMP is the cyclic GMP- Reactive nitrogen species (RNS)
specific phosphodiesterase (PDE5), which can be activated The reactive nitrogen species (RNS) that carry out the
by cGKI, thus setting up a negative-feedback loop. Excess- nitrosylation reaction are formed when NO interacts
ive signalling through the cyclic GMP signalling pathway with various acceptors such as superoxide radical (O2 ),
will thus be curtailed through this ability of cyclic GMP cysteine (Cys), glutathione (GSH) or transition metal ions
to enhance its own hydrolysis. PDE5 is of considerable (Mn + , e.g. Fe3 + or Cu2 + ) (Module 2: Figure NO and
interest as it is the target of Viagra. cGMP signalling):
NO + O2 ONOO (peroxynitrite)
Cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (cGK)
NO + Mn+ Mnn+ NO
There are two cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinases
NO + GSH GS NO
(cGKs): cGKI and cGKII. The cGKI comes in two al-
NO + Cys Cys NO
ternatively spliced forms, cGKI and cGKI. These cGKs
are serine/threonine protein kinases that exist as homodi- The interaction between NO and O2 forms the
mers that are held together by leucine zippers in their N- strong oxidant peroxynitrite (ONOO ), which is very
terminal domains, which fold over to inhibit the catalytic much more reactive than the two parent molecules. It can
domain. The binding of cyclic GMP to a regulatory site react with electron-rich groups such as protein sulfhy-
induces a conformational change that relieves this inhibi- dryls as part of the nitrosylation reaction to form the S-
tion, thus enabling the catalytic domain to phosphorylate nitrosothiols (SNOs). Although peroxynitrite has a brief
its substrates. half-life (approx. 15 ms), it exists for long enough to dif-
fuse through a cell and perhaps also to neighbouring cells
cGK targets
enabling it to function as an intra- and inter-cellular mes-
These cGKs are targeted to specific sites in the cell. The
senger.
N-terminal domain is responsible for targeting cGKI and
Low molecular mass thiols, such as glutathione (GSH),
cGKI to specific cellular regions as is particularly import-
can also be nitrosylated by NO to form GS-NO.
ant for smooth muscle relaxation mediated by nitric oxide
(NO) and cyclic GMP (Module 7: Figure smooth muscle
Nitrosylation reaction
cell cyclic GMP signalling).
The S-nitrosylation reaction depends upon the transfer of
The cGKII has an N-terminal Gly-2 myristic acid
NO from one of the reactive nitrogen species (RNS) to
residue that serves to target it to the plasma membrane.
a peptidyl cysteine thiol group of target proteins (R-SH)
cGK protein substrates (Module 2: Figure NO and cGMP signalling):
The cGMP-sensitive target proteins regulated by cGKs
R-SH + ONOO R-SNO
include inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-associated
R-SH + Mn+ NO R-SNO
cGKI substrate (IRAG), large conductance (BK) chan-
R-SH + GS NO R-SNO
nels, cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE5), cerebellar
R-SH + Cys NO R-SNO
G substrate, vesicle-associated membrane protein (VASP)
and telokin. Specificity is determined by the fact that the target pro-
teins (R-SH) have hyperreactive cysteine groups where the
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-associated cGKI thiol moiety exists as a thiolate anion due to the presence
substrate (IRAG) of positively charged amino acids in the immediate vicinity
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (InsP3 R)-associated of the protein chain.
cGKI substrate (IRAG) is located on the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), where it appears to associate with the Denitrosylation reactions
InsP3 R. When it is phosphorylated by cGKI, IRAG Denitrosylation is carried out by two main denitrosylases
acts to inhibit channel opening (Module 7: Figure smooth (Module 2: Figure NO and cGMP signalling). One mech-
muscle cell cyclic GMP signalling). anism depends on the oxidoreductase thioredoxin (Trx)
operating in concert with Trx reductase (TrxR). In its re-
Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) signalling duced state, the two cysteine residues in the highly con-
One of the ways by which NO functions in cells is through served -Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys- active site are reduced and the
an S-nitrosylation reaction (Module 2: Figure NO and hydrogens are used to release the NO as HNO and to
cGMP signalling). This covalent modification results from convert the SNO group on the target protein into an SH
the addition of NO to reactive cysteine residues on spe- group. During this denitrosylation reaction, a disulphide
cific target proteins. NO does not react directly with these bond is formed between the vicinal cysteine residues at the
proteins, but is first of all converted into reactive nitro- active site. This oxidized Trx is then reduced by NADPH
gen species (RNS) that are then responsible for carrying through the activity of the seleno-flavoprotein TrxR.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r73
The other mechanism depends on S-nitrosoglutathione into hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), which is one of the main
reductase (GSNOR), which is also known as GSH- messenger molecules used by the redox signalling pathway
dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase and Class III al- (Module 2: Figure summary of redox signalling).
cohol dehydrogenase (ADH3). The GSNOR metabolizes Rapid reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism en-
the GSNO, which is one of the reactive nitrogen spe- sures that H2 O2 , like other intracellular messengers, has a
cies (RNS), which is produced through two mechanisms. short half-life. This metabolism of H2 O2 is carried out by
It is formed when NO interacts with GSH and is also a range of enzymes, including catalase, glutathione peroxi-
released following the denitrosylation of target proteins dase (GPx) and peroxiredoxin (Prx). Since the inside of the
(Module 2: Figure NO and cGMP signalling). The GS- cell is a highly reducing environment, the last two enzymes
NOR uses NADH as an electron donor to irreversibly can draw upon a large reservoir of reducing equivalents in
convert GSNO into GSNHOH. In the absence of GS- order to metabolize the ROS. The cell has a large redox
NOR, the level of GSNO increases as does the amount buffer capacity in the form of glutathione, which func-
of S-nitrosylated proteins, which suggest that these SNO tions to maintain the redox balance in the cell. The fact
proteins might be in equilibrium with GSNO and this that H2 O2 is metabolized so rapidly means that its site of
might account for the fact that certain cellular proteins action is highly localized close to its site of production.
seem to by constitutively nitrosylated. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) messenger action of
H2 O2 depends upon its ability to react with the cysteine
Redox signalling residues of a certain group of target proteins. The latter are
Cells have evolved a sophisticated mechanism of intracel- marked out by virtue of having hyperreactive thiol groups
lular signalling based on localized changes in the oxidation that are rapidly oxidized to form a disulphide bond. The
state of specific proteins. The internal environment of cells recovery from this oxidized state back to a fully reduced
is normally highly reduced. Certain forms of stress are as- thiol group is carried out by the glutaredoxin and/or the
sociated with an increase in the oxidative state, and this thioredoxin systems.
can induce apoptosis. It is also well known that certain Finally, the oxidized target proteins activate a number of
phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils, can rapidly generate oxidation-sensitive processes that bring about a number of
superoxide radical (O2 ) and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) cellular responses such as gene activation, modulation of
that are used to kill other cells during inflammatory re- ion channels and the activity of other signalling pathways
sponses. In addition to these pathological effects, there is [mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade and
increasing evidence that the redox system has been adapted Ca2 + signalling]. It is therefore not surprising to find a
to perform a variety of signalling functions and can mod- role for redox signalling in proliferation and cancer. There
ulate the activity of other signalling pathways. As such, is also a strong relationship between redox signalling and
they can control many cellular processes, including cell schizophrenia (Module 12: Figure schizophrenia).
proliferation, apoptosis and cellular senescence. Some of
these effects are exerted through a two-way interaction
with Ca2 + signalling. For example, redox signalling can Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
help to promote the tyrosine phosphorylation events that Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a collective term
generate many signalling cascades and it can modulate the that refers to those oxygen species [superoxide (O2 ),
activity of the ryanodine receptors (RYRs) and inositol hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) and the hydroxyl radical
1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs) that release Ca2 + . (OH )] that are more reactive than ground-state oxygen
Conversely, Ca2 + can stimulate redox signalling, particu- [Module 2: Figure reactive oxygen species (ROS)]. These
larly within the mitochondrion, indicating that there are are sometimes considered synonymous with free radicals,
dynamic interactions operating between these signalling but not all ROS are free radicals. The latter are defined
pathways. as atoms or molecules that contain one or more unpaired
There are two main types of redox signalling. The first electrons. With regard to signalling, it is the O2 and
type is reactive oxygen species (ROS) signalling, which H2 O2 that appear to be the most important messengers.
depends on the formation of ROS. The second type is Also, there are indications that these two messengers may
reactive nitrogen species (RNS) signalling, which is carried perform different functions.
out by RNS and is linked to the nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic There are two important sources of reactive oxygen spe-
GMP signalling pathway. cies (ROS): one is at the plasma membrane and the other
is within the mitochondria (Module 2: Figure sites of ROS
formation).
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) signalling
ROS signalling has all the hallmarks of a classical signalling
mechanism. The second messengers are the reactive oxy- Superoxide (O2 )
gen species (ROS) formed in response to many agonists. The superoxide radical (O2 ) that is formed by the one-
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation depends on the electron reduction of O2 is short-lived (half-life of 10 6
stimulation of a NADPH oxidase that removes an electron s) in that it rapidly dismutates into hydrogen peroxide
from NADPH and adds it to oxygen to create superoxide (H2 O2 ). This conversion can occur spontaneously, but the
radical (O2 ), which is one of the ROS found in cells. reaction is greatly accelerated by the enzyme superoxide
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) rapidly converts the O2 dismutase (SOD).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r74
REDOX
SIGNAL SIGNALLING
PATHWAY
_
Messenger
formation
Messenger
SOD Catalase
O2 H O2 H O metabolism
2 2
Messenger
OH OH action
Oxidation
SH
S
SH
S Recovery
Reduction
Oxidation-sensitive
processes
Cellular
response
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r75
localized suggesting the existence of reactive oxygen spe- Ca2 + acting through protein kinase C (PKC), which phos-
cies (ROS) microdomains. phorylates p47phox , one of the cytoplasmic components of
NADPH oxidase, to bring about the assembly of the mul-
ticomponent complex. Non-phagocytic cells that generate
Plasma membrane reactive oxygen species (ROS)
ROS for signalling use a similar, but genetically distinct,
formation
NADPH oxidase called Nox1, which plays a significant
A large number of receptors responding to external sig-
role in redox signalling in proliferation and cancer.
nals stimulate the formation of reactive oxygen species
In phagocytes, the O2 is released to the outside of the
(ROS), including cytokine receptors (tumour necrosis
cell, where it is able to attack invading micro-organisms,
factor , interleukin-1 and interferon-), growth factor
whereas, in non-phagocytic cells, it functions as a mes-
receptors [platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), epi-
senger to activate a signalling cascade on the inside of the
dermal growth factor (EGF) and basic fibroblast growth
cell (Module 2: Figure plasma membrane ROS formation).
factor (bFGF) receptors] and G protein-coupled receptors
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) rapidly converts the O2
(GPCRs) (5-hydroxytryptamine, bradykinin, angiotensin
into hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), which appears to be the
II, thrombin and endothelin receptors). Just how all these
primary messenger molecule of this redox signalling path-
receptors are coupled to the formation of ROS is still some-
way.
what uncertain, but there is increasing evidence that the
mechanism might resemble that found in phagocytic cells.
In phagocytes, external signals acting through cell- NADPH oxidase
surface receptors stimulate the PtdIns 3-kinase signalling The NADPH oxidase (NOX/DUOX) family (Module 2:
pathway to form the lipid messenger PtdIns3,4,5P3 Table redox signalling components) consists of a number
(Module 2: Figure PtdIns 3-kinase signalling), which then of enzymes with different cellular locations.
acts through Rac to stimulate NADPH oxidase. This mul- NOX2, also known as gp91phox , has been described best
ticomponent enzyme uses NADPH as an electron donor for phagocytes, where it is made up of a number of sub-
to carry out the first step of ROS formation i.e. the re- units. The catalytic component is cytochrome b558 , which
duction of oxygen to superoxide radical (O2 ) (Module is a heterodimer formed from gp91phox and p22phox . In
2: Figure plasma membrane ROS formation). In addition addition to this heterodimer, which is located in the mem-
to this activation through Rac, it seems that the enzyme brane, there are cytoplasmic components (e.g. p47phox ,
can also be regulated through diacylglycerol (DAG) and p67phox , Rap1A and Rac) that play a role in regulating
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r76
OO O2 Oxygen
e- REACTIVE OXYGEN
SPECIES (ROS)
OO O2
-. Superoxide
e-
H OO H H2 O2 Hydrogen
peroxide
e-
O H OH . Hydroxyl
radical
Paired electrons
Unpaired electrons
Formation and metabolism of the reactive oxygen species (ROS).
To understand the properties of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and how they are formed, it is best to begin with oxygen. Oxygen is a strong oxidizing
agent in that it has two unpaired electrons (e ; red dots), which have parallel spins (i.e. they spin in the same direction as indicated by the two black
arrows) and occupy separate -antibonding orbitals. Given that they have these unpaired electrons, oxygen qualifies as a free radical. However,
oxygen is relatively inert because, in order to react with another molecule, it has to accept a pair of electrons with antiparallel spins to fit into the empty
spaces in the orbitals. Because of this restriction, oxygen accepts electrons (e ) one at a time and this leads to the formation of the different ROS.
enzyme activity. The DUOX (dual oxidase) enzymes are accepting four electrons (e ) from cytochrome c oxidase:
sensitive to Ca2 + and play an important role in interacting
with the Ca2 + signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure ROS O2 +4e +4H+ 2H2 O
effects on Ca2+ signalling).
Mitochondrial energy metabolism is inherently dan-
There is a strong relationship between redox signalling
gerous, because the electron transport chain is somewhat
and schizophrenia during which the induction of NOX2
leaky in that some of the molecular oxygen is diverted into
may play an important role in triggering the formation
the formation of the superoxide radical (O2 ), which is
of the peroxynitrite that acts to inhibit NMDA receptor
then converted into hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) and the
function (Module 12: Figure schizophrenia).
hydroxyl radical (OH ). Such mitochondrial ROS may
play an important role in apoptosis by acting synergist-
Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) ically with Ca2 + to stimulate the formation of the mito-
formation chondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) (Module
Most of the electrons that enter the electron transport chain 5: Figure mitochondrial Ca2+ signalling). The formation
are transferred to oxygen in an orderly manner, but there is of mitochondrial ROS appears to be highly localized in
always a 12% leakage during which an electron is trans- that small superoxide flashes have been recorded in single
ferred directly to oxygen to form superoxide (O2 ) and mitochondria. This is another example of reactive oxygen
this is the source of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species species (ROS) microdomains.
(ROS) (Module 5: Figure mitochondrial Ca2+ signalling). ROS formation can also have a regenerative component
This orderly electron transfer to oxygen occurs during en- in that there is a process of ROS-induced ROS release
ergy metabolism, where oxygen is reduced to water by (RIRR).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r77
Agonist
NADPH oxidase
complex on the
plasma membrane
NADH
ROS
NAD+
HO
2
Growth
Cytokines factors Hormones
NADPH
oxidase
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r78
GSSG
Reduction
GSH Glu Cys Gly
Oxidation
S
H2O GSSG Grx-(SH) S
2
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r79
Catalase
2 H 2O2 2 H 2O + O2
GSH
peroxidase
H 2O2 + 2GSH 2 H 2O + GSSG
Peroxiredoxin
H 2O2 + Prx(SH) 2 H2 O + PrxS 2
2
Ca2 + signalling by altering the activity of the ion channels Glutathione (GSH)
that release Ca2 + . Glutathione (GSH) is a redox buffer that regulates the
cellular redox balance (Module 2: Figure GSH/GSSG
couple). GSH is a tripeptide consisting of glutamic acid,
cysteine and glycine. It is synthesized by two enzymes.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism First, there is glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL), which is
Like all other intracellular signalling molecules, ROS are made up of two subunits: a GCL catalytic subunit (GCLC)
metabolized rapidly. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) rapidly and a GCL modifier subunit (GCLM). The GCLC car-
converts superoxide radical (O2 ) into hydrogen per- ries out an ATP-dependent condensation reaction between
oxide (H2 O2 ), which is then metabolized by a number of cysteine and glutamate to form gamma-glutamylcysteine.
enzyme systems including catalase, glutathione peroxidase Secondly, a GSH synthetase (GSS), which is also known as
(GPx) and peroxiredoxin (Prx) (Module 2: Figure H2 O2 GSH S-transferase (GST), adds a glycine to the dipeptide
metabolism). gamma-glutamylcysteine to form GSH.
With so many enzyme systems co-operating to meta- A dysregulation of GSH metabolism has been implic-
bolize H2 O2 , it is likely that this messenger will have a ated in schizophrenia (Module 12: Figure schizophrenia)
highly restricted sphere of influence localized to its site of and in the role of inflammation in Alzheimers disease
production either at the plasma membrane or within the (Module 12: Figure inflammation in Alzheimers disease).
mitochondrion.
Glutathione peroxidase (GPx)
The glutathione peroxidase (GPx) family uses the reducing
Catalase power of glutathione to convert H2 O2 into water (Module
Catalase is a haem-containing protein that decomposes 2: Figure H2 O2 metabolism). GPx is one of the detoxifying
hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) to water and oxygen (Module enzymes induce by the nuclear response factor-1 (NRF-1).
2: Figure H2 O2 metabolism).
Most of the catalase in cells is found in peroxisomes, Peroxiredoxin (Prx)
thus restricting the role of the enzyme in dealing with the The peroxiredoxins (PrxI to PrxIV) are a family of small
H2 O2 generated during the redox signalling mechanism at antioxidant proteins that function to metabolize hydrogen
the plasma membrane. peroxide (H2 O2 ) to water, thus curtailing its messenger
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r80
Growth
Cytokines factors Hormones
PI 3-K PIP3
P NOX/DUOX
-SH Prx -SH 1
-SH Src
-SH
8
P H2 O2
PTP
O
H O H O
Prx
-SH -SH O S -SH
Prx
-SH 2 2 -SH O 6 ATP
-SH S
O
S Srx
Trx 2
S 5
Prx
-SOH -SH O
4
Prx
P S -SH
-SH -SOH
SH
-SH
Trx --S 3 SH S
Trx --S O
P
Prx
H S S H
S S
7
H O
2
Prx
S -SH -SH
Trx
S
-SH
-SH
Metabolism of H2 O2 by peroxiredoxin.
Peroxiredoxin (Prx) plays a major role in restricting the microdomain of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) that forms beneath the plasma membrane by rapidly
removing this messenger through a series of catalytic reactions as described in the text. Information adapted from Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., Vol. 17, Rhee,
S.G., Kang, S.W., Jeong, W., Chang, T.-S., Yang, K.-S. and Woo, H.A., Intracellular messenger function of hydrogen peroxide and its regulation by
peroxyredoxins, pp. 183189. Copyright (2005), with permission from Elsevier; see Rhee et al. 2005.
action. PrxI and PrxII are cytosolic, whereas Prx III is 8. The Prx system is very efficient at limiting the size of
found on mitochondria and PrxIV is on the endoplas- reactive oxygen species (ROS) microdomains. How-
mic reticulum. The operation of the catalytic cycle goes ever, cell-surface receptors are capable of enlarging this
through the following steps (Module 2: Figure perox- microdomain by inducing a local inactivation of Prx.
iredoxin catalytic cycles): The activated receptor, perhaps acting through the non-
receptor protein kinase Src, brings about an inactiva-
tion of the Prx molecules in the local vicinity by phos-
phorylating Prx on Tyr-194 thus enabling the plume of
1. H2 O2 is generated near the plasma membrane when
H2 O2 to spread away from the receptor.
the PtdIns3,4,5P3 (PIP3 ) formed by receptor activation
stimulates NADPH oxidase. The reducing equivalents derived from thioredoxin
2. H2 O2 interacts with the reduced cysteine residues (Trx) are used to regenerate Prx-(SH)2 :
(Cys-SH) in the N-terminal regions of the thioredoxin
(Trx) dimers to form two oxidized sulphenic residues Prx-S2 +Trx-(SH)2 Prx-(SH)2 +Trx-S2
(Cys-SOH). When Prx1 in mice is knocked out, animals develop
3. The Cys-SOH can then interact with the conserved haemolytic anaemia and malignant cancers.
Cys-SH on the C-terminal regions of the neighbouring
dimer to form two intermolecular disulphides.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) messenger action
4. The Prx disulphide is converted back into the reduced
The primary action of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) is to
form by Trx, which is regenerated by thioredoxin re-
reversibly oxidize a variety of target proteins with a high
ductase (Module 2: Figure recovery of protein oxida-
degree of specificity (Steps 17 in Module 2: Figure revers-
tion).
ible and irreversible ROS oxidations):
5. The sulphenic residues formed by Reaction 2 can un-
dergo hyperperoxidation by interacting with further 1. The primary action of H2 O2 is to oxidize the hyperre-
molecules of H2 O2 to form the sulphinic acid residues. active cysteine to form a sulphenic acid group (-SOH),
6. This hyperperoxidation reaction can be reversed by a which can be metabolized further along a number of
reaction that requires ATP catalysed by the enzyme pathways.
sulphiredoxin (Srx). 2. The sulphenic acid residue can interact with nitrogen on
7. The phosphorylated intermediate is reduced back to a neighbouring serine residue to form an intramolecular
the reduced form of Prx by the Trx system. cyclic sulphenyl amide as occurs during the oxidation of
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r81
Protein
substrate
NH
*
S
N
Grx and Trx
systems
SH S 8
H O
H2 O 2 2
1 SH
H 2O 2
NH NH
Sulphenic H O
acid SOH 2
3
S
SH S
H2 O 2
5 GSH 4 NH
H 2O
SSG
NH H O
Sulphinic 2
acid SO H SH
2
7
SH
Srx NH O
H2 O 2
S
6 ATP PO4
H 2O
NH SH
Sulphonic
acid SO H
3
SH
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) messenger action through the reversible oxidation of target proteins.
The target protein (blue) undergoes a variety of oxidative covalent modifications, some of which induce the conformational changes responsible for
mediating a variety of oxidation-sensitive processes. The target proteins that are modified by reactive oxygen species (ROS) have a hyperreactive
cysteine thiolate anion (asterisk) that is highly sensitive to oxidation by H2 O2 to initiate a cascade of reactions as described in the text.
protein tyrosine phosphatases (Module 2: Figure ROS itivity to mild oxidizing agents, such as H2 O2 . Most of
formation and action). the cysteine residues in proteins have a high acidic con-
3. The sulphenic acid residue can be converted into an stant (i.e. pK a values of approximately 8.5), which means
intramolecular disulphide bond with the elimination of that they are resistant to attack by H2 O2 . However, some
water. of the cysteine residues, particularly those located next to
4. The sulphenic acid residue can interact with glutathione positively charged amino acids, have pK a values between
(GSH) to form an intermolecular disulphide bond. 4 and 5 and thus exist as a thiolate anion (Cys-S ), which
5. The sulphenic acid residue can undergo hyperperoxid- is very vulnerable to oxidation, and these have been re-
ation by interacting with another molecule of H2 O2 to ferred to as hyperreactive cysteine residues (the S group
form a sulphinic acid intermediate (Cys-SO2 H). marked with an asterisk in Module 2: Figure reversible and
6. The sulphinic acid intermediate undergoes further hy- irreversible ROS oxidations).
perperoxidation to form the sulphonic acid intermedi- The sulphenic acid intermediate is somewhat unstable
ate (Cys-SO3 H). and can be converted into a number of intermediates by
7. The sulphinic acid group (Cys-SO2 H) can be reduced either eliminating water or causing it to interact with GSH
by a reaction that requires ATP and is catalysed by the (Reactions 2, 3 and 4 in Module 2: Figure reversible and ir-
enzyme sulphiredoxin (Srx). reversible ROS oxidations). In addition, sulphenic acid can
be oxidized further by H2 O2 to sulphinic acid and sulph-
The various oxidated intermediates can be converted onic acid. The formation of sulphinic acid is reversible
back into the initial reduced state by either the thioredoxin through a reaction that requires ATP and sulphiredoxin
(Trx) or the glutaredoxin (Grx) system (Module 2: Figure (Srx). However, the final step to form sulphonic acid is
recovery of protein oxidation). irreversible and can result in serious damage and has been
These oxidation processes can occur through a num- implicated in the ageing process. One idea is that this ir-
ber of mechanisms. What is remarkable about this process reversible change may accumulate with time and the pro-
is its specificity. Only a subset of proteins are modified, gressive damage may result in ageing.
and within these there is a high degree of specificity in There is a suggestion that the hyperperoxidation reac-
that only certain thiols are modified. How is it that an tions that lead to the irreversible oxidation may be avoided
oxidizing agent such as H2 O2 is able to seek out and se- by an internal reaction whereby the sulphenic acid is rap-
lectively modify specific target proteins?The answer lies idly converted into a sulphenylamide species by interacting
in the fact that proteins vary considerably in their sens- with the main-chain nitrogen atom of an adjacent serine
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r82
Growth
factors
Cytokines Hormones
NOX/DUOX
Formation of H2 O2 and its action to regulate phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP) and phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromo-
some 10 (PTEN).
The hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) formed by the NADPH oxidase (NOX)/DUOX (dual oxidase) complex creates a microdomain in which it can inactivate
enzymes involved in various signalling pathways: 1. The phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP) that dephosphorylates various signalling proteins is
inactivated following its oxidation by H2 O2 ; 2. The inositol lipid phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN), which
dephosphorylates the lipid second messenger PtdIns3,4,5P3 , is inactivated following its oxidation by H2 O2 . These two enzymes can be reactivated
following their reduction by the thioredoxin (Trx) system (Module 2: Figure recovery of protein oxidation).
residue (Step 2 in Module 2: Figure reversible and irrevers- based on the thioredoxin (Trx) and glutaredoxin (Grx)
ible ROS oxidations). The formation of this sulphenyl- systems (Module 2: Figure recovery of protein oxidation).
amide intermediate protects against further oxidation, and Although the two systems have much in common, there
the enzyme can be reactivated by converting the intermedi- are some differences, not least of which are their substrate
ate back into a thiol group via a mixed disulphide reaction specificity and the kinds of disulphide bonds that they
involving GSH. can reduce. For example, Trx is more effective at reducing
Two of the main signalling molecules whose activities protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B than is Grx.
are reduced by oxidation are the protein tyrosine phos- Trx and Grx exist in a reduced or oxidized state, and
phatases and phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted it is the former that enables them to reduce their sub-
on chromosome 10 (PTEN) (Module 2: Figure ROS form- strates. In doing so, they become oxidized and have to be
ation and action). An analysis of tyrosine phosphatase converted back into a reduced state by the Trx and Grx
structure and function reveals the presence of a hyperre- systems respectively. In the case of Trx, this is carried out
active cysteine residue in the catalytic domain that is sens- by thioredoxin reductase. The Grx system is somewhat
itive to oxidants resulting in inactivation of the enzyme. more complicated in that it depends upon glutathione that
Other examples of proteins that have such hypersensitive is regenerated by a glutathione reductase.
residues include the cell cycle regulatory enzyme Cdc25C, The level of Trx is markedly elevated during rheumatoid
the Ca2 + -release channels ryanodine receptors (RYRs) arthritis and this may influence the rate of secretion of
and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3 Rs). The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs).
specificity with which this redox signalling system exerts
its effects therefore depends on the fact that H2 O2 will
only modify hyperreactive cysteine residues that exist in Thioredoxin (Trx)
these target proteins of the different oxidation-sensitive Thioredoxin (Trx) is a redox buffer that operates together
processes. with thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and NADPH to regu-
late the redox state of many different proteins (Module 2:
Figure recovery of protein oxidation). It is a major dithiol
Recovery of oxidation-sensitive processes reductase that functions to re-activate signalling proteins
Like other signalling pathways, there are mechanisms in such as tyrosine phosphatases and PTEN (Module 2: Fig-
place for the recovery of oxidation-sensitive processes ure ROS formation and action). One of its other functions
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r83
THIOREDOXIN SYSTEM
Glucose 100 M 1 M 1-20 M
NADPH TrxR-(SH) Trx-(SH)2 S
2
S
Pentose
cycle SH
GLUTAREDOXIN SYSTEM
100 M 1 M 1-10mM 1 - 20 M
NADPH GrxR-(SH) GSH Grx-(SH) S
2 2
S
SH
is to re-juvenate the peroxiredoxins (Prxs), which are a and thus contributes to the increase in redox signalling in
family of small antioxidant proteins that function to meta- schizophrenia (Module 12: Figure schizophrenia).
bolize hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) to water, thus curtail-
ing its messenger action (Module 2: Figure peroxiredoxin Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR)
catalytic cycles). Trx also plays a role in the denitrosylation Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) together with thioredoxin
reaction (Module 2: Figure NO and cGMP signalling). (Trx) is an important oxidoreductase system that has a
One of the functions of Trx is to regulate apoptosis significant role in regulating the redox state (Module 2:
signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1). Reduced Trx-(SH)2 is Figure recovery of protein oxidation).
known to bind to ASK1, but when it is oxidized to Trx-S2 , Trx reductase is unusual in that it contains seleno-
the ASK1 is released, and proceeds to induce apoptosis. cysteine (SeCys) located in the C-terminal active site,
Thioredoxin-2 (Trx-2) is a mitochondrial-specific mem- which has a highly conserved -Gly-Cys-SeCys-Gly- se-
ber of the Trx family. It functions together with mito- quence. The N-terminal region contains flavinadenine
chondrial thioredoxin reductase 2 (TrxR2) to regulate the dinucleotide (FAD). The enzyme operates by transferring
mitochondrial membrane potential and contributes to the electrons from NADPH to FAD and then on to the active
inhibition of apoptosis by regulating the nitrosylation site in the C-terminus.
levels of the mitochondrial caspases. Activation of the The level of Trx reductase is greatly increased in vari-
FAS signalling system can increase the activity of Trx2, ous tumour cells, where it may play an important role
which switches the balance towards the more active de- in inhibiting apoptosis by regulating the activity of Trx
nitrosylated form of the caspases. that inhibits apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1).
Expression of the thioredoxin-interacting protein An enhanced level of TrxR may prevent apoptosis by en-
(Txnip), which binds to Trx and inhibits its participation suring that the Trx remains reduced to ensure that ASK1
in the denitrosylation reaction, is reduced in schizophrenia remains inactive.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r84
The ability of this thioredoxin system to reverse redox Many cancer cells are known to use ROS to control
signalling is inhibited by Ca2 + , which acts to convert a their proliferation. There are five human homologues of
large proportion of the reduced Trx-(SH)2 into its ox- Nox1. When Nox1 is overexpressed in fibroblasts, there
idized form. Such an action would enhance the growth- is an increase in proliferation and tumour formation. The
promoting activity of the redox signalling system. addition of antioxidants can reduce the growth of cancer
Thioredoxin-2 (Trx-2) is a mitochondria-specific mem- cells.
ber of the Trx family. It functions to regulate the mitochon- Many cancer cells, like a number of stem cells, have en-
drial membrane potential and contributes to the inhibition hanced ROS defences in the form of elevated levels of GSH
of apoptosis. and thioredoxin, which make them particularly resistant to
apoptosis. Thioredoxin may also play a role in increasing
Glutathione reductase the expression of the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-
Glutathione reductase is responsible for converting oxid- 1), resulting in an increase in vascular endothelial growth
ized GSSG back into the reduced GSH (Module 2: Figure factor (VEGF) and tumour angiogenesis.
recovery of protein oxidation):
Redox signalling in apoptosis
GSSG + NADPH + H+ 2GSH + NADP+
In addition to playing a role in cell proliferation, there
is a darker side to reactive oxygen species (ROS) in that
Oxidation-sensitive processes
they can also activate apoptosis. One of the actions of
The redox signalling pathway acts to regulate a vari-
redox signalling is that it contributes to Ca2+ -induced ap-
ety of oxidation-sensitive processes (Module 2: Figure
optosis at the level of the mitochondria. The uptake of
plasma membrane ROS formation). The cellular pro-
Ca2 + and the resulting increase in ROS formation act syn-
teins that are sensitive to oxidation are those that contain
ergistically to open the mitochondrial permeability trans-
hyperreactive cysteine residues. One of the main func-
ition pore (MTP) (Module 5: Figure mitochondrial Ca2+
tions of redox signalling is to modulate the activity of
signalling). ROS can also increase apoptosis by stimulat-
other signalling systems that contain protein compon-
ing the acidic sphingomyelinases (SMases) that produce
ents with such hyperreactive cysteine residues, e.g. Ca2 + -
ceramide (Module 2: Figure sphingomyelin signalling).
releasing channels [inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors
Cells have different ways of suppressing this ROS-
(InsP3 Rs) and ryanodine receptors (RYRs)], transcription
induced apoptosis. One mechanism is carried out by
factors, protein tyrosine phosphatases and by activating
PtdIns 3-kinase signalling during which protein kinase
the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MTP) to
B (PKB) plays a prominent role through the Forkhead
induce apoptosis. As so many key signalling functions are
box O 3a (FOXO3a) transcription factor, which acts
being influenced, it is not surprising to find that there is a
by increasing the amount of manganese superoxide dis-
role for redox signalling in many cellular processes:
mutase (MnSOD) to provide greater protection against
redox signalling in proliferation and cancer ROS (Module 4: Figure FOXO control mechanisms).
redox signalling in apoptosis An overactive redox signalling system may contribute
redox signalling and DNA damage to the increase in neuronal cell death that characterizes
redox signalling in vascular homoeostasis Alzheimers disease (Module 12: Figure astrocyte-induced
redox signalling and gene transcription neuronal death) and Downs syndrome.
redox signalling and modulation of Ca2+ signalling
redox signalling in schizophrenia Redox signalling and DNA damage
redox signalling and ageing One of the major pathological consequences of excess ROS
formation is DNA damage. When this damage occurs dur-
Redox signalling in proliferation and cancer ing the G1 phase of the cell cycle, specific repair mechan-
One of the main actions of redox signalling is to con- isms function to repair the damage and they also induce
trol growth. During the action of many growth factors the process of G1 checkpoint signalling to DNA double-
there is an increase in the production of hydrogen peroxide strand breaks (DSBs) (Module 9: Figure G1 checkpoint
(H2 O2 ) (Module 2: Figure plasma membrane ROS form- signalling).
ation), which facilitates growth factor signalling by in-
hibiting tyrosine phosphatases and the tumour suppressor Redox signalling in vascular homoeostasis
phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromo- Hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) may function as an
some 10 (PTEN). The latter inhibits the hydrolysis of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) that
PtdIns3,4,5P3 (PIP3 ), which functions in cell migration, diffuses across to relax neighbouring smooth muscle cells.
proliferation and survival. H2 O2 inactivates PTEN by in- This action may be particularly important in regulating the
ducing a disulphide bond to form between Cys-124 in the tone of cerebral arteries.
active site and Cys-71. This disulphide is specifically re-
versed by thioredoxin. A reversible inactivation of PTEN Redox signalling and gene transcription
may thus contribute to the accumulation of PIP3 , which The redox signalling pathway has been implicated in the
will thus set up a positive-feedback loop, since the forma- control of gene transcription, particularly with regard to
tion of PIP3 is responsible for stimulating the production the activation of nuclear factor B (NF-B). Whether this
of H2 O2 . activation is due to a direct modulation of the transcription
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r85
factor by messengers such as H2 O2 or indirectly through tem by inhibiting the thioredoxin reductase that normally
activation of other signalling pathways remains to be de- switches off redox signalling.
termined.
A large number of other transcription factors and pro- Redox signalling effects on Ca2 + signalling
teins [activating protein 1 (AP-1), DJ-1, specificity protein There are numerous examples of redox signalling acting
1 (Sp1), c-Myb, p53 and Egr-1] are redox-sensitive. Many to enhance Ca2 + signalling. For example, the two Ca2 +
of these have a highly conserved cysteine residue located release channels ryanodine receptors (RYRs) and the InsP3
within their DNA-binding domains that has to be reduced receptors (InsP3 Rs) can be activated by oxidation of key
in order for the factor to bind DNA (Module 4: Figure cysteine residues. In the case of the latter, the oxidizing
SRF and AP-1). In theory, therefore, such factors would agent thimerosal faithfully reproduces the Ca2 + transi-
be inhibited by oxidation. There is a nuclear redox factor 1 ents normally induced by sperm fusion during fertilization
(Ref-1) that functions to control transcription by reducing (Module 2: Figure thimerosal-induced Ca2+ signalling).
this cysteine. Redox signalling can also influence Ca2 + homoeostasis by
HDAC oxidation is an important mechanism used to oxidizing the plasma membrane Ca2+ -ATPase (PMCA),
control chromatin remodelling and gene transcription. which will result in an elevation of the resting level of
Ca2 + . Such a mechanism may be particularly relevant for
DJ-1 the effect of inflammation in Alzheimers disease (Module
DJ-1 has come to prominence as one of the autosomal 12: Figure inflammation and Alzheimers disease).
recessive genes responsible for familial Parkinsons disease Another example is that hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) can
(PD). It is a small protein (189 amino acids) and it appears markedly enhance Ca2 + signalling by inhibiting the Src
to function as a dimer. It also has a propensity to bind to homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing protein tyrosine
other proteins such as Parkin and mortalin. The precise phosphatase-1 (SHP-1), which normally acts to keep in
function of DJ-1 is not fully understood, but it seems to check the protein tyrosine phosphorylation cascade that
play a role either as an antioxidant protein or to enable occurs during B cell receptor (BCR) activation (Module 2:
cells to respond to oxidant stress. One of its functions Figure ROS effects on Ca2+ signalling). This is a reciprocal
is to increase the expression of the uncoupling protein 4 interaction because it is the increase in Ca2 + that activates
(UCP4) and uncoupling protein 5 (UCP5) channels to leak the formation of H2 O2 through a Ca2 + -dependent activ-
H + that depolarizes the inner mitochondrial membrane ation of dual oxidase (DUOX). This is a good example of
potential to reduce respiration and the damaging effects the cross-talk that can exist between signalling pathways.
of excess Ca2 + (Module 12: Figure signalling pathways in
Parkinsons disease). Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S)
The expression of DJ-1 is regulated by specificity pro- Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) is one of the gasotransmitters,
tein 1 (Sp1), through mechanisms that are tightly regulated which include nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide
by histone deacetylases (HDACs) that deacylate histones (CO), that functions to regulate numerous cellular pro-
H3 and H4 and suppress transcription. Inhibition of these cesses. The synthesis of H2 S is catalysed by a number of
HDACs by phenylbutyrate has been shown to alleviate pathways (Module 2: Figure H2 S generation):
some of the symptoms of PD by increasing the expression
of DJ-1. 1. Cystathionine -synthase (CBS) acts on L-cysteine to
One of the actions of DJ-1 is to stabilize nuclear factor release H2 S. The CBS is mainly localized in the brain
erythroid 2 related factor 2 (NRF-2) by inhibiting its in- (astrocytes and neurons) but not in the microglia.
teraction with Keap1 and thus reducing the degradation of 2. Cystathionine -lyase (CSE) liberates H2 S from L-
NRF-2 (Module 4: Figure p62 function). cysteine using vitamin B6 as a cofactor. The CSE is
expressed in the cardiovascular system.
Redox factor 1 (Ref-1) 3. The two-step process begins with L-cysteine and -
Ref-1 plays a role in the nucleus to promote gene tran- ketoglutarate being converted into 3 mercaptopyr-
scription (Module 4: Figure SRF and AP-1) and to protect uvate (3MP) using vitamin B6 as a cofactor. -
cells against oxidative stress. There is a possibility that it Mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3MST) then lib-
might also have a function within the cytoplasm to reduce erates H2 S from 3MP. D-cysteine can also be used to
the Rac-1-regulated production of reactive oxygen species generate H2 S following its conversion into 3MP by D-
(ROS). amino acid oxidase (DAO). The MST is localized in
various neurons (cerebellar Purkinje neurons, hippo-
Redox signalling and modulation of Ca2 + signalling campal and mitral neurons), aortic endothelium and
There are reciprocal interactions operating between the smooth muscle cells.
redox and Ca2 + signalling pathways. There are Ca2+ sig-
nalling effects on redox signalling and there are redox sig- The way in which the formation of H2 S is regulated is
nalling effects on Ca2+ signalling. unclear, but there is evidence that an elevation in cytosolic
Ca2 + can inhibit some of the enzymes such as CSE, 3MST
Ca2 + signalling effects on redox signalling and CAT (Module 2: Figure H2 S generation).
One of the actions of Ca2 + is to enhance redox signalling H2 S acts through an S-sulfhydration reaction (Module
by interfering with the recovery of the oxidation-sensitive 2: Figure H2 S generation) to modify specific cysteine
processes. Ca2 + acts by turning down the thioredoxin sys- residues in target proteins such as actin, -tubulin and
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r86
glyceraldehyde dehydrogenase (GAPDH). Another tar- A decline in the levels of H2 S may contribute to various
get is protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), which is bronchial diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive
located on the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. One pulmonary disease (COPD).
of its functions is to regulate the activity of protein kinase
RNAlike endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), that has
a role in regulating protein synthesis through its ability to
Mitogen-activated protein kinase
phosphorylate the eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF-2)
(MAPK) signalling
(Module 9: Figure regulation of eIF-2 cycling).
H2 S is an important signalling molecule that can reg- Overview
ulate multiple processes: neuronal synaptic transmission, The multifunctional mitogen-activated protein kinase
smooth muscle relaxation, insulin secretion and inflam- (MAPK) signalling system consists of separate pathways
matory responses. Vasorelaxation was one of the first sig- that function to control a number of different cellular pro-
nalling functions identified for H2 S that seems to mediate cesses such as gene transcription, metabolism, motility, cell
its action through the ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP ) channels, proliferation, apoptosis, synaptic plasticity and long-term
but is now known to regulate many other smooth muscle memory. These different downstream effectors are activ-
cell processes. For example, there also are indications that ated by the final MAPK components associated with the
H2 S may act as an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor three main signalling pathways:
(InsP3 R) antagonist to reduce the release of Ca2 + from
the ER (Module 3: Figure InsP3 R regulation) and this may Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway
play a particularly important role in airway smooth muscle c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway
cells. p38 pathway
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r87
Antigen
BCR
PtdIns4,5P
2 DUOX O2
P PLC2
P P
BLNK
P P
P P P
P IP3
Lyn
P H2O2
Syk
P
P Btk Ca
2+ +
SHP1
SHP1
SHP1
_ _
_
Reciprocal interaction between the ROS and Ca2 + signalling pathways during B cell receptor (BCR) activation.
Cross-linking the B cell receptor (BCR) with antigen sets up a protein phosphorylation cascade that begins with Lyn phosphorylating both the receptor
and Syk. The latter then binds to the phosphorylated receptor, where it phosphorylates the adaptor protein B cell linker (BLNK) and the tyrosine kinase
Brutons tyrosine kinase (Btk). The latter phosphorylates BLNK and phospholipase C2 (PLC2), which associates with BLNK and begins to hydrolyse
PtdIns4,5P2 to form inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3 ). This phosphorylation cascade is kept in check by the tyrosine phosphatase Src homology 2
(SH2) domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-1 (SHP-1). One of the functions of the Ca2 + released by IP3 is to set up a positive-feedback
loop based on the activation of the Ca2 + -sensitive enzyme dual oxidase (DUOX) that generates hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ). The latter feeds back to
inhibit SHP-1, which enables the signalling cascade to work more effectively in generating Ca2 + signals. This formation of H2 O2 is highly localized as
a microdomain in the immediate vicinity of the BCR (Module 2: Figure ROS microdomains). This figure is based on information taken from Singh et
al. 2005.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r88
BCR
Resting
SHP1 DUOX SHP1
Lyn
SHP1
BLNK
SHP1 SHP1 SHP1 SHP1
SHP1 PLC IP3
Syk
Btk
SHP1 SHP1
SHP1 2+ SHP1
SHP1 Ca
SHP1
SHP1 SHP1 SHP1
SHP1 SHP1
SHP1 SHP1 SHP1
SHP1
Antigen
Stimulated
DUOX
SHP1 SHP1
Lyn
SHP1
BLNK
SHP1 SHP1 SHP1 SHP1
SHP1
Syk PLC IP3
SHP1 SHP1
Btk
SHP1 SHP1
SHP1
SHP1 2+
H O microdomain
SHP1
SHP1
2 2 Ca
SHP1
SHP1 SHP1 SHP1 SHP1
SHP1 SHP1
SHP1 SHP1
PROLIFERATION
L-cysteine -
H2O
Ca 2+
NH 3
Vitamin B 6 CSE
Pyruvate -
2
L-glutamate
1
3
L-cysteine CBS Hydrogen 3MST 3MP CAT L-cysteine
sulfide
(H2S) Vitamin B 6
DAO
H2O L-serine -ketoglutarate
S-sulfhydration D-cysteine
S SH
S S SH
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r89
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r90
whereas DAG and Ca2 + act through protein kinase C function as a scaffold to bring together components of the
(PKC). JNK pathway such as MKP7 and JNK3.
One of the major functions of the ERK pathway is The MAPK signalling system operates a negative-
to activate a range of different transcription factors such feedback loop in that some of the genes activated by the
as cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) JNK pathway code for signalling components such as the
(Module 4: Figure CREB activation) and Elk-1 (Module scaffold protein JNK-interacting protein 1 (JIP1), which
4: Figure ETS activation). will bind JNK and thus limits its action.
This ERK pathway contributes to the control of a large This JNK pathway contributes to the control of a large
number of cellular processes: number of cellular processes:
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r91
Transducers
Grb2 SOS Rac Cdc42 Rac Cdc42
Ras Rho
Effectors Ets, Elk1, SAP1 c-Jun, Jun-B, Jun-D, ATF2, Ets, MEF2,
cPLA2 ATF2, Elk1 SAP1, MAPKAP2
Growth factors
GPCR PTKR
P
cPLA2 +
ERK1/2
PL
Arachidonic
acid P
ERK1/2
P MKP-1
Negative
ETS SAP1 ELK1 feedback
MKP1 loop
Proliferation
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r92
Interleukin-1
GPCR
P MEKK1 G12/13
JIP1
P MKK7
PI3K-
P
JNK
P
Cytochrome c
JNK
Caspases
Negative feedback
loop
APOPTOSIS P ?
JNK
P
Proliferation,
embryonic development
The organization and topology of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway.
The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway can be activated in many ways, including via different receptor mechanisms and by various environmental
stresses such as osmotic, redox and radiation stress. These different inputs are transduced by separate mechanisms that all feed into the JNK
signalling cascade. With regard to receptor activation, the JNK pathway can be activated by various cytokines such as interleukin-1 as illustrated
here. The interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) is composed of two receptor-binding domains that interact with interleukin-1 and a non-binding accessory
protein. Once activated by interleukin-1, the IL-1R recruits the adaptor protein tumour-necrosis-factor-receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), which then
recruits the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK) called transforming growth factor -activated kinase 1 (TAK1) responsible for
initiating the phosphorylation cascade by phosphorylating MAPK/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase kinase 1 (MEKK1). The MEKK1
then phosphorylates the dual-specificity protein kinase MAPK kinase 7 (MKK7) responsible for phosphorylating the tyrosine and threonine residues on
JNK. This activation cascade occurs in the vicinity of the plasma membrane, where it is organized by the scaffolding protein JNK-interacting protein 1
(JIP1). Once JNK is phosphorylated, it leaves the multimolecular activation complex and then diffuses into the nucleus, where it activates transcription
factors responsible for controlling processes such as proliferation, apoptosis and embryonic development.
Mutations in the gene that encodes SPRED1, which will The Toll receptor signalling pathway provides an ex-
result in hyperactivation of the Ras/MAP kinase signalling ample of how the p38 pathway is activated by a Toll re-
pathway, causes neurofibromatosis type 1-like syndrome ceptor for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (Module 2: Figure Toll
(NFLS). receptor signalling).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r93
components, they are often activated by similar inputs [es- the basic theme of NF-B activation (i.e. Mechanism 2 in
pecially in the case of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) Module 4: Figure transcription factor activation).
and p38 pathways], and they can also regulate similar cel- There are two remarkable aspects of the NF-B sig-
lular processes. A question therefore arises as to how the nalling pathway. Firstly, it can control a very large number
fidelity of these signalling pathways is achieved in order of genes that are often activated as large cohorts in spe-
to reduce cross-talk and to ensure that they carry out cific cells by different stimuli. Secondly, it is used by a
their particular functions. It seems that much of this fi- number of different signalling systems with subtle vari-
delity is achieved by using molecular scaffolds to hold ations in the mechanism and the components that are used
together all the components of each signalling pathway in to convey information into the nucleus. The tumour nec-
a multimolecular complex. In this way, information can rosis factor (TNF) signalling pathway and the Toll
be passed from one component to the next without inter- receptor signalling pathway will be described to illustrate
ference from other signalling pathways (Module 6: Figure the main features of the NF-B signalling pathway. The
signalling hierarchies). Examples of such scaffolds are the receptor activator of nuclear factor B (NF-B) ligand
scaffolding proteins kinase suppressor of Ras 1 (KSR1) (RANKL), which is a transmembrane protein that belongs
(Module 2: Figure ERK signalling) and JNK-interacting to the TNF family of cytokines, activates the RANKL re-
protein 1 (JIP1) (Module 2: Figure JNK signalling). ceptor (RANK) that uses the NF-B signalling pathway
Other determinants of fidelity are the docking sites to control osteoclastogenesis (Module 8: Figure osteoclast
that enable the different mitogen-activated protein kinases differentiation).
(MAPKs) to bind to their specific downstream effectors.
Nuclear factor B (NF-B) signalling toolkit
Phenotypic remodelling of the mitogen-activated The NF-B signalling toolkit is composed of four main
protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway classes of signalling components (Module 2: Table NF-B
The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling signalling toolkit).
pathway operates autoregulatory loops in that the dif-
ferent signalling pathways can regulate the expression Nuclear factor B (NF-B)/Rel family
of their own signalling components. For example, the The nuclear factor B (NF-B)/Rel family consists of
extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway can five members (Module 2: Table NF-B signalling toolkit).
regulate the expression of MAPK phosphatase 1 (MKP1) There is some confusion concerning the nomenclature of
(Module 2: Figure ERK signalling), whereas the c-Jun N- this family. The notations shown at the beginning of the
terminal kinase (JNK) pathway induces the expression of table (p50, p52, p65, RelB and c-Rel) will be used here.
JNK-interacting protein 1 (JIP1) (Module 2: Figure JNK All members of the family share an N-terminal Rel ho-
signalling). This induction of MKP1 and JIP1 effectively mology domain (RHD), which binds to DNA (Module
set up negative-feedback loops that limit the activity of the 2: Figure NF-B, IB and IKK structure). The RHD is
MAPK signalling pathway, and is an example of signalsome also used to associate NF-B with the inhibitor of nuclear
stability. factor B (NF-B) (IB) proteins. The NF-B/Rel family
Phenotypic remodelling of the MAPK signalsome may of transcription factors normally function as heterodimers,
result in the abnormal cell proliferation observed in and the p50/p65 complex was the first to be discovered.
polycystic kidney disease (Module 12: Figure polycystins Some of the family members can form homodimers, such
and polycystic kidney disease). as p50/p50 and p52/p52, and these act as repressors of
NF-B-sensitive genes.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r94
Module 2: Table NF-B signalling toolkit rosis factor (TNF). It is considered to be one of the
The nuclear factor B (NF-B) signalling toolkit classical mechanisms as illustrated by the following se-
Nuclear factor B (NF-B) quence of events (Module 2: Figure NF-B activation):
transcription system Comments
NF-B/Rel family of
transcription factors 1. Occupation of the TNF receptor (TNF-R) by TNF
p50 (NF-B1) p50 has a p105 precursor protein induces receptor oligomerization to form a complex
p52 (NF-B2) p52 has a p100 precursor protein
p65 (NF-B3, also known as that attracts the adaptors TRADD and the TNFR-
RelA) associated factor 2 (TRAF2), which is an adaptor
RelB that belongs to the TNF-receptor-associated factor
c-Rel
Inhibitor of NF-B (IB) family (TRAF) family.
IB Bind to p65 and c-Rel 2. TRAF2 is a RING domain E3 ubiquitin ligase that as-
IB sociates with the heterotrimeric ubiquitin-conjugating
IB
IB (E2) complex that contains Ubc13 and Uev1A. This
IB Binds preferentially to p50 is a K63 ubiquitinating complex that adds ubiquitin
Bcl3 B cell lymphoma 3 binds to chains to TRAF2 and this then helps to recruit the
p50/p50 and p53/p53
homodimers. receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1), which is also
Inhibitor of NF-B (IB) ubiquitinated. These ubiquitin chains provide an im-
kinases (IKKs) portant scaffolding role in the assembly of additional
IKK
IKK elements of the signal transduction pathway. For ex-
NEMO (IKK) A regulatory subunit responsible ample TRAF2 interacts with apoptosis signal-regulat-
for the interaction with ing kinase 1 (ASK1) that then relays information to
upstream kinases on the
receptor complex (Module 2: both the JNK signalling and p38 signalling pathways
Figure NF-B activation) 3. The developing receptor complex attracts additional
Associated proteins components such as the transforming growth factor
Cdc37
Hsp90 activated kinase-1 (TAK1), the TAK1-binding (TAB)
proteins 1 to 3 (TAB1-3) and the multisubunit cyto-
plasmic complex containing the inhibitor of NF-B
by the proteasome. The kinase domain is located in the (IB) kinase (IKK) /IKK dimer and the regulatory
N-terminus, whereas the C-terminus has leucine zipper NF-B essential modifier (NEMO) subunit, which is
and helixloophelix domains (Module 2: Figure NF-B, a central player in this translocation sequence.
IB and IKK structure). These two protein-association do- 4. Once this complex is complete, the TAK1 phos-
mains enable the enzyme to associate with a large multisub- phorylates and activates IKK.
unit complex in the cytoplasm. Another important com- 5. The IKK then phosphorylates IB on two sites
ponent of this complex is nuclear factor B (NF-B) es- (Ser-32 and Ser-36).
sential modulator (NEMO) (IKK), which is a regulat- 6. The phosphorylated IB is then susceptible to ubi-
ory/structural subunit responsible for the interaction with quitination by the Skp1/cullin/F-box (SCF) ubiquitin
upstream kinases on the receptor as part of the tumour ligase.
necrosis factor (TNF) signalling pathway (Module 2: 7. The polyubiquitinated IB is then sent to the protea-
Figure NF-B activation). In the case of NF-B activa- some, where it is degraded, resulting in the liberation
tion in T-cells, the IKK is stimulated by protein kinase of the NF-B heterodimer p50/p65.
(PKC) using the scaffolding proteins CARMA1, Bcl10 8. The NF-B is imported into the nucleus, where it
and MALT1 (Module 9: Figure TCR signalling). binds to the B promoter elements to activate ex-
The tumour suppressor CYLD binds to NEMO and pression of many different genes (Module 4: Figure
inhibits the subsequent phosphorylation of IB as part of NF-B activation and function). One of these genes
the TNF signalling pathway. is hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), which thus
serves to link the innate immune response to the hyp-
Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) signalling oxic response.
pathway 9. Transcription ceases when NF-B is exported from
The basic operation of the nuclear factor B (NF-B)/Rel the nucleus. One of the genes activated by NF-B is
family of transcription factors is that they are activated IB, which thus sets up a negative-feedback loop,
in the cytoplasm and then translocate into the nucleus to because it binds to the NF-B that is exported from
activate transcription (mechanism 2 in Module 4: Figure the nucleus to reconstitute the inactive cytoplasmic
transcription factor activation). There are a number of vari- complex.
ations in the way that this translocation process is initiated, 10. The genotoxic stress activation of NF-B signalling
depending on the nature of the incoming signals and the represents an alternative signalling pathway that initi-
receptors that are being activated. In addition to the activ- ates in the nucleus. DNA damage activates the phos-
ation of NF-B, these non-enzyme-containing receptors phorylation of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM)
can activate other signalling pathways (Module 1: Figure (Module 9: Figure G1 checkpoint signalling) that
cytokines). In this section, attention will focus on the NF- then binds to NEMO and exports it into the cyto-
B signalling pathway, which is used by the tumour nec- plasm where it is polyubiquitinated by the linear
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r95
NF-B/Rel family
p65 RHD
c-Rel RHD
RelB RHD
p50 RHD
p52 RHD
Ankyrin repeat
IB family domain
IB
IB
IB
IB
Bcl3
IKK family
IKK Ser kinase ZIP HLH
Zn finger
ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) E3 li- Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-receptor-associated
gase, which consists of haem-oxidized IRP2 ubiquitin factor (TRAF) family
ligase-1 (HOIL-1L), HOIL-1P interacting protein The tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-receptor-associated
(HOIP), and shank-associated RH domain interact- factor (TRAF) family has seven members, which func-
ing protein (SHARPIN). The activity of LUBAC can tion in the signalling pathways of various TNF receptor
be enhanced by the ubiquitin E3 ligase Parkin. The superfamily and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor mechanisms.
polyubiquitinated NEMO then combines with the TRAF2 functions as an adaptor for the tumour necrosis
IKK/IKK dimer to initiate the activation of NF-B factor receptor (Module 2: Figure NF-B activation). In
as described above. the case of osteoclasts, it is TRAF6 that couples the
11. The ubiquitin signalling pathway contributes to receptor activator of nuclear factor B (NF-B) ligand
the recovery of this signalling cascade after TNF (RANKL) receptor (RANK) to downstream signalling
is withdrawn by removing the ubiquitin scaffolds pathways (Module 8: Figure osteoclast differentiation).
that hold together the transducing complex. The
deubiquitinating enzymes A20 and CYLD are par- Toll receptor signalling pathway
ticularly active in removing the ubiquitin chains. The The Toll receptor signalling pathway plays a cent-
reversible ubiquitination of signal transducing com- ral role in inflammatory responses (Module 11: Fig-
ponents is thus an essential part of the processing of ure inflammation). This pathway is activated by dif-
information by this TNF signalling pathway. ferent types of stimuli: cytokines, represented by
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r96
TNF TNF
TNFR TNF
1 Ubiquitin
DD
DD
DD
DD
DD
DD
DD
11
Ubc13/ Ubc13/
Uev1a Uev1a A20 Ubiquitin
TRAF2
TRAF2
TRAF2
TRADD 2 CYLD
ASK1 TAB1-3
RIP1 RIP1
JNK IKK NEMO TAB1-3 3 TAK1
p38 IKK TAK1
Proteasome P
NEMO
5 4
P P P P IKK IKK
IB 6
IB IB NEMO
p50 p65 p50 p65 p50 p65
7 9 HOIL-1L LUBAC
HOIP
p50 p65 NF-B IB SHARPIN
PARKIN
Export
Import 10 NEMO
IB
ATM
8 IL-6
CYLD P
p50 p65 A20 ATM
DNA
B HIF-1 damage NEMO
OPA1
The classicalnuclear factor B (NF-B) signalling pathway activated by the tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNFR).
The p50 and p65 isoforms of the nuclear factor B (NF-B)/Rel family form the NF-B dimer that is activated in the tumour necrosis factor (TNF)
signalling pathway. The activated TNF receptor (TNFR) recruits a signalling complex to the membrane (Steps 24), which contains the inhibitor of
NF-B (IB) kinase (IKK) /IKK dimer that is responsible for phosphorylating the IB subunit that retains p50/p65 in the cytoplasm (Step 5). When
the IB is phosphorylated, it is ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome (Steps 6 and 7). The p50/p65 homodimer is imported into the nucleus
(Step 8), where it activates a large number of genes. One of these genes codes for IB, which sets up a negative-feedback loop by exporting
p50/p65 from the nucleus (Step 9). Adapted from Trends Biochem. Sci., Vol. 30, Viatour, P., Merville, M.-P., Bours, V. and Chariot, A., Phosphorylation
of NF-B and IB proteins: implications in cancer and inflammation, pp. 4352. Copyright (2004), with permission from Elsevier; see Viatour et al.
2005.
interleukin-1 (IL-1), stimuli derived from pathogens that 1. The TLR4 is a transmembrane protein that has
are known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns leucine-rich repeats in its ectodomain, while the
(PAMPs) (Module 11: Figure formation and action of cytoplasmic domain has a Toll/interleukin 1 (IL-
PAMPs) and endogenous damage-associated molecular 1) receptor (TIR) domain. The lipopolysaccharide
patterns (DAMPS). The DAMPS and PAMPs act on (LPS) that initiates this signalling pathway binds first
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) to an extracellular LPS-binding protein (LBP) and
and these form a TLR/IL-1R family that act through a sim- to CD14, which is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-
ilar Toll receptor signalling pathway (Module 1: Figure cy- anchored membrane glycoprotein, and this complex
tokines). The primary function of this signalling pathway carries the LPS to the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).
is to stimulate the transcriptional processes that result in 2. The TIR domain on the TLR4 receptor forms ho-
the expression of a wide range of inflammatory cytokines mophilic interaction with the TIR domain of the
and immunoregulators (Module 2: Figure Toll receptor adaptor proteins TIR adaptor protein (TIRAP) and
signalling). As such, the Toll receptor signalling pathway MyD88. The latter is specific for certain TLRs, such
has to transmit information from the TLRs and the IL-1R as TLR4, but not others. The other end of these ad-
on the cell surface to the transcriptional factors such as aptors have a death domain that draws in the IL-
nuclear factor B (NF-B) and activating protein 1 (AP-1) 1 receptor-associated kinases 1 and 4 (IRAK-1 and
(c-Jun/Fos) that act within the nucleus. This information IRAK-4), which undergoes an autophosporylation re-
transfer system will be illustrated by reference to the re- action that enables them to bind to another adaptor
sponse of the receptor TLR4 to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) called TRAF6, which belongs to the tumour necrosis
(Module 11: Figure formation and action of PAMPs). As factor (TNF)-receptor-associated factor (TRAF) fam-
for many other signalling pathways, information is trans- ily that has a critical role to play in the next series of
ferred through both proteinprotein interactions and pro- reactions.
tein phosphorylation reactions. The ubiquitin signalling 3. The IRAK-1 and TRAF6 dissociate from the receptor
system also has an important role in orchestrating this Toll and move in to the cytoplasm.
receptor signalling pathway as shown in the following se- 4. The TRAF 6 is a RING domain E3 ubiquitin
quence (Module 2: Figure Toll receptor signalling): ligase that associates with the heterotrimeric
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r97
ubiquitin-conjugating (E2) complex that contains MyD88 have been linked to diffuse large B cell lymphoma
Ubc13 and Uev1A. This is a K63 ubiquitinating com- (DLBCL).
plex that results in the autoubiquitination of TRAF6.
The ubiquitinated TRAF6 then binds the transform- Virus recognition and antiviral responses
ing growth factor activated kinase-1 (TAK1) and the The recognition and initiation of antiviral responses, which
TAK1-binding (TAB) proteins 1 to 3 (TAB1-3). The is a part of the innate immune system, depend upon the
multisubunit cytoplasmic complex containing the in- activation of a number of signalling pathways such as the
hibitor of NF-B (IB) kinase (IKK) /IKK dimer Toll receptor signalling pathway. When viruses enter cells
and the regulatory NF-B essential modifier (NEMO) they are broken down into fragments such as double-
subunit are also drawn into the complex. The result- stranded RNA (dsRNA), single-stranded RNA (ssRNA),
ing activation of TAK1 is then responsible for relaying 5 triphosphate ssRNA or CpG DNA, which are located
information out to other components of the signalling either in the cytoplasm or within the endosomal compart-
pathways. ment (Module 2: Figure virus recognition). These frag-
5. The TAK1 activates both the c-Jun N-terminal kinase ments are examples of the pathogen-associated molecu-
(JNK) pathway and the p38 pathway (Module 2: Fig- lar patterns (PAMPs) that are responsible for triggering
ure MAPK signalling). The JNK and p38 function a variety of inflammatory responses (Module 11: Figure
to phosphorylate transcription factors such as AP- formation and action of PAMPs). The following sequence
1, which binds to the cyclic AMP response element of reactions describes how three main groups of recept-
(CRE) site. ors detect these viral PAMPs to initiate a number of anti-
6. The other action of TAK1 is to phosphorylate the viral signalling pathways such as Toll-like receptor (TLR)
IKK component of the inhibitor of NF-B (IB) signalling, Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like re-
kinase (IKK) /IKK dimer. ceptor (RLRs) signalling and Nucleotide oligomerization
7. The phosphorylated IKK then acts to phosphorylate domain (NOD) protein-like receptor (NLR) signalling
IB to liberate the NF-B. (Module 2: Figure virus recognition):
8. The phosphorylated IB is then susceptible to ubi- Toll-like receptor (TLR) signalling
quitination by the Skp1/cullin/F-box (SCF) ubiquitin
ligase. The polyubiquitinated IB is then sent to the 1. Those viral PAMPs, which are directed into the endo-
proteasome, where it is degraded, some, interact with Toll-like receptors (TLR3, TLR7/8
9. The NF-B enters the nucleus, binds to the B site and TLR9) that are located in the endosomal membrane
and activates the genes that code for the inflammatory (see green box on the left of Module 2: Figure virus re-
cytokines and immunoregulators that contribute to cognition).
inflammatory responses (Module 11: Figure inflam- 2. The TLR9, which responds to CpG DNA, and the
mation). TLR7/8 that bind ssRNA both recruit the adaptor
10. An important aspect of the recovery of this signalling protein MyD88. The latter then acts through TRAF6,
cascade after LPS is withdrawn, is the removal of which is one of the tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-
the ubiquitin scaffolds that hold together the trans- receptor-associated factor (TRAF) family, to stimulate
ducing complex. The deubiquitinating enzymes A20 the IKK. The latter then activates the transcription
and CYLD are particularly active in removing the ubi- factor NF-B through the Toll receptor signalling path-
quitin chains. This ubiquitin signalling system thus way described in more detail earlier (Module 2: Figure
plays an essential role in the processing of informa- Toll receptor signalling).
tion by this Toll receptor signalling pathway. 3. The NF-B is imported into the nucleus where it func-
11. In addition to functioning as a coreceptor to transfer tions to induce the transcription of both the inflam-
LPS to TLR4, CD14 may also be capable of activat- matory cytokines and the genes for type I interferon
ing a Ca2 + signalling pathway. The CD14 activates (IFN).
Src that is coupled to phospholipase C1 (PLC1), 4. When activated by dsRNA, the TLR3 receptor interacts
which is then capable of triggering an influx of ex- with the TIR-domain-containing adaptor protein indu-
ternal Ca2 + through an unknown mechanism. The cing IFN- (TRIF). The latter then activates the two
increase in Ca2 + stimulates calcineurin (CaN) to de- IKK-related proteins TBK1 [TRAF-family member-
phosphorylate the transcription factor NFAT that associated NF-B activator (TANK)-binding protein]
enters the nucleus to activate expression of genes and IKK, which is also known as inducible IKK
such as interleukin-2 and various pro-apoptotic genes (iIKK).
(nur77, Gadd45g, Ddit3 and Tia1) (Module 2: Figure 5. The activated TBK1/IKK complex then phos-
Toll receptor signalling). This Ca2 + pathway has been phorylates the interferon-regulatory factors (IFRs)
described in dendritic cells, but appears to be absent IRF3 and IRF7. When phosphorylated, these two IRFs
in macrophages. form homodimers that are then imported into the nuc-
leus where they contribute to the transcription of the
This signalling pathway is particularly evident on res- type I interferons (IFN- and IFN-).
ident macrophages (Module 11: Figure macrophage sig-
nalling) and mast cells (Module 11: Figure mast cell sig- Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptor
nalling) that respond to invading pathogens. Mutations in (RLRs) signalling
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r98
LBP TLR4
1
CD14
LPS
6. Those viral PAMPs that are directed into the cytoplasm 9. The double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the cytoplasm
interact with cytoplasmic receptors such as the RIG-I- can also interact with the nucleotide oligomerization
like receptors (RLRs) (see yellow box in the middle of domain (NOD) protein-like receptors (NLRs) (see
Module 2: Figure virus recognition). pink box on the right of Module 2: Figure viral re-
7. The two main RLRs are retinoic acid-inducible gene cognition). One of the NLRs is the Nacht domain-,
I (RIG-I) itself and melanoma-associated gene 5 Leucine-rich repeat-, and PYD-containing protein 3
(MDA5). These two receptors have a characteristic (NALP3), which is also known as cryopyrin that re-
DExD/H box helicase domain that is responsible sponds to dsRNA to activate caspase-1. The interac-
for binding double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). RIG-I tion between NALP3 and caspase-1 is facilitated by an
can also respond to 5 triphosphate ssRNA. These adaptor called apoptosis-associated speck-like protein
two receptors also have a pair of N-terminal caspase containing a CARD (ASC). The interaction between
recruitment domains (CARD), which are the func- these three proteins takes place in a macromolecular
tional transducing components that signal to down- complex known as the inflammasome.
stream elements. The LGP2 (laboratory of genetics and 10. The activated caspase-1 contributes to the develop-
physiology-2), which also has a helicase domain, can ment of an inflammatory response by cleaving pro-
also bind dsRNA, but it lacks the CARD domains and IL-1 to form the inflammatory cytokine interleukin
thus fails to transduce cellular signals but may act as a 1 (IL-1).
negative regulator of MDA5 and RIG-I.
8. The CARD domains on MDA5 and RIG-I interact
with the IFN- promoter stimulator-1 (IPS-1), which
also contains an N-terminal CARD domain and is Inflammasome
attached to the outer mitochondrial membrane. IPS1 The inflammasome is a key component of the innate
is also known as MAVS (mitochondrial antiviral sig- immune system with important antiviral and antibac-
nalling), VISA (virus-inducing signalling adaptor) or terial functions. A key component of the inflammo-
CARDIF (CARD adaptor inducing IFN-). The IPS1 some is Nacht domain-, Leucine-rich repeat-, and PYD-
protein then stimulates the TBK1/IKK complex that containing protein 3 (NALP3), which is a pattern recogni-
then phosphorylates the interferon-regulatory factors tion receptor. When NALP3 is activated it forms an inflam-
(IFRs) IRF3 and IRF7 as described above (see step 5). matory complex containing an adaptor called apoptosis-
associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC)
Nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD) protein- and the pro-caspase-1 that functions to activate caspase-1
like receptor (NLR) signalling (Module 2: Figure viral recognition).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r99
Viruses
1 6
Endosome
TLRs NLRs
RLRs 7
5Triphosphate ssRNA
dsRNA NALP3
CpG
ssRNA dsRNA dsRNA
DNA MDA5 P
TLR9 TLR3 P 9
LGP2 P
TLR7/8
ASC
RIG-I
MyD88 2 TRIF IPS1
Caspase-1
MyD88 4 8
Mitochondrion 10
TRAF6
IB
p50 p65 TBK1
NF-B IKK
IKK IKK p50 p65 Pro-IL-1
P P P P IL-1
IB 3 IRF3 5 IRF7
Import
The expression of NALP3 is regulated by nuclear factor non-classical phosphoplipase D3 (PLD3) that has come to
B (NF-B) activated through the Toll receptor signalling prominence because it has been identified as a risk factor
pathway. The activity of NLRP3 is also regulated through for Alzheimers disease (AD). Most attention has focused
ubiquitination in that its stability is maintained by BRCC, on PLD1 as a signal transducer because it has a low basal
which is one of the JAMM-domain DUBs. activity that increases markedly in response to external
Mutations in NALP3 have been linked to various in- stimuli. On the other hand, PLD2 has a high basal activity
flammatory diseases such as gout, septic shock, diabetes and its role in signalling is uncertain. While most of the
and Alzheimers disease (Module 12: Figure Inflammation PLD2 is located on the plasma membrane, PLD1 is found
and Alzheimers disease). predominantly on intracellular membranes (e.g. Golgi, en-
doplasmic reticulum and endosomes), but has also been
located at the plasma membrane, particularly at caveolae.
The structure of the enzyme contains motifs responsible
Phospholipase D (PLD) signalling for its membrane location and catalytic activity (Module 2:
pathway Figure PLD isoforms). The activity of PLD1 increases fol-
The phospholipase D (PLD) signalling pathway functions
lowing stimulation of both protein tyrosine kinase-linked
by generating phosphatidic acid (PA), which acts to reg-
receptors (PTKRs) and G protein-coupled receptors (GP-
ulate a wide range of cellular processes. Phospholipase D
CRs) (Module 2: Figure PLD signalling). One of the prob-
(PLD) activation depends upon a number of mechanisms,
lems with trying to understand the signalling function of
and these may vary depending on where the signalling
this pathway is to determine just how these different re-
mechanism is located within the cell. The primary mes-
ceptors act to stimulate PLD1. The fact that the activ-
senger produced by this signalling pathway is PA, and
ation of PLD1 seems to depend on the prior activation
phosphatidic acid (PA) action is carried out through a
of other signalling pathways such as the diacylglycerol
number of downstream effectors. Phosphatidic acid (PA)
(DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC) signalling cassette or the
metabolism occurs through different pathways that gen-
PtdIns 3-kinase signalling cassette (Module 2: Figure PLD
erate further signalling molecules such as diacylglycerol
signalling) suggests that the PLD signalling pathway is
(DAG) and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA).
not an autonomous signalling system, but should be con-
sidered more as a downstream effector of these other sig-
Phospholipase D (PLD) activation nalling pathways.
Mammals have two phospholipase D (PLD) genes (PLD1 A specific N-arachidonylphosphatidylethanolamine
and PLD2), both of which have splice variants. There is a (NAPE) phospholipase D (PLD) (NAPE PLD) functions
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r100
Palmitate Palmitate
(Cys 240) (Cys 241)
HKD HKD
PLD1 PX PH I II III IV 1072
Palmitate Palmitate
(Cys 240) (Cys 241)
HKD HKD
PLD2 PX PH I II III IV 1034
to generate anandamide, which is one of the endocannabin- nalling). The LPA released from the cell is a potent agonist
oids (Module 1: Figure anandamide). on receptors of the endothelial differentiation gene (EDG)
The Arf signalling pathway plays an important role in family (Module 2: Figure sphingomyelin signalling).
the activation of PLD (Module 2: Figure Arf signalling).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r101
Growth Chemotactic
factors Antigen Chemokines factors
LPA
Protein phosphatase 1
Arf Rho RalA
Sphingosine kinase
PA +
mTOR
lipids of the shingomyelin signalling pathway, begins with type I hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
the hydrolysis of sphingomyelin (SM) by various sphin- (HSAN).
gomyelinases (SMases) to form ceramide (Module 2: Fig- 2. The ceramide formed at the ER is then transported
ure sphingolipid metabolism). A ceramidase (CDase) then to the Golgi by a ceramide transfer protein (CERT).
cleaves off one of the fatty acid chains to form sphingosine A sphingomyelin synthase (SMS) located in the Golgi
(Sph), which is then phosphorylated by sphingosine kinase converts ceramide into sphingomyelin (SM), which is
(SPHK). As illustrated by the figures in Module 2: Fig- transferred to the membrane through a vesicle transport
ure sphingolipid metabolism, the relative cellular levels of mechanism.
these sphingolipids vary enormously. The precursor SM is 3. The hydrolysis of SM in the plasma membrane is activ-
present at the highest level and this then declines during ated by receptors sensitive to stimuli such as tumour
the different metabolic transformations. necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin 1, CD28 and
An important aspect of this sphingomyelin signalling Fas. The coupling between receptors and the neutral
pathway is the cellular location and function of these dif- sphingomyelinases (SMases) has been worked out in
ferent metabolic steps (Module 2: Figure sphingomyelin some detail for the TNF receptor. A factor associated
signalling): with neutral SMase (FAN) functions to couple the en-
zyme to the neutral SMase activation domain (NSD)
of the TNF receptor. These components of the sphin-
1. Sphingomyelin synthesis is carried out first in the endo- gomyelinase signalling pathway are often highly con-
plasmic reticulum (ER), where ceramide is formed, and centrated in lipid rafts and caveolae, which represent
is completed by the Golgi. The first step is carried out the site where some of the sphingomyelinases function
by serine palmitoyl transferase (SPT) that combines ser- to hydrolyse sphingomyelin.
ine and palmitate to form dihydrosphingosine (dhSph), 4. The activation of neutral SMase at the plasma mem-
which is then converted into dihydroceramide (dhCer) brane provides one of the major sources of ceramide
by dihydroceramide synthase (CerS). Finally, a desat- (Cer), which can then be metabolized to other sig-
urase converts dhCer into ceramide (Cer). Mutations nalling sphingolipids (Module 2: Figure sphingolipid
in serine palmitoyl transferase (SPT) are responsible for metabolism). A ceramidase (CDase) hydrolyses Cer to
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r102
O C HO C O C HO C C OH C OH
H H
N C N C N C N C
H H
C C C C
SMase CDase SPHK O
O OH OH
O P O O P OH
O O
C
C
CH 3 N CH 3
CH 3
Sphingolipid metabolism.
The sphingomyelin signalling pathway depends on the conversion of sphingomyelin (SM) into a series of bioactive lipids capable of activating
various signalling mechanisms as described in Module 2: Figure sphingomyelin signalling. The numbers represent the relative cellular levels of these
sphingolipids. SMase, sphingomyelinase; CDase, ceramidase; SPHK, sphingosine kinase. Information for this Figure was taken from Hannun and
Obeid (2008).
sphingosine (Sph), which can then be phosphorylated (ROS). The formation of S1P can also be enhanced by
by sphingosine kinase (SPHK) to form sphingosine 1- growth factor and hormone receptors that elevate second
phosphate (S1P). Since the latter is soluble, it leaves the messengers such as Ca2 + , DAG, ERK1/2 or cyclic AMP
membrane and is free to diffuse both into and out of that act by stimulating SPHK. In the absence of these sig-
the cell (see later). The SPHK is activated by a number nals, the main messenger will be ceramide, but this will
of signalling pathways using messengers such as Ca2 + , switch over to S1P if the SPHK is activated. This inter-
DAG, cyclic AMP and ERK1/2 that are produced by relationship between ceramide and S1P has led to a cer-
signalling pathways activated by growth factors and amide/S1P rheostat model, where a balance between these
hormones. Ceramide can also be phosphorylated by a two messengers is thought to determine cell fate. In gen-
ceramide kinase (CERK) to form ceramide 1-phosphate eral, ceramide seems to tip the balance in favour of cell
(C-1-P), which may act to regulate cell survival and cycle arrest, senescence and apoptosis, whereas S1P pro-
proliferation. motes survival and proliferation (Module 2: Figure sphin-
5. A variety of stress stimuli, such as ionizing radiation, gomyelin signalling). The different outcomes controlled
UV irradiation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) act by these two messengers may depend on their ability to
by stimulating the acidic sphingomyelinases (SMases) activate separate signalling cascades.
localized in lysosomes to hydrolyse sphingomyelin
(SM) to form ceramide (Cer) (Module 2: Figure sphin-
gomyelin signalling). 7. The ceramide formed at the plasma membrane or
6. S1P is metabolized via two separate pathways: it can in the lysosomes acts on a number of targets such
be converted back into sphingosine by a sphingosine as ceramide-activated protein kinase (CAPK), protein
1-phosphate phosphatase (SGPP) or it can be cleaved by kinase C (PKC), cathepsin D and ceramide-activated
an S1P lyase to give palmitaldehyde and phosphoeth- protein phosphatases (CAPP), such as PP1 and PP2A.
anolamine. The lyase has a 20-amino-acid transmem- Most of these ceramide-sensitive targets act to promote
brane domain that positions the enzymes in cellular cell cycle arrest and apoptosis either directly or indir-
membranes. ectly. For example, the cathepsin D converts Bid into
tBid to promote apoptosis (see Step 3 in Module 11:
The sphingomyelinase signalling pathway is thus sens- Figure apoptosis). On the other hand, the CAPPs such
itive to external signals at a number of discrete steps. The as PP2A can dephosphorylate various components that
production of ceramide is accelerated by receptors sens- are used by the EDG receptors to drive cell survival
itive to cytokines such as TNF or to various stress sig- and proliferation. For example the dephosphorylation
nals such as ionizing radiation and reactive oxygen species of protein kinase B (PKB) not only prevents it from
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r103
Neutral CDase / Gq
N SMase N N SPHK Ca 2+ PI 3-K
P FAN OH OH DAG 8 Ras
SM Cer
N Sph ERK1/2
3
Golgi 4 N S1P
P DAG InsP3
2 Phospho-
SGPP ethanolamine
6 S1P lyase
OH
Ca 2+
N
Cer
Ionizing PKC
CAPPs PKB
Desaturase radiation ROS
CAPK
JNK ERK1/2 CaMKII
5
ER 7 PKC
N
dhCer
Acidic Cathepsin D 9
SMase
CerS 1
N
P
Survival
N
Apoptosis
N
dhSph
OH
inhibiting apoptosis but it will also reduce its ability to S1P contributes to the communication between en-
enhance proliferation. dothelial cells and pericytes during angiogenesis (see
8. One of the actions of the soluble sphingosine 1-phos- Step 6 in Module 9: Figure angiogenesis signalling).
phate (S1P) is to diffuse out of the cell passing through
the ABCC1 transporter, which is a family member of
the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (Module Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P)
3: Table ABC transporters). The extracellular S1P then The key enzyme in the formation of sphingosine 1-
activates EDG receptors, which belong to the family phosphate (S1P) is sphingosine kinase (SPHK). The mes-
of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) (Module 1: senger function of S1P is complicated by the fact that it
Table G protein-coupled receptors) that are capable of may have both intra- and extra-cellular actions.
relaying information down a number of signalling path- S1P can exert its extracellular action either in an
ways. autocrine mode (activate the same cell from which it is
9. These signalling pathways control cellular pro- released) (see Step 8 in Module 2: Figure sphingomyelin
cesses, such as cell survival, proliferation and anti- signalling) or a paracrine mode (diffuse away to activate
inflammatory responses, which are opposite to those neighbouring cells). This extracellular action is mediated
controlled by ceramide. by endothelial differentiation gene (EDG) receptors, so-
called because they were first described in human um-
bilical vein endothelial cells induced to differentiate by
This sphingomyelin signalling pathway has been implic-
phorbol esters. There is a family of these EDG receptors
ated in a number of cellular processes:
that are all G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) capable
of activating most of the conventional signalling pathways
S1P has been proposed to release the Ca2 + necessary to (Module 1: Table G protein-coupled receptors). The EDG
activate the formation of PtdIns3P on endosomes during 1, 3, 5, 6 and 8 receptors mediate the action of S1P, whereas
phagosome maturation (Module 4: Figure phagosome the EDG 2, 4 and 7 receptors appear to respond to lyso-
maturation). phosphatidic acid (LPA), a related lysolipid. The EDG re-
S1P appears to contribute to the CD28 co-stimulatory ceptors that function to induce a mobilization of internal
pathway during T cell activation (Module 9: Figure T Ca2 + act by stimulating the formation of inositol 1,4,5-
cell signalling map). trisphosphate (InsP3 ). One function of the EDG receptors
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r105
STATs
2&6 SH3 SH2
survival and promote apoptosis (see Step 6 in Module 2: factor receptor (EGFR), platelet-derived growth factor
Figure sphingomyelin signalling). receptor (PDGFR)], non-receptor tyrosine kinases and
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The Janus kinase
Ceramide-activated protein phosphatase (CAPP) (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription
Ceramide-activated protein phosphatase (CAPP) is a (STAT) structure reveals the major features of these two
member of the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) family of components and how they are linked during the signal
serine/threonine phosphatases that consist of three sub- transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) activa-
units: A and B are regulatory, whereas C is the catalytic tion cascade. Cell-surface receptors act by phosphorylat-
subunit. In the case of CAPP, ceramide acts to stimulate ing the STATs, which are latent transcription factors. Once
phosphatase activity by binding to one of the regulatory phosphorylated, these STATs leave the membrane and
B subunits. The ability of ceramide to inhibit growth is then dimerize before migrating into the nucleus where
probably mediated through PP2A. they bind to specific DNA-binding elements to activate
transcription. There is considerable evidence for a Janus
Scamper kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcrip-
A sphingolipid Ca2 + -release-mediating protein of the en- tion (STAT) function in growth and development.
doplasmic reticulum (ER) (Scamper) was originally pro- Mutations in STAT3 have been linked to hyper-IgE syn-
posed to be the Ca2 + channel on the ER that responds drome (HIES).
to signals from the sphingomyelin signalling pathway,
but more recent studies have shown that it has a single Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and
membrane-spanning segment that seems to remodel the activator of transcription (STAT) structure
actin cytoskeleton. The two major components of the signalling pathway
are the Janus kinases (JAKs) and their substrates the sig-
nal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs)
Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer (Module 2: Figure JAK and STAT structure). Of the four
and activator of transcription (STAT) mammalian JAKs, three are expressed fairly ubiquitously,
signalling pathway whereas JAK3 is restricted to natural killer (NK) cells
The Janus kinase (JAK) and the signal transducer and ac- and thymocytes, with some expression in vascular smooth
tivator of transcription (STAT) function in the JAK/STAT muscle cells and endothelium. The main structural com-
signalling pathway provides a mechanism for rapidly ac- ponent of the JAKs is the kinase domain that functions to
tivating gene transcription in response to a large num- phosphorylate the STATs at a key tyrosine in the region of
ber (>35) of external ligands. This signalling pathway is residue 700 during the signal transducer and activator of
mainly activated by cytokines such as interferon, but is transcription (STAT) activation cascade. The STATs have
also used by receptor tyrosine kinases [epidermal growth a number of functional domains whose three-dimensional
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r106
structure reveals how the STAT dimers are formed and induced by many different receptors (e.g. cytokine recept-
how they bind to DNA (Module 2: Figure STAT1/DNA ors, tyrosine kinase-linked receptors, non-receptor tyr-
complex). osine kinases and G protein-linked receptors). The versat-
ility of this signalling mechanism is greatly enhanced by
Signal transducer and activator of transcription the way the Janus kinases (JAKs) and STATs can be mixed
(STAT) activation cascade
and matched to generate an enormous number of com-
The signal transducers and activators of transcription
binations as illustrated by the different cytokine receptors
(STATs) are a family of latent cytoplasmic receptors that
(Module 2: Figure JAK/STAT heterogeneity).
are activated by a phosphorylation cascade that can be
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r107
TYPE I CYTOKINES
JAK1 STAT5a, STAT5b
IL-2, IL-7,IL-9, IL-15 STAT3
JAK3
JAK1
IL-4 STAT6
JAK3
JAK1,JAK2
IL-13 STAT6
Tyk2
TYPE II CYTOKINES
IFN, IFN JAK1, Tyk2 STAT1, STAT2
Heterogeneity of the Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) combinations used by different cytokine receptors.
The cytokines acting on cell-surface receptors (blue and mauve boxes) activate different combinations of Janus kinases (JAKs) and signal transducers
and activators of transcription (STATs). CNTF, ciliary neurotrophic factor; GCSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin;
LIF, leukaemia inhibitory factor; OSM, oncostatin M. The organization of some of the type I cytokine receptors is shown in Module 1: Figure type I
cytokine receptors.
A typical activation cascade for cytokine receptors, 6. These dimers are imported into the nucleus using
which illustrates the essential role of the JAKs in a se- importin- (Imp-) and attach to promoter regions
quence of tyrosine phosphorylations that culminates in the through their DNA-binding domains (Module 2: Fig-
phosphorylation and activation of the STATs, is outlined ure STAT1/DNA complex).
in the following sequence (Module 2: Figure JAK/STAT 7. STATs activate the transcription of a number of target
function): genes. One group of these genes code for the suppressor
of cytokine signalling proteins (SOCS), which thus
1. Agonists induce dimerization by binding to the extra- function as part of a negative-feedback loop to limit
cellular domains of the receptor subunits. the action of the signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure
2. The JAKs, which are associated with the cytoplasmic JAK/STAT function).
domain of these receptors, phosphorylate each other. 8. STAT activity is terminated by a nuclear protein tyr-
3. The activated JAKs then phosphorylate tyrosine osine phosphatase (N-PTP) that removes the tyrosyl
residues on the receptors to provide docking sites for phosphate groups. The inactive STAT is then exported
the Src homology 2 (SH2) domains on the STATs. from the nucleus by chromosome region maintenance
4. Once the STATs have docked, they are then phos- 1 (CRM1), thus completing the cycle.
phorylated by the JAKs on the tyrosine residue located
in the C-terminal region (Module 2: Figure JAK and For some of the other receptors, these tyrosine phos-
STAT structure). phorylations are carried out by kinases other than the
5. The phosphorylated STATs, which are dimerized JAKs. After the STATs are phosphorylated, they leave the
through an intermolecular SH2phosphotyrosine in- receptor and then dimerize before translocating into the
teraction, leave the receptor. nucleus. This activation cascade can occur quickly, with the
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r108
Agonist
P P P P P P P P
JAK
P P P P P P
1 2
4 _
3
SH2 domain
DNA-binding STAT 5 PP
domain
SOCS
CRM1 Export Import Importin
8 6
Importin
CRM1
N-PTP Target genes
SOCS
PP 7
The Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) activation cascade.
A schematic summary of the main sequence of events responsible for the activation of signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs).
Agonist activation of cell-surface receptors induces dimerization of receptor subunits, resulting in the stimulation of resident Janus kinases (JAKs). The
JAKs then carry out a sequential series of three phosphorylation reactions to activate the STATs, which then enter the nucleus to induce transcription.
The binding between STATs and DNA is shown in Module 2: Figure STAT1/DNA complex .
activated STATs appearing in the nucleus within minutes. the final signalling steps in lymphocyte activation (Module
Transcriptional activity can be modulated by phosphoryla- 9: Figure T cell signalling map).
tion of the serine residue in the transcriptional activation A mutation in the c component of cytokine recept-
domain (TAD) of STAT 1, 3, 4, 5A and 5B (Module 2: Fig- ors results in X-linked severe combined immune defi-
ure JAK and STAT structure). In the case of STAT 1 and ciency (X-SCID). Since JAK3 associates with c , it seemed
STAT4, phosphorylation enhances transcriptional activ- likely that X-SCID may result from an alteration in the
ity, whereas the binding of STAT5a to DNA is greatly JAK/STAT signalling pathway. This was confirmed when
prolonged. SCID was found in patients carrying mutations in JAK3.
SCID resulted from a dramatic reduction in the number of
T cells, highlighting the important role for this signalling
Suppressor of cytokine signalling proteins
(SOCS) pathway in lymphocyte development.
The suppressor of cytokine signalling proteins (SOCSs) One of the functions of STAT3 is to stimulate the tran-
are induced during the activation of the Janus kinase scription of genes that code for anti-apoptotic factors such
(JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription as Bcl-2 and the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family of
(STAT) signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure JAK/STAT proteins.
function). The SOCS act by inhibiting the Janus kinases JAKs have also been implicated in certain forms of ma-
(JAKs) and thus operate a negative-feedback loop to limit lignant transformation such as Sezarys syndrome, v-Abl-
the action of cytokines. transformed cells and in some leukaemias.
There is a marked increase in expression of the SOCS-3
isoform in hypothalamic neurons following the action of
leptin during the control of food intake and body weight Smad signalling pathway
(Module 7: control of food intake). This signalling pathway takes its name from the Smads,
which are a collection of intracellular signalling molecules
Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and that act collectively to transfer information from cell-
activator of transcription (STAT) function in surface receptors into the nucleus. As such, some of the
growth and development Smads function as transcription factors, whereas oth-
The Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of ers either facilitate or inhibit this transcriptional activ-
transcription (STAT) signalling pathway has a primary role ity. These Smads mediate the action of the transform-
in the regulation of growth and development, particularly ing growth factor (TGF-) superfamily, which are cy-
of haematopoietic cells. For example, it functions in the tokines that regulate many cellular functions such as pro-
interleukin-2 signalling pathway responsible for driving liferation, apoptosis, extracellular matrix formation and
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PY P P
MH1 MH2 --SSXS- R-Smads
NLS (Smad1,2,3,5,8)
PY
MH2 I-Smads
(Smad6,7)
2. The TGF- then associates with the two TGF- re- the nucleus (Module 2: Figure Smad signalling). Some of
ceptor components to assemble an agonist/receptor the ligands, such as transforming growth factor (TGF-
complex. In the absence of ligand, the Type I and II ), activin and Nodal activate receptors that are coupled
receptor components exist as homodimers which are to Smad2 and Smad3, whereas bone morphogenetic pro-
then brought together by TGF-. tein (BMP) acts through Smad1, Smad5 or Smad8. Once
3. When the two receptor types have been complexed these Smads have been phosphorylated on their C-terminal
by TGF-, the serine/threonine kinase domain on the SSXS motif (Module 2: Figure TGF-R activation) they
Type II receptors phosphorylates the serine residues leave the receptor, where they combine with Smad4 to form
on the glycine/serine-rich (GS) region of the Type I a dimer that then translocates into the nucleus (Module 2:
receptors. Figure Smad signalling). Once the dimer enters the nuc-
4. These phosphorylated GS regions on the Type I re- leus, it recognizes and binds to a specific DNA motif.
ceptors provide a docking site for the MAD homology The transcriptional activity of the Smads is facilitated
domain 1 (MH1) domain of Smad2 or Smad3. This re- by associating with other site-specific transcription factors
cruitment of the Smads to the membrane is facilitated (TFs). Their activity is also modulated by coactivators and
by Smad anchor for receptor activation (SARA). Once repressors. For example, Smad4 binds directly to the co-
attached to the receptor, the SSXS motif is brought into activator p300, which has an important role in activat-
contact with the serine/threonine kinase domain, and ing transcription. The pathway on the right, which car-
two of the serine residues are phosphorylated. ries out the action of receptors that bind ligands such as
5. Once Smad2/3 have been phosphorylated, their affinity bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), use Smad1, 5 or 8 to
for both the receptor complex and for SARA is reduced, transmit information into the nucleus. As for the pathway
and the two proteins pass into the cytoplasm. The ac- described above, Smad4 is again used as a partner for the
tivated Smads then translocate into the nucleus where translocation process, and the transcriptional processes are
they activate transcription (Module 2: Figure Smad sig- also similar.
nalling). The Smads stimulate transcription of the collagen type I
during the fibrogenesis induced in activated hepatic stellate
cells in the liver (Module 7: Figure hepatic stellate cell).
Smad activation of transcription
The receptor-regulated Smads (R-Smads) function as tran-
scription factors responsible for activating a large num- Modulation of Smad signalling
ber of target genes. Once they have been activated by the There are a number of ways that the Smad signalling path-
cell-surface receptors, the activated Smads translocate into way can be modulated. One mechanism is by an increase
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TGF-
1
2 TGF-
P P P P MH1
SARA
Betaglycan 3
-SXSS-- MH2
Type II
receptors Type I
receptors
SARA 4
Glycine-serine-rich
SARA
P P MH1
domain (GS) MH1 MH2
-SXSS--
-SXSS-- MH2
Smad2
GENE TRANSCRIPTION
Smad3
(See Module 2: Figure Smad signalling)
TGF/activin/Nodal BMPs/GDFs
Smad4 P
P
Smad2 Smad1
Smad3 Smad5
Smad8
P P
Coactivator/ Coactivator/
repressor P repressor P
TGF/activin BMP
TF TF
target genes target genes
SBE SBE
The Smad signalling pathway links cell-surface transforming growth factor (TGF-) receptors to gene transcription.
There are two main types of Smad signalling. In the one shown on the left, receptors activated by ligands such as transforming growth factor (TGF-),
activin and Nodal phosphorylate either Smad2 or Smad3. The phosphorylated Smads then heterodimerize with the co-mediator Smad (Co-Smad)
Smad4 to form a dimer that then translocates into the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, the Smad dimer then binds to a specific Smad-binding element
(SBE), which has a GTCT motif that is recognized by the MAD homology domain 1 (MH1).
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in the expression of inhibitory Smads (I-Smads), which that they may function in planar cell polarity (PCP). The
target the cell-surface receptors for degradation. This pro- Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway, which has been
cess is mediated by the Smad ubiquitin-regulatory factors characterized in Drosophila, appears to act through various
(Smurfs), which are a family of ubiquitin E3 ligases that GTP-binding proteins. A closely related Wnt/Ca2+ sig-
bind to the PY motif on the linker region of I-Smads nalling pathway, which has been described in vertebrates,
(Module 2: Figure Smad domain structure). The E3 ligase has a number of similar signalling components but also has
functions in the ubiquitin-proteasome system (Module 1: additional features such as the hydrolysis of PtdIns4,5P2 to
Figure ubiquitin-proteasome system). activate signalling through InsP3 /Ca2 + and diacylglycerol
The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) sig- (DAG)/protein kinase C (PKC).
nalling pathway can also modulate Smad signalling by
phosphorylating sites located in the linker regions of Wnts
Smad1 and 2 (Module 2: Figure Smad domain structure). The term Wnt results from the fusion of the names of
This is an example of signalling cross-talk in that it provides two orthologous genes, the Drosophila segment polarity
a mechanism for the tyrosine kinase-linked receptors to gene Wingless (Wg) and a mouse proto-oncogene Int-1.
antagonize the action of the transforming growth factor The human genome has 19 Wnt genes, many of which
(TGF-) superfamily. appear to have distinct functions. They contain numer-
ous cysteine residues, one of which is palmitoylated, thus
Transforming growth factor (TGF-) inhibition making the Wnts somewhat insoluble, which may help to
of cell proliferation explain why they are short-range ligands. A large number
One of the major functions of transforming growth factor of Wnt-binding proteins, such as secreted frizzled-related
(TGF-) is to inhibit cell proliferation by altering ex- protein (SFRP) and Wnt inhibitory factor (WIF) also re-
pression of some of the key regulators of the cell cycle sig- strict their sphere of influence by acting as Wnt buffers.
nalling pathway. One of its actions is to increase the tran-
scription of the p15INK4B gene that codes for p15, which is
Canonical Wnt/-catenin pathway
one of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors that
The defining feature of the canonical Wnt/-catenin path-
inhibits cyclin D/cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) com-
way is the transcription factor -catenin, which is respons-
plex that is one of the early events of the cell cycle signalling
ible for regulating the transcription of Wnt target genes
cascade (Module 9: Figure cell cycle signalling mechan-
(Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical pathway). However, this
isms). Another important action is to repress c-Myc, which
is not the sole function of -catenin, which also functions
is one of the major transcriptional activators of genes that
as a scaffolding protein in cell adhesion by providing a link
function in cell proliferation. Such an inhibition of Myc
between cadherin and the actin cytoskeleton. Here we con-
occurs during skin development when Smad2/3 induces
sider how -catenin functions in Wnt signalling to regulate
the transcription of the Myc repressors Mad1 and Ovol1
gene transcription. There are a number of transcription
to inhibit keratinocyte proliferation.
factor activation mechanisms, and -catenin belongs to
TGF- plays an important role in regulating the pro-
those that depend on cell-surface receptors that generate
liferation of mesangial cells (Module 7: Figure mesangial
cytosolic signals to activate latent transcription factors in
cells). It also regulates the proliferation of stem cells such
the cytoplasm, which are then imported into the nucleus
as the skeletal muscle satellite cells (Module 8: Figure Satel-
(Mechanism 2 in Module 4: Figure transcription factor ac-
lite cell activation) and the epidermal stem cells (Module
tivation). In the case of -catenin, its cytosolic level is kept
8: Figure epidermal stem cell).
low because it is constantly being degraded by the pro-
Smad2 and 4 are tumour suppressors. A germline muta-
teasome as shown in the sequence of events shown in the
tion in Smad4 has been linked to juvenile polyposis syn-
left-hand panel in Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical path-
dromes (JPSs).
way:
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Canonical Wnt/catenin pathway Wnt/planar cell polarity pathway Wnt/Ca 2+ signalling pathway
Wnt
? Wnt5A,11
CRD
CRD
CRD
Wnt Wnt
Fz Fz Fz2, Fz6
PtdIns4,5P2
PLC
Dsh Dsh Dsh
LRP5/6
DAAM1 DAAM1
InsP3 DAG
-catenin Rac Rho
? Ca 2+ PKC
JNK ROK
CaMKII
NFAT
p300 Wnt
-catenin genes
P
Myosin II
LEF-1 TCF
Summary of the signalling mechanisms used by the canonical and non-canonical Wnt signalling pathways.
All three signalling pathways are activated by frizzled (Fz) receptors that depend upon the dishevelled protein (Dsh) as part of the transduction
mechanism to transfer information into the cell. Most is known about the canonical Wnt/-catenin pathway (Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical pathway)
with less information on the two non-canonical pathways. In the Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway, Dsh transfers information to the small GTP-
binding proteins Rho and Rac. The Wnt/Ca2 + signalling pathway is connected to the dishevelled-associated activator of morphogenesis 1 (DAAM1),
which regulates actin formation. In addition, Dsh also relays information to phospholipase C (PLC) to produce InsP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG).
3. The phosphorylated -catenin is recognized by the F- another scaffolding protein containing various signal
box/-TrCP/ubiquitin ligase complex, which targets it transduction domains (e.g. DIX, PDZ and DEP). Dsh
for destruction by the proteasome. becomes hyperphosphorylated by an unknown mech-
4. In the absence of -catenin, the monomeric high- anism and this contributes to its role in inhibiting the
mobility group (HMG) DNA-binding proteins lymph- degradation complex. Axin and Dsh also bind to each
ocyte enhancer factor-1 (LEF-1) and T cell factor other through their DIX domains. As the multiprotein
(TCF) inhibit the transcription of Wnt genes. An addi- complex associates with the membrane, the organiza-
tional component of this repressor complex is histone tion of the subunits is altered so that the activity of
deacetylase (HDAC), which prevents chromatin re- GSK-3 is inhibited, thus reducing the degradation of
modelling through histone deacetylation. Wnt acts to -catenin. Loss-of-function mutations of LRP5 have
inhibit the destruction of -catenin, which then accu- been linked to osteoporosis pseudoglioma (OPPG).
mulates in the cytoplasm and can enter the nucleus to 7. When GSK-3 is inhibited, the newly synthesized -
promote transcription as shown in the right-hand panel catenin is stabilized and accumulates within the cyto-
in Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical pathway. plasm, from where it can enter the nucleus to activate
5. Wnt initiates the signalling process by binding together transcription.
two cell-surface proteins: it binds to the cysteine-rich 8. -Catenin binds to LEF-1 and TCF to reduce their
domain (CRD) of the frizzled (Fz) receptor and it repressor activity to initiate the transcription of the Wnt
also draws in the Fz co-receptor LRP5 and LRP6 genes. -Catenin replaces HDAC with p300, which
(LRP5/6), which are members of the low-density lipo- facilitates transcription by acetylating histones to re-
protein (LDL) receptor superfamily. model chromatin. This transcriptional activity of -
6. The LRP5/6 co-receptor is then phosphorylated by catenin is repressed by the chromodomain helicase
membrane-bound casein kinase I (CKI) isoform, DNA-binding protein 8 (CHD8) (Module 2: Figure
which adds phosphates to multiple sites that have Wnt canonical pathway). Mutations in CHD8 have
PPPSP motifs. Some of these motifs are also phos- been linked to autism spectrum disorders (ASD).
phorylated by a membrane-associated GSK-3. These 9. Activation of transcription of the Wnt target genes res-
phosphorylated motifs then provide binding sites for ults in the activation of the developmental and prolifer-
the attachment of the scaffolding protein axin. Another ative effects that characterize the operation of the Wnt
key event is the binding of disheveled (Dsh), which is signalling pathway.
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CRD
SOST Dkk1 Wnt SFRP
CRD SFRP Wnt
Fz LRP5/6 Fz
Kremen
CKI CKI P
P Dsh P
P P
GSK3
Dsh
CKI
Axin
6
Proteasome
P P P APC
P -catenin B P
APC PP
3 A 2A
B
Axin Amino
A
-catenin
acids
PP2A
Amino -catenin protein GSK3
acids synthesis and 2 7 -catenin
CKI -catenin accumulates and
degradation cycle Protein
-catenin translocates into
-catenin synthesis
-catenin the nucleus
Protein 1 degradation -catenin
synthesis -catenin complex
CHD8 - 8 9
HDAC Wnt
4
p300 -catenin genes
LEF-1 TCF
Ac Ac Ac Ac Ac TCF
Deacetylation LEF-1
Acetylation
In summary, the Wnt signalling pathway acts by switch- LRP2, which is also known as megalin has multiple
ing off the GSK-3-dependent degradation pathway, thus functions. LRP2/megalin is a transmembrane protein
enabling -catenin to accumulate in the cytosol and to that has a large extracellular domain and a small cytoso-
enter the nucleus to activate transcription of the Wnt tar- lic domain, which associates with the clathrin-associated
get genes. sorting protein (CLASPs) DAB2 to mediate its function
in endocytosis (Module 4: Figure cargo sorting signals).
Dishevelled (Dsh) This role in endocytosis is carried out mainly on the ap-
Dishevelled (Dsh) is a scaffolding protein that contains ical surfaces of epithelial cells such as kidney proximal
various transduction domains (DIX, PDZ and DEP), tubule cells, mammary epithelia, thyroid follicular cells
which functions in the Wnt signalling pathway by inter- and the intestinal brush border. In kidney, it internalizes
acting with the frizzled (Fz) receptor (Module 2: Figure a variety of molecules such as vitamin D3 complexed to
Wnt canonical pathway). One of its actions is to stimu- its Vitamin D3 -binding protein. LRP2/megalin is also
late dishevelled-associated activator of morphogenesis 1 part of the hedgehog signalling pathway (Module 2:
(DAAM1), which acts to stimulate actin formation and is Table Hedgehog signalling toolkit)
particularly important in the regulation of tissue morpho- LRP5 and LRP6 function as co-receptors in the ca-
genesis. nonical Wnt/-catenin pathway (Module 2: Figure
Wnt canonical pathway). Mutations in LRP5 can cause
either extremely high or low bone mass traits. A high
Low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related bone mass syndrome (HBM) is caused by gain-of-
protein family (LRP) function mutations of LRP5. On the other hand, loss-
Members of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor of-function LRP5 mutations are linked to osteoporosis
superfamily are cell-surface proteins with multiple func- pseudoglioma (OPPG).
tions. The LDL receptor-related protein (LRP) family has
multiple members (LRP16, LRP8, LRP1012) with mul-
tiple functions:
Inhibitors of Wnt signalling
LRP11 is an endocytic receptor for apolipoprotein E There are various extracellular molecules that can inhibit
(ApoE), which plays an important role in the onset of Wnt signalling. Some of these, such as the Wnt inhibit-
Alzheimers disease (AD) (Module 12: Figure amyloid ory factor 1 (WIF-1) and secreted frizzled-related protein
cascade hypothesis). (sFRP), bind to Wnt and thus prevent it from activating
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r116
the Fz receptor. There is another group, such as Dickkopf The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein, which
(Dkk) and sclerostin (SOST) that interfere with the activ- contributes to the cytoplasmic complex that degrades -
ity of the lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) co- catenin in the cytoplasm, is a potent tumour suppressor
receptor LRP5/6. These inhibitors play an important role that is frequently mutated in cancer cells and particularly
in preventing the proliferation of stem cells until they are in those that develop within the intestine such as colorectal
required for tissue repair as occurs for the epidermal stem cancer (CRC). Germline mutations of APC are responsible
cells used for the hair follicle cycle (Module 8: Figure epi- for familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). Mutation in the
dermal stem cell). LRP5 gene, which binds to the Wnt antagonist Dickkopf1
(DKK1), causes osteoporosis pseudoglioma (OPPG) syn-
Wnt inhibitory factor 1 (WIF-1)
drome.
The Wnt inhibitory factor 1 (WIF-1) is a soluble extracel-
lular factor that binds to Wnt and prevents it from inter-
acting with the frizzled receptor (Module 2: Figure Wnt Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway
canonical pathway). The Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway has been
characterized in insects, where it functions to establish
Secreted frizzled-related protein (sFRP) planar cell polarity (PCP) during development (Module
The secreted frizzled-related protein (sFRP) is a soluble 2: Figure Wnt signalling pathways). Just how this path-
inhibitor that binds to Wnt and prevents it from interacting way functions is still unclear, but there are indications that
with the frizzled receptor (Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical it relays information through the Rac signalling mechan-
pathway). isms and the Rho signalling mechanism, both of which
function in the remodelling of actin. The Rho pathway
Dickkopf (Dkk)
acts through the Rho kinase (ROK) to activate contrac-
Dickkopf (Dkk) binds to Kremen and the lipoprotein
tion of the actin/myosin system (Module 2: Figure Rho
receptor-related protein (LRP) co-receptor LRP5/6 and
signalling). These effects on actin remodelling and con-
this causes the complex to internalize and will thus inac-
traction may play an important role in planar cell polarity.
tivate Wnt signalling.
In vertebrates, there are similar PCP processes such as
Sclerostin (SOST) neural tube closure, the orientation of hair cell stereociliary
Sclerostin (SOST) inhibits Wnt signalling by binding to bundles in the ear, mammalian hair follicle orientation and
the lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) co-receptor convergent extension (CE), during which there are large-
LRP5/6 (Module 2: Figure Wnt canonical pathway). SOST scale movements of cells that occur during gastrulation.
is produced by the osteoclasts to inhibit the proliferation Components of the insect planar cell polarity pathway
and differentiation of the osteoblasts (Module 8: Figure have also been described in vertebrates, where it includes
bone cell differentiation). signalling through Ca2 + and has thus been referred to as
Van Buchem disease is caused by a mutation in SOST the Wnt/Ca2+ signalling pathway.
that results in excessive activation of the Wnt signalling
pathway. Wnt/Ca2 + signalling pathway
The Wnt/Ca2 + signalling system (Module 2: Figure Wnt
Function of canonical Wnt signalling signalling pathways) has been implicated in a number of
The canonical Wnt pathway has an important role to play planar cell polarity (PCP) processes in vertebrates. There
in regulating processes such as development and prolifer- are a number of similarities between this signalling path-
ation: way and the PCP pathway in Drosophila. They both can
It functions in dorsoventral specification, as has been activate Rho and contraction of the actin/myosin sys-
shown for amphibia and zebrafish (Module 8: Figure tem. The main difference is that the vertebrate system has
dorsoventral specification). an additional signalling component in that it can activ-
It functions in the control of stem cell proliferation ate Ca2 + signalling. The activation of this Wnt/Ca2 + sig-
(Module 8: Figure stem cell function). For example, Wnt nalling pathway depends upon the frizzled receptor plug-
signalling stimulates the proliferation of epidermal stem ging into the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )/Ca2+ sig-
cells during the hair follicle cycle (Module 8: Figure epi- nalling cassette (Module 2: Figure InsP3 and DAG form-
dermal stem cell). ation). There are reports that the Ca2 + signalling events
It controls the processes of osteoblastogenesis, which associated with this pathway may act to inhibit the canon-
is responsible for the development of the bone-forming ical Wnt/catenin pathway during dorsal/ventral axis spe-
osteoblasts (Module 8: Figure bone cell differentiation). cification (Module 8: Figure dorsoventral specification).
It controls the differentiation of intestinal cells and al- Mutations of the Fz4 receptor, which activates this
terations in its signalling components are a major cause Wnt/Ca2 + pathway, have been linked to familial exud-
of colorectal cancer (CRC) (Module 12: Figure colon ative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR).
cancer).
The canonical Wnt pathway inhibits the differentiation Casein kinase I (CKI)
of white fat cells (Module 8: Figure white fat cell dif- The casein kinase I (CKI) family has seven members
ferentiation) and the differentiation of brown fat cells (CKI, 2, , , 1, 2 and 3), which can have very
(Module 8: Figure brown fat cell differentiation). different functions in cells.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r119
Hh
Hh
Megalin
HIP
PTC Hh
SMO SMO
PTC
KIF7
SU X
SU GLI1
KIF7 SU GLI1
SUFU
KIF7
GLI1 SUFU
GLI1
miR-324-5p
Positive Negative
feedback feedback
Iguana + + MIM
GLI1, MIM
PTC, HIP
GLI1 Wnt, BMP
binding protein (MOB1). The ability of MOB1 to activate Hippo signalling appears to have multiple functions in
Lats1/2 is enhanced by its phosphorylation by MST1/2. mammalian cells. Many of these functions seem to be re-
The activated Lat1/2 then carries out the final step by lated to controlling cell proliferation and cell growth. For
phosphorylating the closely related transcription factors example, it can control the size of organs such as the liver.
Yes-activated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactiv- Contact inhibition in cultured cells seems to require ac-
ator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ). Once they are phos- tivation of this signalling cascade. Its role in cell prolifera-
phorylated, YAP and TAZ are inactivated and leave the tion is apparent in numerous examples where uncontrolled
nucleus (Module 2: Figure hippo signalling pathway). In growth occurs in many cancers when various compon-
the case of TAZ, export from the nucleus is carried out ents of the pathway are deleted. Hepatocellular carcinoma
by protein 14-3-3. YAP can also be inactivated by a ubi- (HCC) can be induced by the overexpression of YAP.
quitination pathway that begins with its phosphorylation
by casein kinase I (CKI) or casein kinase I (CKI) that
marks it out for ubiquitin ligase by SCF-TRCP .
The closely related transcription factors YAP and TAZ, Mammalian sterile-20-like kinase type 1 (MST1)
which have overlapping and distinct functions, operate to- The mammalian sterile-20-like kinase type 1 and type
gether with other co-activators of which the TEA domain 2(MST1/2) function in the hippo signalling pathway where
(TEAD) proteins are particulary important. This tran- they function by phosphorylating the large tumour sup-
scriptional complex activates a number of target genes pressor-1 and -2 (Lats1/2), which is a serine/threonine pro-
including amphiregulin (AR), cysteine-rich protein con- tein kinase that acts as a tumour suppressor (Module 2:
nective tissue factor (CTGF) and Baculoviral inhibitor of Figure hippo signalling pathway). The mammalian homo-
apoptosis repeat-containing 5 (BIRC5, also known as sur- logue of the Drosophila protein Salvador (Sav) is the
vivin). BIRC5 is a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis cofactor WW45 (also known as Sav1) that has an important
(IAP) family. role in the activation of MST1/2.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r120
CD44
NF2/Merlin
MST1/2 hWW45/
Sav1
P
P
Lats1/2 MOB1/
Mats
P 14-3-3
YAP TAZ
CKI
P
P YAP
YAP P 14-3-3
P
Lats1/2 TAZ
Ubiquitination
Large tumour suppressor (Lats) 2: Figure hippo signalling pathway). TAZ shares al-
The Large tumour suppressor-1 and -2 (Lats1/2) is a most 50% sequence identity with YAP and they both
serine/threonine protein kinase that acts as a tumour have two central WW domains and a transactivation do-
suppressor by inhibiting the G1/S transition of the cell main at the C-terminus. The TAZ/TEAD transcription
cycle (Module 8: Figure ES cell miRNAs). It functions complex may increase the expression of Zeb1, which
by phosphorylating and inactivating the transcription plays a role in embryonic development by inducing the
factor Yes-associated protein (YAP), which operates in the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT).
hippo signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure hippo sig-
nalling pathway). The expression of Lats1/2 is reduced my
miR372 and miR-373.
Notch signalling pathway
Yes-associated protein (YAP) The Notch signalling pathway is a highly conserved sig-
The Yes-associated protein (YAP), which is the mam- nalling system that functions in both development and
malian homologue of the Drosophila protein Yorkie (Yki), adulthood. Many of its functions relate to cell-fate de-
is a multifunction transcription factor that operates in the termination and this is particularly the case in its control
hippo signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure hippo sig- of binary cell-fate decisions in stem cells. During the assy-
nalling pathway). YAP shares almost 50% sequence iden- metrical divisions of stem cells, one cell retains its stem cell
tity with TAZ and they both have two central WW do- fate (self-renewal) while the daughter cell (progenitor cell)
mains and a transactivation domain at the C-terminus. adopts a different state that will drive it towards prolifera-
The transcriptional activity of YAP functions together tion and differentiation into a specific cell type (Module 8:
with other co-activators such as the TEA domain (TEAD) Figure stem cell function). As these progenitor cells adopt
family, which has four closely related members TEAD1 their new cell fate, they use the Notch signalling pathway
4, peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), to feed information back to suppress their neighbour from
thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1), Runx2 and some adopting a similar cell fate. This is a short-range informa-
of the SMADs. The transactivation with TEAD seems to tion transfer mechanism that depends upon direct contact
be particularly important. between the cells, which is a hallmark of this signalling
pathway. For example, the stimulus Jagged is an integral
Transcriptional coactivator with PDZ binding membrane protein located on the surface of communic-
motif (TAZ) ating cells, whereas the Notch receptor that responds to
The transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif Jagged is embedded in the surface of the receiving cell
(TAZ) operates in the hippo signalling pathway (Module (Module 2: Figure Notch signalling).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r121
Endosome
Delta
Jagged
1 2
S2 Notch 3
-secretase
S3 Proteasome
6 Ankyrin
repeats ADAM 4
NICD
PEST
UbUbUbUb
P
5 8 9
NICD SEL-10
CDK-8
P
Acetylation
p300 MAM Notch target genes HES1
SKIP HES2
CSL 7
HES7
HEY1
Gene repression 10 6 Gene activation HEY2
HEYL
ESR
Deacetylation HDAC
SMRT
CSL
SHARP
X NRARP
The main feature of the transduction mechanism is de- The external domain is shed leaving behind a short
ceptively simple. When Jagged binds to Notch, the Notch transmembrane region and the intracellular domain,
intracellular domain (NICD) is released into the cytoplasm which then becomes a substrate for -secretase.
and then diffuses into the nucleus where it induces the 4. The -secretase complex is an enzyme complex made
transcription of multiple Notch target genes. Despite its up of presenilin, nicastrin, PEN2 and APH1 that
simplicity, this signalling system has an extensive number cleaves the S3 site to release the Notch intracellular
of interacting components (Module 2: Table Notch sig- domain (NICD). The activity of -secretase may be
nalling components). Some of these function during the inhibited by Crumbs, which is an apical polarity pro-
signal transduction process itself, whereas others play a tein.
role in the modulation of Notch signalling, which regu- 5. NICD released from the membrane diffuses into the
lates the expression of the stimuli (Delta and Jagged) and nucleus and binds to CSL (CBF-1, Suppressor of Hair-
the Notch receptor at the cell surface. The operation of less, Lag-1).
the Notch signalling pathway depends upon the following 6. CSL normally acts to repress Notch target genes.
steps (Module 2: Figure Notch signalling): Repression is enhanced by CSL providing a frame-
work to recruit co-repressors such as SMRT, SHARP,
1. Delta or Jagged located on one cell interacts with SKIP and CIR. This repression complex also recruits
the Notch receptor on a neighbouring cell. The N- histone deacetylase (HDAC) that deacetylates chro-
terminal DSL (Delta, Serrate and LAG-2) domain matin further shutting down transcriptional activity.
(yellow bar) on Delta/Jagged binds to the EGF- When NICD binds to CSL, the repression complex is
repeats 11 and 12 (red bar) on Notch. By itself, this disassembled and this paves the way for the assembly
interaction with Notch seems to have little effect and of an activation complex. An important part of the
only initiates the signal transduction sequence as a complex is the co-activator Mastermind (MAM) and
result of Delta/Jagged physically pulling on Notch. the histone acetyl transferase p300. The latter is re-
2. The endocytosis of Delta/Jagged seems to be a crit- sponsible for protein acetylation of histones to open
ical step for receptor activation. As Delta/Jagged are up the chromatin to facilitate gene transcription.
drawn into the endosome, they pull on Notch, which 7. Gene activation results in an increase in the transcrip-
undergoes a conformational change to expose site-2 tion of Notch target genes. Some of these such as the
(S2). hairy and enhancer of split (HES) family encode tran-
3. S2 is cleaved by ADAM proteases such as ADAM-10 scriptional repressors responsible for suppressing the
and ADAM-17 (Module 1: Table ADAMs proteases). expression of tissue specific proteins, which accounts
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r122
for the ability of the Notch signalling pathway to in- chromatin further shutting down transcriptional
hibit differentiation. activity.
8. The inactivation of target gene transcription begins
when NICD is phosphorylated in the N-terminal Notch signalling controls a number of developmental
PEST domain by kinases such as cyclin-dependent events and continues to have a role during adulthood par-
kinase-8 (CDK-8). ticular in maintaining the stem cell population:
9. The phosphorylated NICD becomes a substrate for
nuclear ubiquitin ligases such as SEL-10 and is then Proliferation of satellite cells in skeletal muscle is en-
exported to the cytoplasm where it is degraded by the hanced by Notch signalling (Module 8: Figure Satellite
proteasome. cell activation).
10. Once NICD is removed from the activation complex The self renewal of haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)
and degraded, the different co-activators fall away and is facilitated by Notch signalling that acts by inhibiting
are replaced by the repressors that result in gene re- differentiation (Module 8: Figure HSC regulation).
pression. Gene repression also depends on the recruit- Notch signalling is responsible for the process of lat-
ment of histone deacetylase (HDAC) that deacetylates eral inhibition that inhibits tip cell formation during
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r123
Ub
Ub
Ligand maturation Degradation
Ub 3
2
Ub
Epsin Recycling
1
r Ub
u b
Ne Mi Ub PtdIns4,5P2
Ub
Delta
Jagged
8
Notch
NAK
Numb 4
-adaptin Recycling
7
MVB
Receptor maturation
Endosome
Ub
Itch 6
5 Degradation
Deltex Ub
Ub
angiogenesis (see Step 2 in Module 9: Figure angiogen- to both clathrin and to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-
esis signalling). bisphosphate (PtdIns4,5P2 ), which functions in the
PtdIns4,5P2 regulation of membrane trafficking and en-
Alterations in Notch signalling have been implicated in a
docytosis.
number of cancers. For example, overexpression of Notch
3. The endosome then has two paths: it can move down
has been identified in both ovarian and medullablastomas.
the lysosomal path resulting in degradation of Delta and
An up-regulation of Notch and a decrease in the inhib-
Jagged. Alternatively, it can recycle back to the plasma
itor Numb has been observed in breast cancer. Mutations
membrane where the ligands are then able to activate
in Notch have been linked to T cell acute lymphoblastic
Notch.
leukaemia.
Different players function in the regulation of Notch
Modulation of Notch signalling trafficking as shown in the following steps (Module 2:
The primary mechanism for modulating Notch signalling Figure Notch modulation):
is to adjust the mechanisms responsible for regulating both
4. Entry of Notch into the endosome is dependent on the
ligand (Delta and Jagged) and receptor (Notch) maturation
protein Numb, which is a major inhibitor of Notch
(Module 2: Figure Notch modulation). In both cases, the
signalling. The Notch receptor interacts with Numb,
ligands and the receptor on the cell surface are taken up
which also binds to -adaptin. The latter is a component
into the endosomes and are then either recycled back to the
of the adaptor protein-2 (AP2) complex responsible for
cell surface or are degraded. The balance between recycling
endocytosis. A Numb-associated kinase (NAK) is also
and degradation thus determines their level of membrane
a component of this complex. The Notch receptors in
expression and thus sets the sensitivity of the Notch sig-
the endosome have two fates.
nalling pathway. The ubiquitin-proteasome system plays
5. Some of the Notch receptors are ubiquitinated by
a critical role in regulating the trafficking of these two
ubiquitin ligases such as Itch (a Hect domain E3 lig-
signalling components.
ase) and Deltex (a Ring finger E3 ligase).
The trafficking of Delta and Jagged follows the fol-
6. Ubiquitinylated notch receptors are transferred to the
lowing series of events (Module 2: Figure Notch mod-
multivesicular body (MVB) en route to degradation by
ulation):
the lysosome.
1. The cytoplasmic domain of Delta and Jagged are ubi- 7. Some of the Notch receptors are recycled back to the
quitinylated by Ring finger E3 ubiquitin ligases such as plasma membrane.
Mind bomb (Mib) and Neutralized (Neur). 8. These Notch receptors on the cell surface are then able
2. Endocytosis of these ubiquitylated proteins is facil- to interact with ligands such as Delta and Jagged to
itated by the protein epsin that binds to ubiquitin- initiate the Notch signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure
containing cargo proteins. In addition, epsin binds Notch signalling).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r125
wolframin and is then hydrolysed enabling it to enter phorylation of eIF-2 by PERK would result in a de-
the nucleus to activate the stress signalling targets such cline in the neuronal protein synthesis that contributes
as BiP, C/EBP (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein)- to the calcium-induced memory loss in Alzheimers dis-
homologous protein 10 (CHOP) and X-Box binding ease (AD). A spine-specific Ca2 + signal is responsible for
protein 1 (XBP-1). triggering protein synthesis at the polyribosome located
5. The presence of misfolded proteins acts on the pro- at the base of each spine (step 8 in Module 10: Figure
tein kinase RNAlike endoplasmic reticulum kinase Ca2+ induced synaptic plasticity).
(PERK) monomers in the ER membrane resulting in
oligomerization and autophosphorylation of this res- Protein kinase RNAlike endoplasmic reticulum kinase
ident protein kinase. The activated PERK then has a (PERK)
number of actions. Firstly, PERK can phosphorylate Protein kinase RNAlike endoplasmic reticulum kinase
and activate nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor (PERK) is a protein kinase that resides within the mem-
2 (NRF-2) that enters the nucleus to enhance the ex- brane of the endoplasmic reticulum where it functions in
pression of antioxidants (Module 4: Figure NRF-2 an- the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response (Module 2:
tioxidant function). Secondly, PERK phosphorylates Figure ER stress signalling). Once activated by misfolded
and inactivates the eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-2. proteins it can have a number of actions. Firstly, PERK
This phosphorylation and inhibition of eIF-2 results can phosphorylate and activate nuclear factor erythroid 2
in protein synthesis being switched off (Module 9: Fig- related factor 2 (NRF-2) that enters the nucleus to enhance
ure regulation of eIF-2 cycling). The phosphorylated the expression of antioxidants (Module 4: Figure NRF-2
eIF-2 is dephosphorylated by the serine/threonine- antioxidant function). Secondly, PERK phosphorylates
protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), which is recruited by and inactivates the eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-2. The
GADD34 thus reversing the shut-off of protein syn- eIF-2 is also inactivated by other protein kinases such
thesis enabling cells to recover from stress. as haem-regulated inhibitor (HRI), double-stranded (ds)
RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) and general con-
The PERK-induced decline in protein synthesis has two trol non-derepressible-2 (GCN2). This phosphorylation
important consequences. Firstly, it reduces the protein bur- and inhibition of eIF-2 results in protein synthesis being
den within the ER by reducing the formation of misfol- switched off (Module 9: Figure regulation of eIF-2 cyc-
ded proteins. Secondly, it results in the expression of the ling). The phosphorylated eIF-2 is dephosphorylated by
activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) (Module 2: Figure the serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), which
ER stress signalling), which regulates the expression of a is recruited by GADD34 thus reversing the shut-off of
large number of genes that have different consequences de- protein synthesis enabling cells to recover from stress.
pending on the pervading cellular conditions. One of the The PERK-induced decline in protein synthesis has two
consequences is to stimulate the transcription of CHOP important consequences. Firstly, it reduces the protein bur-
that promotes cell death by activating the expression of den within the ER by reducing the formation of misfol-
PUMA. ATF4 can also induce cell death by increasing the ded proteins. Secondly, it results in the expression of the
expression of Noxa. activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) (Module 2: Figure
These stress pathways are then responsible for switching ER stress signalling), which regulates the expression of a
off on-going protein synthesis, for up-regulating the pro- large number of genes that have different consequences de-
duction of new chaperones, for inducing apoptosis and for pending on the pervading cellular conditions. One of the
activating inflammatory responses. The degree to which consequences is to stimulate the transcription of CHOP
these different responses are activated depends upon the that promotes cell death by activating the expression of
nature of the stress. The fact that the ER can up-regulate PUMA. ATF4 can also induce cell death by increasing the
chaperone levels results in the phenomenon of tolerance, expression of Noxa.
whereby treatment of cells with low levels of stress stimuli
can make cells much more tolerant to subsequent stressful GADD34
stimuli. The growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible protein 34
There is increasing evidence for a role of the ER stress (GADD34), which is also known as protein phosphatase
response in neurodegenerative diseases. 1 regulatory subunit 15A, is encoded by the PPP1R15A
gene. GADD34 is a regulatory subunit of protein phos-
ER stress response in neurodegenerative phatase 1 (PP1) and functions to recruit the enzyme to de-
diseases phosphorylate eIF2 to remove the inhibition of protein
A characteristic feature of many neurodegenerative dis- synthesis that is induced by PERK during endoplasmic re-
eases is an increase in the activity of the endoplasmic re- ticulum (ER) stress signalling (Module 2: Figure ER stress
ticulum (ER) stress signalling pathway (Module 2: Figure signalling).
ER stress signalling) that might arise through different
mechanisms such as the accumulation of misfolded pro- Unfolded protein response (UPR)
teins or an alteration in the Ca2 + concentration or the An accumulation of misfolded proteins induces an unfol-
redox status of the ER. There is an increase in the level of ded protein response (UPR), which switches off ongoing
phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-2 in the protein synthesis and also activates various transcriptional
brains of Alzheimers disease (AD) patients. Such phos- cascades that result in the up-regulation of many of the
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r126
Inflammation
Normal Export
STRESS chaperones
Protein Interleukins
1
Caspase-12
APOPTOSIS
folding Cytokines
Dysfunctional
chaperones
Endoplasmic
2 reticulum NF-kB
Misfolded
protein Excess
protein
3 4
Oligomerization
5 e1F-2
PERK
P PP1
IRE1 WFS1 GADD34
P HRD1
P P
P e1F-2
NRF-2
Protea-
XBP-1
some ATF-6 P
NRF-2 Protein synthesis
ATF-4 switched OFF
PDI
GRP78; GRP78
GRP94 GRP94
EDEM ATF-6 P
XBP-1; Antioxidants CHOP
PDI CHOP NRF-2 Noxa GADD34
key chaperones in an attempt to improve the defective (TRAF) which then binds to caspase 12, making it sens-
protein packaging machinery (Module 2: Figure ER stress itive to the Ca2 + -responsive cysteine protease m-calpain.
signalling). Activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) is one Another suggestion is that the hydrolysis of caspase 12 is
of the transcription factors activated by the UPR. mediated by caspase 7, which is recruited to the membrane
during ER stress. An interesting aspect of this mechanism
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) overload response is that glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa (GRP78) appears
(EOR) to inhibit this activation process by forming a complex
An excessive build-up of proteins, as occurs during viral in- with caspase 7 and caspase 12. Once caspase 12 is released
fections, switches on an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) over- into the cytosol, it activates a specific cascade involving
load response (EOR) that acts through the nuclear factor caspase 9 and caspase 3 in a cytochrome c-independent
B (NF-B) signalling cascade to stimulate the release of manner.
interferons and cytokines as part of an inflammatory re-
sponse (Module 2: Figure ER stress signalling).
Metabolic messengers
Activation of apoptosis There are a number of cellular metabolites that function as
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signalling pathways metabolic messengers to integrate the activities of cellular
can also contribute to apoptosis (Module 11: Figure ap- metabolism and cell signalling (Module 2: Figure meta-
optosis). For example, one of the UPR pathways depends bolic messengers). In this context, a metabolic messenger
upon the release of the transcription factor activating is defined fairly widely: it includes components that are
transcription factor 6 (ATF6), which acts to switch on either a part of, or are derived from, cellular metabolism.
C/EBP (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein)-homologous Metabolism is regulated at many different levels. The most
protein 10 (CHOP). Another mechanism depends upon direct control depends upon feedback processes where cer-
the ER directly activating a subset of caspases during tain substrates or products function as positive or negative
ER stress. A critical component is caspase 12, which is regulators of the enzymes that synthesize or metabolize
associated with the ER membrane and is released by them. They are not signalling mechanisms in the strict
proteolytic cleavage following ER stress. Several mech- sense, but are based on relatively straightforward mass
anisms have been proposed for this activation process. action reactions that ensure that metabolism proceeds in
One suggestion is that the stress sensor molecule IRE1 an orderly and regulated manner. However, some of the
recruits tumour-necrosis-factor-receptor-associated factor metabolic components can be considered to be metabolic
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r127
+
Ca 2+ K+ + Ca 2+
ATP
TRPM2 P2Y P2X
K ATP
Ca 2+ + PLC Ca 2+
DAG InsP3
ADPR ATP
Cyclic AMP
NAD signalling
NADP HCO pathway
3
ADP ribosyl H S
cyclase Metabolic
messengers
cADPR AMP
AMP
signalling
+ NADH
NAADP pathway
NAD
Calcium +
signalling Gene
pathway transcription
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r128
Metabolic messengers
Stimuli ROS/RNS Substrates Oxygen
1 3
+
NAD / NADH
+
NADP / NADPH
AMP/ATP
METABOLISM
_
SIGNALLING 9 HCO 3 8
PATHWAYS
NAADP
cADPR
7
4
Energy
6
CELLULAR
2 RESPONSES 5
Function of metabolic hormones in integrating the operation of cell metabolism and cell signalling pathways.
The signalling cascade begins with the arrival of an agonist (1) that recruits specific signalling pathways to activate a cellular response (2). Metabolism
uses oxygen and substrates (3) to provide the energy (4) that not only powers the cellular responses (5), but also drives signalling pathways (6). The
signalling pathways can also regulate the supply of energy by direct effects on metabolism (7). Superimposed on these more direct interactions, there
are a variety of metabolic messengers that form a complex signalling network (8 and 9) that integrate the activity of both the signalling and metabolic
cascades.
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GBD BD
I
C
Enzyme activation by
AMP and/or protein phosphorylation
by an AMPK kinase (LKB1)
GBD BD
2+
Ca + CaMKK +
P
I
AM
+ C P
LKB1
Protein +
Protein- P AMP
AMPK has also been implicated in cell growth control, tein kinase kinase (CaMKK). The LKB1 is thought
where it functions to regulate the protein kinase TOR that to be constitutively active, but there are indications
controls protein synthesis. that its activity might be regulated by acetylation.
The activation through CaMKK may explain how
adiponectin exerts its effects on metabolism. The
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)
adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2) are
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a critical role
thought to act by promoting the entry of Ca2 + that
in regulating the usage of fuels such as glucose and fatty
then stimulates CaMKK to phosphorylate and ac-
acids. However, it can have additional functions such as
tivate AMPK (Module 2: Figure AMPK control of
the regulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic -cells,
metabolism).
and may also play a role in controlling satiety centres in
3. One of the important actions of AMPK is to regu-
the hypothalamus. AMPK is a trimeric protein (Module
late the activity of peroxisome-proliferator-activated
2: Figure AMPK structure) made up of multiple isoforms
receptor (PPAR) coactivator-1 (PGC-1), which
of a catalytic subunit (1 and 2) associated with -
is a key transcriptional regulator of genes involved in
subunits (1 and 2) and -subunits (13). Cells express
metabolism and particularly those that control mito-
different combinations of these different isoforms.
chondrial biogenesis. PGC-1 activity is controlled
AMPK carries out its function as a pleiotropic regu-
both by its expression level and by post-translational
lator of cell metabolism by regulating a large number of
mechanisms of which phosphorylation and acetyla-
processes (Module 2: Figure AMPK control of metabol-
tion are key processes. Phosphorylation of PGC-1
ism):
by AMPK acts to prime it for subsequent deacyla-
1. One of the primary regulators of AMPK is AMP, tion by the deacetylase SIRT1. AMPK also increases
which is elevated when the level of ATP falls. Gly- SIRT1 activity in two ways. Firstly, it removes de-
cogen can inhibit the activity of AMPK by interacting leted in breast cancer 1 (DBC1) leaving SIRT1 free to
with the glycogen-binding domain (GBD) of the deacylate PGC-1. Secondly, AMPK acts to increase
subunit (Module 2: Figure AMPK structure). the level of NAD + , which enhances the activity of
2. Phosphorylation also plays a key role in regulating SIRT1. The activity of PGC-1 is inhibited following
the activity of AMPK. There are two major AMPK its acetylation by the general control of amino-acide
kinases- LKB1 and Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent pro- synthesis 5 (GCN5).
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r130
Gluconeogenesis
DBC1 Glucose
DBC1
SIRT1
+
+
3 6 + + G-6-P
+ +
GCN5 SIRT1 + NAD PFK-2
Acetyl-CoA 8 F-6-P
+ P
PGC-1 TORC P ACC P F-2,6-P2 ase
X
MDC
X
F-2,6-P2 PFK-1
5
TORC F-1,6-P 2 ase
Malonyl-CoA +
X
Glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis
_
4 F-1,6-P2
Mitochondrial FFA
biogenesis FFA CPT1 oxidation
Lipogenic and 7
glycolytic genes
Mitochondrion Pyruvate
4. One of the primary actions of PGC-1 is to stimu- drial ATP formation because malonyl-CoA normally
late the expression of genes that contribute to ATP inhibits fatty acid oxidation.
generation, such as those that function in fatty acid 8. AMPK can influence the balance between glycolysis
oxidation, glycolysis and mitochondrial biogenesis. and gluconeogenesis by stimulating the formation of
5. AMPK phosphorylates TORC2 to prevent it from fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-P2 ), which is a po-
acting as a cofactor to activate genes responsible for tent regulator of glycolysis through its ability to activ-
gluconeogenesis. For example, in the case of liver ate 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK-1) and to inhibit
cells, AMPK can phosphorylate transducer of regu- fructose-1,6-bisphosphate 1-phosphatase. The forma-
lated cyclic AMP response element-binding protein tion of F-2,6-P2 is regulated by two separate signalling
2 (TORC2), which is then prevented from acting pathways. AMPK promotes glycolysis by stimulating
as a cofactor for the cyclic AMP response element- the phosphofructokinase (PFK-2) of the bifunctional
binding protein (CREB) transcription factor, which enzyme, which has both kinase and phosphatase activ-
can activate genes responsible for gluconeogenesis ities. Cyclic AMP acting through the fructose-2,6-
(Module 7: Figure liver cell signalling). AMPK can bisphosphate 2-phosphatase component lowers the
also inhibit the activity of various transcription factors level of F-2,6-P2 , which reduces glycolysis and pro-
such as the sterol regulatory element-binding pro- motes gluconeogenesis.
tein 1c (SREBp1c) and hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 9. AMPK stimulates the translocation of the glucose
(HNF4), which regulate lipogenic and glycolytic transporter (GLUT4) to the plasma membrane, where
genes respectively. it facilitates the entry of glucose in skeletal muscle and
6. Lipid metabolism is strongly influenced by AMPK, heart cells.
which acts to divert fatty acids away from lipid 10. AMPK can also be activated by endogenous hormones
synthesis and directs them towards the mitochon- such as glucagon or by drugs such as Resveratol. Glu-
drial oxidative pathway to produce ATP. The cagon, which is produced in the -cells in the Is-
AMPK-dependent phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA lets of Langerhans (Module 7: Figure pancreas), is
carboxylase (ACC) reduces the conversion of acetyl- released when blood glucose levels fall too low as oc-
CoA into malonyl-CoA. curs during calorie restriction (CR). Glucagon acts
7. The fall in malonyl-CoA levels has two import con- through the cyclic AMP signalling pathway that uses
sequences. First, fatty acid synthesis is reduced be- protein kinase A (PKA) to stimulate LKB1 that then
cause malonyl-CoA is an important precursor for lipid activates AMPK. Cyclic AMP may also act through
synthesis. Secondly, there is an increase in mitochon- the exchange proteins activated by cAMP (EPACs)
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r131
(Module 2: Figure cyclic AMP signalling). Many of ADP-ribosyl cyclase that generates the Ca2 + -mobilizing
the effects of CR can be reproduced by Resveratol, messengers cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) and nicotinic
which may have many beneficial effects with regard aciddinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) (Module 2: Fig-
to age-related diseases. The mode of action of this drug ure cADPR/NAADP function). ATP is also released from
is not absolutely clear, but there are indications that it the cell and can activate P2X receptors that activate Ca2 +
may act by inhibiting phosphodiesterase (PDE) res- entry or P2Y receptors that are coupled to phospholipase
ulting in an increase in cyclic AMP and activation of C (PLC) to generate inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 )
AMPK. and diacylglycerol (DAG) (Module 2: Figure metabolic
messengers).
In summary, AMPK switches the cell away from energy-
requiring processes towards energy conservation. It does
this by exerting rapid effects on processes such as gluc- Bicarbonate (HCO3 )
ose entry and glycolysis, as well as longer-term effects, The CO2 produced during cellular metabolism is rapidly
by regulating the transcription of genes for mitochondrial converted into bicarbonate (HCO3 ), which acts as a
biogensis and glycolytic and lipogenic hormones (Module messenger to report the current state of metabolism. The
2: Figure AMPK control of metabolism). The AMPK sig- HCO3 activates soluble adenylyl cyclase (Module 2: Fig-
nalling pathway functions in many different cell types: ure cyclic AMP signalling) to generate cyclic AMP that has
many signalling functions, including an effect on cellular
In liver cells, AMPK inhibits gluconeogensis by redu- metabolism through its activation of glycogen metabolism.
cing the activity of PGC-1 (Module 7: Figure liver cell
signalling)
Fatty acids
AMPK regulates insulin biosynthesis in
Fatty acids come in two main forms: saturated and poly-
insulin-secreting 1 cells (Module 7: Figure -cell
unsaturated. There are two main types of polyunsaturated
signalling)
fatty acid: omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. These are re-
O2 -sensing by the glomus cells in the carotid body
ferred to as essential fatty acids since they are not made
(Module 10: Figure carotid body chemoreception)
by the body but are components of the diet: omega-6
Control of Glut4 insertion during excitation
fatty acids are derived mainly from vegetable oils, whereas
metabolism coupling in skeletal muscle (see step 10 in
the omega-3 fatty acids are found in certain plants (li-
Module 7: Figure skeletal muscle E-C coupling)
nolenic acid) or from marine fish and shellfish (eicos-
AMPK plays an important role in cell growth control
apentanoic acid and docosahexanoic acid). Fatty acids not
by reducing protein synthesis when energy levels are
only provide an important energy source but can also
low by acting through TOR (Module 9: Figure target of
be considered as metabolic messengers that contribute
rapamycin signalling).
to a number of metabolic control mechanisms. For ex-
The AMP signalling pathway plays an important role
ample, they control gluconeogenesis in liver cells by ac-
in the control of autophagy (Module 11: Figure auto-
tivating the peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor
phagy).
(PPAR) (Module 7: Figure liver cell signalling). Free fatty
The fact that AMPK plays such a central role in regu- acids are also responsible for activating the uncoupling
lating energy metabolism has important implications for protein 1 (UCP1) that provides the proton leak dur-
diabetes. ing noradrenaline-induced heat production by brown fat
Glycogen storage disease in humans is caused by a cell mitochondria (Module 7: Figure brown fat cell). The
mutation of the AMPK 3-subunit. omega-3 fatty acids have a number of specific signalling
functions.
LKB1 Arachidonic acid (AA) and other polyunsaturated fatty
LKB1 is a serine/threonine protein kinase that functions to acids (PUFAs) such as docosahexenoic acid, linolenic and
activate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by phos- linoleic acid can activate the TREK subfamily of two-pore
phorylating Thr-172 on the -subunit (Module 2: Figure domain K+ (K2P ) channels.
AMPK structure). The activation of AMPK is very de- The positive-feedback loop that free fatty acids (FFAs)
pendent upon LKB1. Inactivation of the latter is respons- exert on the process of lipogenesis (i.e. Step 7 in Module
ible for Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. As such, LKB1 is con- 7: Figure metabolic energy network) may exacerbate the
sidered to be one of the tumour suppressors. onset of obesity by enhancing fat storage.
The build-up of FFAs that occur during obesity play a
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) critical role in inducing the insulin resistance (Module 12:
ATP is an important metabolic messenger in that it has Figure insulin resistance) that leads to the development of
a number of different actions both as an internal and diabetes.
an external signal (Module 2: Figure metabolic messen-
gers). With regard to the former, one of its main func- Omega 3 fatty acids
tions is to regulate the activity of the ATP-sensitive K+ The omega-3 fatty acids such as -linolenic acid (ALA),
(KATP ) channel, which is particularly important in regu- eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
lating the release of insulin (Module 7: Figure -cell sig- (DHA) are typical polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
nalling). It also plays a role in regulating the activity of the These PUFAs are essential for normal cellular function.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r132
C20:6n-3
COOH Docosahexaenoic
CH3
acid (DHA)
LPS TNF
1
GLP-1
GPR120 TNFR
TLR4
PLC
DD
q/11
3 4 IRAK-1
TRAF2
2
+
TRAF6
-arrestin2 IRAK-4
InsP 3 -arrestin2
P 5
Ca 2+ TAB1
-
+
TAK1
IKK
Inflammatory
responses
ALA and -linolenic acid, which are the precursors of TAK1-binding protein 1 (TAB1), which can inhibit the
arachidonic acid and DHA respectively, are not synthes- signalling pathways used by the Toll receptor signalling
ized de novo but are obtained from the diet. Arachidonic pathway (Module 2: Figure Toll receptor signalling)
acid is the precursor of the endocannabinoids, such as or by the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) signalling
anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which pathway (Module 2: Figure NF-B activation).
have important signalling functions (Module 1: Figure 6. Apart from the intracellular signalling pathways de-
anandamide). scribed above, the omega-3 fatty acids are metabolized
The first double bond of these omega-3 fatty acids is by cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) to form the resolvins and
located at the third carbon atom from the methyl (CH3 ) the protectins, which are potent anti-inflammatory and
end of the molecule (see white arrow in Module 2: Fig- immunoregulatory agents.
ure omega-3 fatty acids). These omega-3 fatty acids have 7. The anti-inflammatory action of the omega-3 fatty
a number of specific signalling functions as outlined in acids might have beneficial effects for coronary artery
Module 2: Figure omega-3 fatty acids: disease, cardiac disease and for the insulin resistance
that results in metabolic syndrome.
1. When GPR120 was first identified, it was classed as
an orphan receptor as there was no known ligand. A decrease in dietary omega-3 fatty acids results in a
Subsequently, the omega-3 fatty acids were identified decline in the ability of anandamide to activate long-term
as stimuli for this typical G-protein-coupled receptor depression (LTD) in neurons and this might be the cause
(GPCR). of various neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression. In
2. GPR120 is coupled through Gq/11 and phospholipase C the case of inflammation and Alzheimers disease, omega-3
to activate the Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3 ) and fatty acids may act to curb the build up of amyloid (A)
Ca2+ release signalling pathway. by stimulating its phagocytosis by the microglia (Module
3. One of the functions of the increase in Ca2 + might 12: Figure Inflammation and Alzheimers disease).
be to stimulate the release of glucagon-like peptide 1
(GLP-1). Glycolytic signalling
4. Another function of the GPR120 receptors is to activate The primary role of glycolysis is to extract energy from
the multifunctional adaptor protein arrestin-2. glucose. Glycolysis operates in three different modes.
5. The anti-inflammatory responses of omega-3 fatty In all three modes, glucose proceeds through a number
acids might be carried out by arrestin-2 inactivating the of metabolic steps that culminates in the formation of
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r133
1 2 3
Glucose Glucose Glucose
Pentose phosphate pathway
Ribulose-5P
G-6-P G-6-P G-6-P
Tyrosine +
kinase NADPH NADP
F-6-P F-6-P F-6-P
signalling
GSSG GSH
F-1,6-P2 F-1,6-P2 ROS F-1,6-P2
PEP
+ PEP LDHA Lactate
ADP PEP
ADP
PKM1 PKM2
PKM2
ATP ATP -catenin Myc
LEF-1
Pyruvate Pyruvate Cyclin D1
TC
F
PDH PDH PHD3
PKM2
STAT P
STAT
STAT
MEK5
Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA P
PKM2
HIF-1
HIF1
PDK1
PHD3 PHD3
LDHA
ATP ATP HRE
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), which is then converted into ent of reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism
pyruvate or lactate depending on the activity of two dif- (Module 2: Figure recovery of protein oxidation).
ferent pyruvate kinase isoforms, either M1 or M2 (PKM1, The PKM2 homodimers are not able to convert PEP
PKM2) (Module 2: Figure glycolytic signalling path- into pyruvate resulting in it being diverted to form
ways): lactate. This switching in the conversion of glucose
into lactate is known as the Warburg effect and is the
1. Pyruvate kinase M1 (PKM1), which is constitutively major mechanism of glucose metabolism in cancer
active, converts PEP into pyruvate that is then con- cells.
verted into acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase The PKM2 homodimers can also enter the nucleus
(PDH). Acetyl-CoA enters the mitochondria to fuel to induce gene transcription. PKM2 can interact with
the generation of ATP. -catenin, which functions as a transcription factor
2. Similar to pathway 1 except that PEP is converted into in the canonical Wnt/-catenin pathway to induce
pyruvate by pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), which is al- transcription of cyclin D1 and Myc. The cyclin D
losterically regulated by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F- controls G1 progression and thus regulates cell pro-
1,6P2 ). liferation (Module 9: Figure cell cycle dynamics).
3. Similar to pathway 2 except that the activity of PKM2 It can phosphorylate the signal transducers and ac-
is inhibited, either by phosphorylation through tyr- tivators of transcription (STAT) to increase the ex-
osine kinase signalling pathways or through oxidation pression of MEK5.
by reactive oxygen species (ROS), that result in the The PKM2 can interact with PHD3 to enter the nuc-
homotetramer being converted into homodimers that leus where it interacts with hypoxia-inducible factor
have a number of signalling consequences: 1 (HIF-1) to induce the transcription of a number of
The inhibition of PKM2 results in an accumulation of genes such as PKM2, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase
glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) that then increases its 1 (PKD1), prolyl hydroxylase domain (PHD3) pro-
flux into the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) res- tein and lactate dehydrogenase (LDHA). The gene
ulting in an increase in the formation of NADPH, products constitute a positive-feedback loop in that
which is used by glutathione reductase to generate they all contribute to the Warburg effect by repro-
glutathione (GSH), which is a significant compon- gramming glucose metabolism in cancer cells.
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r134
Protein
substrate
Ribosylation ROS
ADP ribose NADH NADPH
signalling
ARTs and
PARPs
NAD+ NADP
Nicotinamide
(NAM)
Deacetylation
+ Ca 2+ + + Ca 2+ + Ca 2+
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r135
NADH and NADPH regulate the transcription factors Metabolism of cADPR generates ADPR, which regu-
Clock/BMAL1 and NPAS2/BMAL1 that control gene lates transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2),
expression during the operation of the circadian clock. a member of the transient receptor potential (TRP) ion
NADPH appears to regulate the ADP-ribosyl cy- channel family that controls the entry of external Ca2 +
clase that is responsible for producing both cyclic (Module 2: Figure cADPR/NAADP function).
ADP-ribose (cADPR) and nicotinic acidadenine di- NADP + is a precursor of nicotinic acidadenine di-
nucleotide phosphate (NAADP) (Module 2: Figure nucleotide phosphate (NAADP) signalling pathway
cADPR/NAADP function). that functions in Ca2 + signalling.
NADPH is the substrate used to generate reactive oxy-
gen species (ROS), which function as second messen-
gers to regulate a number of cellular proteins (Module
NAD and NADP as precursors of metabolic 2: Figure plasma membrane ROS formation).
messengers
NAD + is a precursor of cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR)
signalling pathway that functions in Ca2 + signalling Sterol sensing and cholesterol biosynthesis
(Module 2: Figure NAD-dependent signalling path- The level of cholesterol in cell membranes is regulated by
ways). a signalling system that can sense the level of sterols and
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Cell Signalling Biology Michael J. Berridge r Module 2 r Cell Signalling Pathways 2 r136
then relay information to the nucleus to adjust the tran- Maravall, M., Mainen, Z.F., Sabatini, B.L. and Svoboda, K. (2000)
scription of the genes responsible for cholesterol biosyn- Estimating intracellular calcium concentration and buffering without
wavelength ratioing. Biophys. J. 78:26552667.
thesis. The signalling system is based on membrane-bound
transcription factors: the sterol regulatory element-bind-
ing proteins (SREBPs), which are integral membrane pro- Cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR)
Galione, A. and White, A. (1994) Ca2 + release induced by cyclic
teins located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). They have ADP-ribose. Trends Cell Biol. 4:431436.
two membrane-spanning domains with the free ends pro- Hua, S.-Y., Tokimasa, T., Takasawa, S., Furuya, S., Nohmi, M., Okamoto,
jecting into the cytosol. The N-terminal region is the lat- H. and Kuba, K. (1994) Cyclic ADP-ribose modulates Ca2 + release
channels for activation by physiological Ca2 + entry in bullfrog
ent transcriptional regulator, which is cleaved by a sterol- sympathetic neurons. Neuron 12:10731709.
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sensing). Once released into the cytosol, these transcrip- and NAADP. Physiol. Rev. 77:11331164.
Lukyanenko, V., Gyorke, I., Wiesner, T.F. and Gyorke, S. (2001)
tion factors dimerize through a basic loophelixleucine Potentiation of Ca2 + release by cADP-ribose in the heart is mediated
zipper and enter the nucleus, where they bind to sterol by enhanced SR Ca2 + uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Circ.
regulatory elements on the genes that code for the en- Res. 89:614622.
zymes of lipid biosynthesis (cholesterol, unsaturated fatty
acids and triacylglycerols) and lipid-uptake mechanisms. Nicotinic acidadenine dinucleotide phosphate
The sterol sensor is a SREBP cleavage-activating protein (NAADP) signalling
Lee, H.C. (2003) Ca2 + signalling: NAADP ascends as a new
(SCAP). When sterols build up in the membranes, they messenger. Curr. Biol. 13:R186R188.
bind to SCAP to inhibit the proteolytic cleavage of the Patel, S., Churchill, G.C. and Galione, A. (2001) Coordination of Ca2 +
SREBPs. The ER thus plays a central role both in sensing signalling by NAADP. Trends Biochem. Sci. 26:482489.
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that make the necessary adjustments to lipid synthesis to
Phospholipase C (PLC)
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