Front. Struct. Civ. Eng.

2013, 7(4): 379390

DOI 10.1007/s11709-013-0223-9

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Evaluating effect of chloride attack and concrete cover on

the probability of corrosion
Sanjeev Kumar VERMAa* , Sudhir Singh BHADAURIAb, Saleem AKHTARa
a
Civil Engineering Department, University Institute of Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, BHOPAL Madhya
Pradesh 462036, India
b
S.G.S. Institute of Technology and Science, INDORE Madhya Pradesh 452003, India
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: sanjeev.apm@gmail.com

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

ABSTRACT Corrosion of reinforced concrete (RC) structures is one of the signicant causes of deterioration of
reinforced concrete (RC) structures. Chlorination is a major process governing the initiation and advancement of the
injurious corrosion of steel bars. Now, several researches on the chlorination of concrete structures have been ongoing
around the world. Present article reviews several recently performed chlorination studies, and from results of a eld
survey evaluates the effect of chloride content on the probability of corrosion and the inuence of concrete compressive
strength on the chloride content and penetration, also evaluates the effect of concrete cover over the chloride content of the
RC structures at rebar depth and on the probability of corrosion.

KEYWORDS concrete, chloride, reinforcement, corrosion, deterioration, cover

1 Introduction the researchers through relationship based on Ficks

Performance degradation of reinforced concrete (RC)
structures due to corrosion initiated by chloride attack is
a signicant problem especially in marine regions. The
chloride ions penetrates in the concrete and results in
initiation of the corrosion. Corrosion of reinforcement
leads to the formation of cracks on concrete cover, which,
in the end results in decrease of residual life of RC
structures. Wardhana and Hadlipriono [1] dened failure of
RC structure as incapacity of a constructed facility or its
components to perform as specied in the design and
construction requirements.
Chloride ion can damage the protective passive lm and
lead to corrosion causing loss of area of steel, reduction in
load carrying capacity of structure and loss of durability Li
et al. [2]. Durability of concrete structures exposed to
chloride environment depends mainly on the resistance of
concrete against chloride ingress (Costa and Appleton) [3].
The chloride content in concrete structures at depth with
respect to age of concrete has been evaluated by most of
Article history: Received Mar. 20, 2013; Accepted Aug. 27, 2013
second law of diffusion shown in Eq. (1), and found that
chloride ingress in the concrete structures depends on the
chloride diffusion coefcient of concrete.


C C
D (1)
t x x
where C is the chloride content at depth x and at time t; D is
the chloride diffusion coefcient.
For improving the tensile strength of cement concrete,
reinforcing steels have been added to form a new material
reinforced cement concrete (RCC). During hydration of
cement in reinforced concrete structures a highly alkaline
pore solution due to high pH (12.513.5) forms a passive
oxide lm on the steel to protect it from corrosion. This
protective lm is destroyed when sufcient amount of
chloride ions penetrates into concrete, and after the
removal of protective lm reinforcing steel bars gets in
contact with oxygen and water corrosion, thereafter,
corrosion in the form of rust formation and loss in cross
section occurs. Hence, it has been recognized that the
presence of chloride ion is a signicant factor causing the
removal of passive oxide coating. Small quantity of
380 Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 2013, 7(4): 379390

chloride will normally present in concrete structures, but
high ingress of chloride ions form deicers or seawater can
destroy the protective lm. Several researchers considered
diffusion as the main transport mechanism of chloride ion
into concrete.
Chloride ion penetration in the concrete structures is of
the main concern, for the durability of concrete structures.
So, studies related to chloride attack on concrete structures
have been the subject of interest for the researchers in the
last few decades. In the present article several recently
performed chlorination studies have been reviewed, and
from results of a eld survey evaluates the effect of
chloride content on the probability of and the inuence of
concrete compressive strength on the chloride content and
penetration, also effect of concrete cover over the chloride
content of the RC structures at rebar depth and on the
probability of corrosion has been evaluated.
2 Determination of chloride content
Chloride content in concrete as the percentage of concrete
weight can be measured on concrete powder drilled out of
structures on site, this method is in conform with ASTM
C114. This concrete sample is then mixed into a 10ml of
extraction liquid and shaken for ve minutes. The
extraction liquid removes disturbing ions, such as sulde
ions, and extracts the chloride ions in the sample, and then
sample is tested with electrode to evaluate chloride content
as the percentage of weight of concrete. Table 1 presents
various NDT methods for the evaluation of chloride
content
3 Modeling chloride ingress in concrete
structures
The signicance of corrosion in service life of structures
has led to extensive researches to the deterioration of RC
structures. Deterioration of concrete structure is mainly
governed by corrosion of steel, which is the result of
chlorination governed by diffusion coefcient and surface
chloride content (Eq. (2)). Most of the researchers
considered chlorination for modeling life of RC structures
by dividing it in different phases. This method has been
rst adopted by Tutti (1982), these models divide service
life of RC structures in two periods. First period is
initiation (ti) which is the time required for chloride ion
concentration to reach the threshold value at the rebar level
and initiate corrosion, and second is propagation (tp) which
is the time between initiation and cracking, hence total
service life of structures is ti + tp,. The two phase service
life concept is shown in Fig. 1, it has been observed that
with the increase in age of the structures the deterioration
level of structures increases and when deterioration level
reaches critical deterioration level it reects end of the
service life.
Following equations based on Ficks second law of
diffusion (Eq. (1)) have been used by many researchers to
predict corrosion initiation period by considering the
following boundary conditions
C(x > 0, t = 0) = 0 initial chloride content is zero at any
depth.
C(x = 0, t > 0) = Cs surface chloride content.
C(x = 1, t > 0) = 0 chloride content at large depths is
zero.

Table 1 methods for testing chloride content

method
Quantab test
Potentiometric titration
Rapid Chloride Test
Salt Ponding Test (resistance of concrete
against penetration of chloride ion)
Bulk diffusion test (resistance of concrete
against penetration of chloride ion)
Rapid chloride permeability test
Electrical resistance test
principle/procedure limitations
Reaction between silver dichromate and chloride ion It is expensive, hazardous and appropriate for
produces white marks on the strips low thickness.
Using acid or water soluble methods, the nal volume Skilled personal are required.
will indicates chloride content.
Potential difference of unknown solution is compared Results are affected by the presence of certain materials.
with potential difference of solutions with known
chloride concentration.
A 3% NaCl solution is ponded on the top surface of Long-term test, complicated testing conditions, provides
the 28 days dried specimen, bottom face is exposed only average value in place of actual
to environment, and the chloride concentration of 0.5
inch thick slice is measured.
Same as above with few changes, rst is it samples Long-term test.
initial moisture condition, specimen is saturated with
limewater instead of keeping dried.
Total charge passed is measured to evaluate ionic Current passed indicates movement of all the ions
movement. instead of chloride ion.
Two cooper plate electrodes are connected on the Results are affected with change in temperature.
opposite faces of specimen by thin wet sponges. Then
electrodes are connected to resistivity meter.
 Sanjeev Kumar VERMA et al. Evaluating effect of chloride attack and concrete cover on the probability of corrosion
Fig. 1 Two phases of the service life (based on tuuttis model,
1982)
Where Cs is the chloride content on the surface of the
concrete structures.
The solution of Eq. (1) is

 
x
C x,t Cs 1 erf p (2)
2 Dt
where erf is the error function
!0e t dt:
2 u 2
erf u p (3)
Table 2 Few recent chlorination studies
references study performed
Cusson et al. [4] Presented the development of probablistic
mechanistic modeling approach supported
by durability monitoring to obtain improved
predictions of service life. Developed a
model to predict service life of concrete
bridge decks exposed to chloride by analyz-
ing surface chloride content, chloride diffu-
sion coefcient, threshold chloride content,
corrosion and deterioration rate.
Li et al. [2] Observed steel corrosion caused by chloride
penetration as the most signicant problem
related to durability of concrete structures.
Performed experiments on stressed speci-
mens exposed to salt solution, to study the
effect of stress on chloride ion penetration
resistance. Diffusion of chlorides in con-
crete has been evaluated by Ficks 2nd law
of diffusion.
Balafas and Burgoyne observed that life of a bridge controlled by
[5] corrosion has two phases, in rst phase
chloride penetrates to the depth of rebar and
starts corrosion, and in second phase rust
produced with higher volume puts pressure
on the cover and led to spalling of concrete
cover. Developed a model to determine the
time span of two periods.
381
So, corrosion initiation period (ti) which is the time
required by chloride content at rebar depth to reach
threshold value, is given by
2 3
2   2
C 4 1 C
ti erf 1 th 5 (4)
4D Cs
where Cth is the threshold chloride content; C = concrete
cover. From Eq. (4) it has been observed that in RC
structures with high concrete cover the corrosion initiation
period is longer than that for structures with low concrete
cover.
4 Review of few recent chloride studies
The deterioration of RC structures is mainly associated
with the reinforcing steel corrosion. One of the main agents
causing corrosion of rebars is the chloride ion, which
diffuses into concrete and causes chlorination of concrete.
When chloride content at rebar depth reaches threshold
value, it initiates the corrosion of steel reinforcement.
Ficks laws of diffusion have been used many authors and
researchers for modeling the chloride ingress in concrete
structures. Several recent chlorination studies conducted
have been reviewed in Table 2.
considerable research/ ndings comments
Demonstrated that service life All the four parameters responsible for
predictions using probabilistic models chloride ingress rate have been considered
calibrated with selected monitored eld and model is validated by experimental
data can provide more reliable assess- results.
ments of the probabilities of reinforce-
ment corrosion and corrosion-induced
damage, when compared to using deter-
ministic models based on standard data
from the literature. Such probabilistic
models can improve life cycle perfor-
mance of structures by extending its
service life and reducing its life
cycle cost.
Chloride contents in un-cracked conc- Normally chloride studies are performed on
rete with different w/c ratio, states and unstressed concrete. However, evaluating
level of stress and environmental condi- the effect of stress over the chloride
tions have been analyzed. penetration provides more realistic results.
New formula is proposed for the rate Considered two phase service life and
of rust production, based on Faradays evaluated propagation time on the basis of
law. fracture mechanics.
Results are in good agreement with
existing experimental data on specimens
under uniform corrosion
382 Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 2013, 7(4): 379390
references study performed
Yuan et al. [6] Used multispecies model to describe the
chloride transport in saturated concrete,
which has been solved using FDM by
inputting parameters such as porosity,
density, chemical composition of pore
solution, diffusion coefcient and chloride
binding isotherm. And used extension of
Nernst-Planck equation to describe multi-
species model.
Wang et al. [7] Chloride concentration and diffusion coef-
cient decreases with the increase of com-
pressive stress and increases with the
increase of exural stress. Considering the
above statement a model for predicting the
chloride ingress has been developed for
different loading conditions based on Ficks
2nd law of diffusion.
Chai et al. [8] Investigated corrosion of steel during the
accelerated corrosion test and critical chlor-
ide ion concentration. Service life prediction
equation of concrete structures has been
established through the experimental
results. Dened concrete service life as the
period from the initial use to depassivation
or to the corrosion of steel. Two different
types of experiments were performed to
evaluate critical chloride ion concentration
and concrete service life. Specimens pre-
pared are having water cement ratio of 0.48.
Zhang and Ba [9] Conducted accelerated life test by chloride
migration equipment to save time and
money, and found that the negative algo-
rithm of chloride ion concentration has been
linear with the electrochemical potential.
Lin et al. [10] Developed an integrated FE based numer-
ical model for predicting service life of RC
structures exposed to chloride environ-
ments, which accounts for the environmen-
tal humidity, temperature uctuations,
chloride binding-diffusion and convection,
as well as decay of concrete structural
performance.
Sun et al. [11] Proposed a service life prediction model for Service life predicted by this model is
RC structures exposed to chloride environ- found to be comparable with well
ment based on the analytical solution of known Light Con model.
Ficks 2nd law of diffusion, also presented
time and depth dependent chloride diffusion
coefcient obtained from the analytical
solution of the nonlinear chloride diffusion
equations.
(Continued)
considerable research/ ndings comments
Diffusion coefcient used in this model In this model in place of constant diffusion
was depth dependent instead of xed. coefcient a depth-dependent diffusion
coefcient has been considered. This is a
J Dc=x c=yy=y
good approach as it has been observed by
zcF=RTEx,t=x cVx many researchers that diffusion coefcient
Where D = effective diffusion coef- is a variable. And the results are veried by
cient; i = ionic concentration in pore experimental results.
solution; = chemical activity coef-
cient; E = electric potential; F =
Faraday constant; R = universal
gas constant; z = valence.
Results of performed experiment Predicted values of chloride diffusion coef-
shows that diffusion coefcient have cient from the proposed model are com-
inverse relationship with compressive parable with experimental results. More
stress and direct relationship with validation of this model is required.
exural stress, and apparent diffusion
coefcient decreases with the increase
in compressive stress and increased
with the increase of exural stress.
Developed model accounts for para-
meters such as stress level, water/
cement ratio, curing time, temperature,
concrete age, humidity, and chloride
diffusion coefcient.
Threshold value of chloride ion Considered threshold chloride concentration
concentration has been determined as as the criteria of the end of service life.
for different specimens as 0.485% Service life of concrete constructed by
and 0.461% (percent mass of concrete). replacing cement y ash and slag is more
Also observed that Mineral admixtures than a concrete constructed by ordinary
in concrete can preserve protective Portland cement.
passive lm over rebar and improve
the resistance to corrosion of steel rebar,
also decrease the free chloride ion content
by absorbing large number of free
chloride ions.
Presented a accelerated curve to predict Service life obtained experimentally is
the Service life of concrete in natural comparable with the results of Life-365
diffusion test. models.
The result shows that in chloride envir-
onment service life of concrete structures
with 10 mm cover to rebar has been
between 11.89 and 12.45 years.
Results of numerical model were vali- Chemical attack, environmental conditions,
dated by comparing with analytical temperature and age of structures, combina-
solutions and experimental observa- tion of all these parameters have been
tions, and its application for predict- required for performance evaluation of
ing its service life has been demon- concrete structures.
strated on RC slab.
Considered time and depth diffusion coef-
cient for better results, as now several
researchers realized that diffusion coef-
cient is not a constant, it depends on the
quality of concrete and exposure conditions.
To obtain more accurate results inspection
period must be longer. And to obtain more
realistic predictions different environmental
factors can be considered.
 Sanjeev Kumar VERMA et al. Evaluating effect of chloride attack and concrete cover on the probability of corrosion 383

(Continued)
references study performed considerable research/ ndings comments
Andrade and Andrea Ficks law has been used to calculate Observed resistivity as the property Considered diffusion coefcient as the
[12] the diffusion coefcient for predicting based on the concrete porous system signicant factor governing the chloride
the concentration of the aggressive and its degree of moisture content. ingress and service life of the structures.
agents at a certain depth and at Concrete mix can be designed for a
several periods of time. Electrical target resistivity and this parameter
resistivity property has been used to can also be used as a performance
calculate both the initiation and parameter (corrosion indicator).
propagation periods, as well as for
predicting age of concrete related to
durability and for measuring the
efciency of curing.
Wang et al. [13] Presented service life prediction This model is comparable with life- Provides realistic results as it considered
model for chloride environment 365 model. environmental conditions with usage.
based on Ficks 2nd law using
above Eqs. (1 to 4), also developed
a service life prediction program
using Monte-Carlo method.
Conciatori et al. [14] Presented a numerical model Carbonation inuences the capacity Provide results by combining various trans-
TransChlor based on Finite of concrete to capture chloride ion. port modes and ingress of harmful agents.
element method (FEM) and
Finite difference method (FDM).
This model combines various
transport modes such as thermal
transfer, hydrous transfer of vapor
water and liquid water by capillary
suction, CO2 diffusion, Chloride
ion diffusion and chloride ion
convection by the hydrous
movement. Microscopic and
macroscopic models have been
often used to model the
movement of chloride ions.
Microscopic models describe
chloride ion movements in
concrete and macroscopic models
consider the chemical conversions
and the thermal, hydrous and chloride
ion variations by simulating overall
chemical effects on transport.
Song and Kwon [15] Proposed a neural network algorithm Experimental data had been compared It has been observed that by applying neural
to determine chloride diffusion in with numerical simulation results, and network diffusion coefcient can be esti-
high performance concrete (HPC) it has been found that developed tech- mated successfully. However, by utilizing
using micro pore structures. nique is applicable for different mix- more data from more number of test speci-
Electrically driven chloride penetration ture design of HPC. mens a more effective model can be
tests for diffusion coefcient are developed.
performed for the concretes with
various parameters such as w/c ratio
and various mineral admixtures.
Zhang and Lounis [16] Presented a performance-based it has been observed that in aggres- This study considered all the signicant
durability design of concrete sive chloride-laden environment parameters required for evaluating chloride
structures using simplied increasing concrete cover is more ingress in concrete structures using Ficks
diffusion-based model based on effective than using corrosion resistant law of diffusion.
Ficks law of diffusion. Numerical steel, it is necessary to use both high
nonlinear relationship between the performance concrete and corrosion-
four parameters governing the resistant steel, a relative decrease in the
corrosion initiation period of concrete cover has to be compensated by
reinforced concrete structures a much greater increase in the corrosion
including chloride diffusion resistance of steel, and values of critical
coefcient, chloride threshold chloride content and concrete cover are
value of reinforcement, concrete governed by chloride diffusion coef-
cover and surface chloride exposure cient.
condition has been determined.
384 Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 2013, 7(4): 379390
references study performed
Cheung et al. [17] Developed a 2-D FE coupled model to
evaluate the chloride penetration process for
predicting the corrosion initiation time.
Found that corrosion initiation time is
signicantly governed by the speed of
chloride transfer and depassivation process
with in the structure. Variation in environ-
mental conditions to which structure is
exposed had very signicant impact on the
corrosion process, therefore variation in
microclimate on the concrete surface has
been investigated. The corrosion perfor-
mance model is developed to consider
change in environmental conditions and
simulate the coupled diffusion process and
corrosion performance in time domain. Also
Proposed a set of realistic environmental
conditions based on material properties.
Alizadeh et al. [18] Determined values of diffusion coefcient
and surface chloride content in concrete
specimens exposed to seawater in the
Persian Gulf. Also effect of various curing
regimes had been investigated on the
estimation of time to corrosion initiation of
reinforced concrete structures during the
DuraPGulf model.
Shekarchi et al. [19] Presented the development of DuraPGulf
(service life design model based on Ficks
law) to predict the chloride induced corro-
sion initiation of RC structures in the south
of IRAN.
Anoop and Balaji Demonstrated the use of data from eld
Rao [20] inspections for the assessment of remaining
life of corrosion affected RC bridge by
determining the time taken for a given
performance measure to deteriorate to a
target value using the concept of additive
fuzzy logic. Corrosion initiation time has
been determined using Ficks 2nd Law of
diffusion. Uncertainities in the values of the
parameters characterizing the enviroment
and variables affecting the time to corrosion
initiation and corrosion propogation are
taken into account by treating them as
fuzzy variables.
Evans and Richardson Analyzed the chloride diffusivity of Irish
[21] Portland cement concretes in chloride
environment, also inuence of secondary
cementitious materials has been investi-
gated.
Polder and Rooij [22] Presented investigations series performed
on six concrete structures between the ages
of 18 to 41 years, most of them are
constructed using blast furnace slag cement.
Interpretation is based on the Dura-Crete
model developed using Ficks 2nd law of
diffusion for chloride ingress. Curve tting
of chloride proles has been performed to
evaluate chloride surface contents and
apparent diffusion coefcients.
considerable research/ ndings
The parametric analysis results suggest This model considers the effect of environ-
that the corrosion initiation time in
tropical/ subtropical regions depends
mainly on the annual mean relative
humidity (h), the source chloride
Concentration (C), concrete covers
depth (d) and w/c ration.
Surface chloride concentration shows
a quasi-linear increase with the nth root
of time and this increase is relatively fast
and reaches a quasi-constant content in
about ve years time.
Ficks second law of diffusion (Eqs.
(1) to (4)) has been used to evaluate
chloride penetration rate as a function
of depth from the concrete surface
and time.
Model has been developed using the
FE technique and user friendly soft-
ware was programmed for practical
engineering applications.
Usefulness of proposed methodology
has been illustrated through a case
study, by comparing the time to reach
different damage levels for a severly
distressed beam.
It has been observed that in concretes
with secondary cementitious materials
diffusion coefcient is lower than the
concretes with Portland cement.
Comparison has been made with pre-
viously published data on chloride
ingress and electrical resistivity of
similar concretes.
(Continued)
comments
mental conditions, which have a very
signicant effect on the chlorination of
concrete structures. Hence, it provides
more realistic results
Evaluated diffusion coefcient and surface
chloride content are not real diffusion
coefcient and surface chloride content,
but only represents the regression coef-
cients.
Ingress of chloride ion and service life of a
RC structure depends on the exposure
conditions. Therefore, it is required to
develop local models based on local expo-
sure conditions. Hence, it is good to develop
this DuraPGulf as local model for the
structures in Gulf region.
Utilizing eld inspection data for modeling
chloride ingress or other deterioration
mechanism provides the variation of these
parameters with the age of structures.
Results of this study can be used to design
and develop concrete structures with
increased durability.
Classifying structures according to their age
and condition is a good practice for short-
term monitoring of structures.
 Sanjeev Kumar VERMA et al. Evaluating effect of chloride attack and concrete cover on the probability of corrosion
references study performed
Khatri and Presented a model to determine service life
Sirivivatnan on [23] of concrete structures in marine environ-
ments, chloride ingress model based on
Ficks 2nd law of diffusion has been
assumed. Effect of severity of environment
is also demonstrated. Service life of RC
structures found to be governed by cover
depth, diffusion coefcient, surface chloride
concentration and critical chloride level.
Martin-Perez and Lounis Presented an approach for predicting service
[24] life of RC structures exposed to chloride
environment, which combines a FE based
chloride transport model with a reliability
based approach to evaluate the damage.
Liang et al. [25] Examined mathematical service life predic-
tion models for RC bridges in chloride laden
environment. The service model consists of
three stages of corrosion initiation time (tc),
depassivation time (tp) and propagation
time (tcorr). Hence, total service life of
existing RC bridge is t = tc + tp + tcorr.
Model is based on based on Ficks 2nd law
of diffusion.
Cao and Presented a simple model to predict the
Sirivivatnan on [26] service life of RC structures based on the
solution derived from Ficks 2nd law of
diffusion. Dened service life as time after
construction until the chloride content at the
reinforcement is high enough to initiate steel
corrosion.
Scheremans and Gemert Chloride Ingress in the concrete is mainly Updated a probability based model for
[27] governed by diffusion process and evalu- interpretation of test results and predic-
ated using Ficks 2nd law of diffusion. Also tion of the service life of RC structures.
conducted experiments on concrete struc-
tures exposed to marine environment and
observed signicant inuence of depth on
chloride diffusion coefcient, however, no
effect of time on diffusion coefcient have
been observed.
Costa and Appleton [28] Presented an experimental study for cali-
brating the parameters in model based on
Ficks second law of diffusion used to
predict the chloride penetration, and con-
cluded that both the concrete cover and
concrete quality affects the service life.
Ann et al. [29] Concluded from a literature review that in
marine environment chloride content
increases with time and properties like W/
C, cement content and binder governed the
diffusivity of chloride ion.
Sharma and Mukherjee Studied progress of corrosion in chloride
[30] and oxide conditions using Ultrasonic
guided waves. Observed that corrosion rate
is different in chloride and non- chloride
conditions.
385
(Continued)
considerable research/ ndings comments
It has been observed that cover depth Findings of this research is useful of
is more important than diffusion coef- engineers and researchers, recommendation
cient, and surface chloride concentra- can be used for improving the durability of
tion affects service life more than concrete structures.
critical chloride value. Hence, to improve
service life it is better to provide sufcient
cover depth.
The probabilistic distributions of the Combining two different approaches for
chloride penetration front and corro- predicting service life and chloride ingress
sion initiation time are generated by usually provides good results.
using Monte Carlo simulation.
Solution of Ficks law depends on Here constant surface chloride content has
the initial chloride content and surface been used. However, to improve the results
chloride content. time and depth dependent surface chloride
Degree of deterioration can be obta- content can be used.
ined by using the value of integrity
of structures.
Suggested that acceptable steel corro- Diffusion coefcient and surface chloride
sion rate can be used for predicting content obtained are more than real value so
service life of deteriorating concrete correction factors are required.
structures.
From several researches it has been
observed that diffusion coefcient is time
and depth dependent. So, better results can
be obtained by considering effect of time on
diffusion coefcients.
Studied time dependence of chloride This study is useful of researchers as it
diffusion coefcient and surface provide values of chloride diffusion coef-
chloride concentration for the various cient and surface chloride concentration for
marine conditions. It has been found different regions and also provides time and
from results that chloride diffusion depth dependence of these parameters.
coefcient and surface chloride concen-
tration depends on the time and depth.
For a service life of more than 50 years
concrete cover must be more than 40mm.
Considered various signicant factors Considered constant diffusion coefcient
affecting chloride ingress, while (2x1012 m2/s), but it has been observed that
evaluating chloride content in concrete chloride diffusion coefcient depends on
structures. time and depth.
Corrosion rate depends on the ingress Application of Ultrasonic guided waves for
of various agents responsible for initia- evaluating the corrosion rate and for com-
ting the corrosion, chloride content paring different environmental conditions
increases the corrosion rate after has been identied as good approach.
initiating the corrosion of rebars.
386 Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 2013, 7(4): 379390

references study performed
Costa and Appleton [3] Performed study on three concrete mixes in
different exposure conditions, and con-
cluded from the results that diffusion
coefcient and surface chloride concentra-
tion are time dependent.
Sengul and Tasdemir Investigated the effect of replacing cement
[31] with supplementary materials on compres-
sive strength and rapid chloride permeabil-
ity of concrete. And it has been observed
that partial replacement (about 50%) of
Portland cement with ground y ash and
ground granulated blast furnace slag sig-
nicantly reduce the permeability of chlor-
ide in concrete.
considerable research/ ndings
Simple models based on Ficks second
law of diffusion were used to predict
the chloride penetration. However, it
has been observed that these models
are required to be calibrated using
experimental results.
Considered three aspects minimum
chloride permeability for more
durability, high compressive strength
for safety and cost of concrete. It has
been required to estimate an optimized
mix percentage to satisfy all the above
aspects (durability, safety, cost).
(Continued)
comments
Evaluated values of diffusion coefcient
and surface chloride concentration cannot
be used for long-term monitoring, as these
values are strongly time dependent.
All the three aspects, durability, safety and
cost, are signicantly inuence the utility of
a structure.
Permeability is the main cause inuencing
the ingress of harmful ions in the concrete
surrounding the rebars, so this study
provides useful results for reducing the
permeability of the concrete.

5 Effect of concrete cover and chloride
content on corrosion of steel bars
Form the data obtained from a eld survey conducted on
several RC structures situated around the City of Bhopal
India, effect of concrete cover over the chloride content at
rebar depth has been evaluated. Almost hundred structures
are identied and classied according to age of the
structures. Cover-meter, Rebound hammer, Ag/AgCl half
cell and rapid chloride tests have been performed to
evaluate concrete cover, compressive strength, half cell
potential and chloride content respectively to perform
studies presented in Sections 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3.
Corrosion probability is indicated by the half cell
potential values, decrease in half cell values (increase in
negative value) indicates higher probability of corrosion.
Figure 2 presents the values of chloride content and
concrete cover of the surveyed structures. As the values of
chloride content are smaller in comparison with concrete
cover, so for plotting those in the same graph values of
chloride content are multiplied 100 times. Hence, threshold
value of chloride content (0.2%) becomes 20. Fall in value
of chloride content has been identied with the rise in
concrete cover also it has been observed that for most of
the structures with concrete cover more than 40mm
chloride content is lower than threshold value.
5.1 Effect of chloride content on probability of corrosion
Chloride attack is a major cause of corrosion in RC
structures. Signicance of chloride attack in the corrosion
process has evolved the threshold chloride content
concept. Threshold value of chloride content is dened
as the chloride content at rebar depth required to destroy
the passive protective lm and initiates the corrosion.
Effect of chloride content at rebar depth on the half cell
potential has been presented in Fig. 3, which indicates that
increase in chloride content increases the probability of
corrosion. It has been also observed from Fig. 3 that when
value of chloride content at rebar depth is more than
threshold value which is 0.2% of the weight of concrete,
than the probability of corrosion is more than 90%.

Fig. 2 concrete cover and values of chloride content (100) of the surveyed structures
 Sanjeev Kumar VERMA et al. Evaluating effect of chloride attack and concrete cover on the probability of corrosion
Fig. 3 effect of chloride content at rebar depth on probability of corrosion
5.2 Effect of compressive strength on chloride ingress of
concrete
It has been observed by many authors that chloride ingress
is slower in the high strength concrete. To evaluate the
variation of chloride content with the change in compres-
sive strength, values of chloride content and compressive
strength obtained from eld survey have been plotted and
tted in Fig. 4, and weak correlation is obtained because of
scattered values. It has been observed from Fig. 4, that
increase in compressive strength reduces the chloride
content at rebar depth, and for the concrete structures with
low compressive strength the chloride content at rebar
depth is more than threshold value which indicates higher
probability of corrosion.
Fig. 4 Effect of compressive strength on the chloride content at
rebar depth
5.3 Effect of concrete cover on chloride ingress and
probability of corrosion
A graph (Fig. 5) is plotted between the evaluated values of
chloride content and concrete cover, then using Microsoft
excel curve tting tool an exponential relation is obtained
387
between the plotted data shown in Eq. (5).
C 9:521e 0:009Cc , (5)
where C = chloride content at rebar depth (% wt. of
concrete), and Cc = concrete cover (mm). Negative sign
indicates inverse relationship between concrete cover and
chloride content. It has been observed from Fig. 5, that
chloride content at rebar depth decreases with the increase
in concrete cover of RC structures resulting in less
probability of corrosion and further increase in the service
life of the structure. The value of minimum concrete cover
required to maintain chloride content lower than threshold
value has been obtained from above relation is almost
40 mm. From Fig. 6 it has been concluded that with the in
concrete cover half cell value increases (decrease in
negative value), which indicates lesser probability of
corrosion.
Fig. 5 relation between chloride content and concrete cover
Data obtained from eld survey has been classied
considering chloride penetration period or age of structure
and considering compressive strength of structure, classi-
cation of structures in different groups has been shown in
Tables 3 and 4. Now, considering the following classica-
388 Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 2013, 7(4): 379390

Fig. 8 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride

Fig. 6 Effect of concrete cover on the probability of corrosion
content (C) for A2 group

Table 3 Classication of data considering chloride penetration period

or age of the structures
group chloride penetration period/year No. of structures
A1 0 to 15 22
A2 16 to 30 33
A3 31 to 50 28
A4 51 to 60 13

Table 4 Classication of data considering compressive strength of the

structures
group compressive strength/MPa No. of structures
Fig. 9 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride
C1 0 to 15 44 content (C) for A3 group
C2 16 to 25 33
C4 more than 25 21

tions effect of concrete cover on the chloride content has

been analyzed through Fig. 7 to 13.
From Fig. 7 to 10 effect of concrete cover over on the
chloride content has been evaluated, and it has been
observed from Fig. 7 that for the structures of group A1
even with low concrete cover chloride content is lower

Fig. 10 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride

content (C) for A4 group

than threshold value (0.2%). Figures 8 and 9 indicate that

Fig. 7 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride
content (C) for A1 group
with the increase in chloride penetration period most of the
structures with low concrete cover are having chloride
content more than threshold value. From Fig. 10, it has also
been observed that after the age of 50 years structures with
high concrete cover are having chloride content more than
threshold value. Therefore, it has been interpreted that both
concrete cover and age of structures are affecting chloride
content of the RC structures and probability of the
corrosion.
 Sanjeev Kumar VERMA et al. Evaluating effect of chloride attack and concrete cover on the probability of corrosion
Fig. 11 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride
content (C) for C1 group
Fig. 12 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride
content (C) for C2 group
Fig. 13 Relation between concrete cover (Cc) and chloride
content (C) for C3 group
Figures 1113 represent the effect of concrete cover on
the chloride content over the structures of different
compressive strengths. Figure 11, indicates that in the
structures with low compressive strength usually chloride
ingress is more than threshold limit, and from Figs. 12 and
13 it has been observed that with the increase in
compressive strength chloride content remains under the
threshold limit for most of the structures.
389
6 Conclusions
In RC structures corrosion takes place when passive
protective layer is destroyed by chloride ingress. Chloride
penetration in concrete is affected by variation in
temperature, wetdry cycles and change in other exposure
conditions. There are numerous experimental and mathe-
matical studies performed related to chloride ingress in
concrete structures.
Several recent chloride studies have been reviewed and
it has been observed that most of the researchers used
Ficks laws of diffusion to model the chloride ingress.
Chloride ingress in concrete structures mainly depends on
the diffusion coefcient. Increase in diffusion coefcient
increases the ingress of chloride ion [27] in concrete
structures, and signicantly reduces the service life of RC
structures. Increasing concrete cover depth is the most
appropriate technique for increasing chloride resistance
and further improving the service life of structures [16].
Replacing cement by supplementary materials increases
the chloride resistance of concrete structures, which results
in improvement in estimated service life of structures
[8,31]. It has been found that use of pozzolanic materials is
more effective than decreasing the W/C ratio for improving
the chloride resistance of concrete structures.
Effect of chloride content on the probability of corrosion
has been evaluated, and it has been observed from Fig. 3
that increase in chloride content increases the probability
of corrosion. Effect of compressive strength on the
chloride content has been investigated in Fig. 4, and it
has been observed that they are having inverse relationship
with each other. Concrete structures with low compressive
strength have higher probability of corrosion.
It has been observed from Fig. 5 that concrete cover and
chloride content at rebar depth are having inverse
relationship. A minimum concrete cover of 40mm is
required to keep the chloride content below the threshold
limit. Figure 6 indicates decrease in probability of
corrosion with the increase in concrete cover. Also, Fig.
7 to 13 indicates the signicance of age and compressive
strength on the chloride content of the structure.
Several methods are available for measuring chloride
content and chloride ion resistance of concrete structures.
However, additional research is required to develop more
reliable and rapid methods.
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