INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION AND

EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENT

DR. S.M. SHIVA NAGENDRA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL AND WATER RESOURCES DIVISION
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS
Email:snagendra@iitm.ac.in
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
BHOPAL, INDIA DECEMBER. 3, 1984

Pollutant: Methyl isocyanate (MIC)

AIR POLLUTION DUE TO
TERRORISM
 AIR POLLUTION DEFINITION BASED ON SYSTEM APPROACH
The phenomenon of air pollution involves a sequence of events: the generation
of pollutants at and their release from a source; their transport and
transformation in and removal from the atmosphere; and their effects on
human beings, materials, and ecosystems.

Sources of Meteorology
Air Pollution & Topography

Air Quality

Effects on
Receptors
AIR POLLUTION DEFINITIONS
Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more
contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour in
quantities with characteristics, and of durations such as to be injurious to
human, plant or animal life or to property or which unreasonably interfere
with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property.
Engineers Joint Council

Air pollution is the presence in ambient atmosphere of substances generally

resulting from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration present for a
sufficient time and under circumstances which interfere significantly with the
comfort, health or welfare of persons or with the full use or enjoyment of
property.
Indian Standards Institution IS-4167 (1996)

Air pollution is the excessive concentration of forigen matter in the air which
adversely affects the well being of the individual or causes damage property.
American Medical Association
 AIR POLLUTION ENGINEERING
1. The generation and control of air pollutants at their source.
It involves everything that occurs before the pollutant is released "up the stack" or
"out the tailpipe.

2. The transport, dispersion, chemical transformation in, and removal of species from
the atmosphere.
It includes all the chemical and physical processes that take place between the point
of emission and ultimate removal from the atmosphere.

3. The effects of air pollutants on human beings, animals, materials, vegetation,

crops, and forest and aquatic ecosystems, including the measurement of gaseous and
particulate species.
 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY
Principle parameters for air pollutant transport and dilution

MONITORING
STATION

The atmospheres role in air pollution

DEVELOPMENT OF AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN CITIES
ACCORDING TO DEVELOPMENT STATUS
AIR QUALITY IN SELECTED CITIES OF INDIA
 PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF
POLLUTANTS IN TWO METROCITIES

Industries 20 % Domestic 9 %
Domestic 10 %

Industries 20 %
Traffic 70 % Traffic 71 %

Air pollution load in Delhi city Air pollution load in Chennai city

In India, 70 % of the urban air pollutants are contributed by road

transport sector
 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Natural :
Volcanic eruptions
Dust storms
Forest fires

Anthropogenic/ Man made

Industries
Domestic
Motor vehicles
 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollutants are broadly classified into two categories

Primary air pollutants - Materials that when released pose health risks in their unmodified
forms or those emitted directly from identifiable sources.
Example : particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide,
hydrocarbons, radioactive compounds, etc.

Secondary air pollutants - Primary pollutants interact with one another, sunlight, or natural
gases to produce new, harmful compounds.
Example : sulfur trioxide, peroxyacetyl nitrate, ozone, aldehydes, ketones etc.
 CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS

Based on health effects with measured air quality levels that violate
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

(NAAQS)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Particulate matter (Suspended particulate matter-PM10, Fine-
PM2.5 , Ultra Fine-PM1 & Nano-PM0.1)
Lead (Pb)
 PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS

Five major materials released directly into the

atmosphere in unmodified forms.
Carbon monoxide
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Hydrocarbons
Particulate matter (Respirable Fraction of
Particulate Matter and Suspended Particulate
Matter)
 CARBON MONOXIDE

Produced by burning of organic

material (coal, gas, wood, trash, etc.)
Automobiles biggest source (80%)
Cigarette smoke another major source
Toxic because binds to hemoglobin,
reduces oxygen in blood
Not a persistent pollutant, combines
with oxygen to form CO2
Most communities now meet EPA
standards, but rush hour traffic can
produce high CO levels
 SULFUR DIOXIDE
Colorless gas with irritating
pungent odor; detectable by
taste at levels of 0.3 to I ppm;
highly soluble in water.
Produced by burning sulfur
containing fossil fuels (coal, oil)
Coal-burning power plants major
source
Reacts in atmosphere to produce
acids (major components of acid
rain)
When inhaled, can be very
corrosive to lung tissue
 NITROGEN OXIDES
Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02)
are the two most important nitrogen oxide
air pollutants.
They are frequently lumped together under
the designation NOx , although analytical
techniques can distinguish clearly between
them.
Of the two, N02 is the more toxic and
irritating compound.
Nitric oxide is a principal by-product of
combustion processes, arising from the
high-temperature reaction between N2 and
O2 in the combustion air and from the
oxidation of organically bound nitrogen in
certain fuels such as coal and oil.
Contributes to acid rain, smog
Automobile engine main source
Advanced combustion technology has
helped reduce, but many more cars
 HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons - organic compounds

with hydrogen, carbon
From incomplete burning or
evaporated from fuel supplies
Major source is automobiles, but some
from industry
Contribute to smog
Improvements in combustion
technology/engine design have helped
reduce
 CARBON DIOXIDE

A colorless, odorless,
incombustible gas, CO2,
formed during respiration,
combustion, and organic
decomposition and used in
food refrigeration,
carbonated beverages, inert
atmospheres, fire
extinguishers, and aerosols.
 PARTICULATE MATTER
Particulate matter refers to everything
emitted in the form of a condensed (liquid or
solid) phase.

Major industrial process sources of

particulate matter include the metals,
mineral products, petroleum, and chemicals
industries.

Examples: ash from fires, asbestos from

brakes and insulation, dust..

Can accumulate in lungs and interfere with

the ability of lungs to exchange gases.

Some particulates are known carcinogens

Those working in dusty conditions at highest

risk (e.g., miners)
 RESPIRABLE FRACTION
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM)
PM1 having size <= 1m: effects in alveoli
PM2.5 having size <= 2.5m: effects trachea
PM10 having size <= 10m: effects in nasal part only
 SECONDARY POLLUTANTS

Ozone
PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate)
Photochemical smog
Aerosols and mists (H2SO4)
Acid Mist (HNO3)
 OZONE

Ozone (O3) is a highly

reactive gas composed of
three oxygen atoms.
It is both a natural and a
man-made product.
Tropospheric ozone what
we breathe is formed
primarily from
photochemical reactions
between volatile organic
compounds (VOC) and
nitrogen oxides (NOX).
ACID MIST

Air pollution produced

when acid chemicals are
incorporated into rain,
snow, fog or mist. The
"acid" in acid rain comes
from sulfur oxides and
nitrogen oxides, products
of burning coal and other
fuels and from certain
industrial processes.
 PAN (PEROXY ACETYL NITRATE)
Peroxyacetyl nitrate is a peroxyacyl
nitrate. It is a secondary pollutant present
in photochemical smog.

PAN is a phytotoxic air pollutant generated

by the reaction of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides under the action of light.
This pollutant can be a restraint of plant
growth in closed ecosystems as well as in
the field.

A lettuce leaf has been injured by the

pollutant peroxyacetyl nitrate
 PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG

In bright sunlight nitrogen oxides hydrocarbons

and oxygen interact chemically to produce
powerful oxidants like ozone (O3) and
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).

These secondary pollutants are damaging to

plant life and lead to the formation of
photochemical smog. PAN is primarily
responsible for the eye irritation so characteristic
of this type of smog.

The figure outlines representative reactions

leading to the formation of photochemical smog.
Radicals are atoms or molecules with unpaired
electrons. They are very reactive chemically.
 ACID MIST (HNO3)
Nitric acid is formed in the atmosphere from nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from fossil
fuel combustion. It contributes about 30% to the overall acidity of deposition.

Reaction mechanism: NO2 + OH- -> HNO3

ACID RAIN
Acid deposition is a general name for a number of phenomena, namely acid rain,
acid fog and acid mist. It can imply both wet and dry (gaseous) precipitation. Acid
deposition is a rather well known environmental problem, example acid fog killed
several thousand people in London in 1952.
HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS
These are substances in the air that are toxic to humans. There are 189 hazardous air
pollutants .
 POLLUTANTS SOURCE TYPES

Point source: industries

Non-Point or Point Non-Point
Point On-Road
Non-point sources: open burning; Sources Sources
Sources
(Residential)
Motor Vehicle
N
(Gasoline Stations) (Stack and Vent) Sources
domestic burning; construction
activities; etc.
Motor vehicles: two-wheeler; GAS
GA S
GAS

Non-Road &
three-wheeler; four-wheeler GAS
GA S
GAS
Non-Point

(gasoline powered); four-wheeler Sources

(Agricultural)
(diesel powered); CNG/LPG based

m eters
vehicles

1 5 kil o
Other non-road mobile source: GAS
GA S
GAS

trains (diesel/coal as combustion

fuel); aircrafts; ships
Natural sources : Forest fires; dust 15 kilometers
storms; volcanoes
 EMISSION INVENTORY

What is an emission inventory:

Emission Inventory (EI) is an comprehensive listing of air pollutants emissions by
source type (point/line/area) and category (transport/domestic/industrial/ other) at a
particular area (local/regional) for a specific time interval (day/month/year).

Emission Factor is key to emission inventory

INVENTORY TECHNIQUES

(1) First, list the types of sources for the area, such as automobiles, home fire places etc.
(2) Determine the types of air pollutants emission from each of the listed sources i e. particulate,
SO2, etc.
(3) Examine the literature to find out valid emission factors for each of the pollutant (eg.
particulate emission for open burning of tree are 10 Kg/ton of residue consumed).
(4) Determine the number and size of specific sources in the area either by actual count or by
means of some estimating technique (the number of steel making furnaces can be counted but
the number of home fire places will probably have to be estimated).
(5) Multiply the appropriate numbers from (3) and (4) to obtain the total emissions and then sum
the similar emissions to obtain the total for the area.
 Emission Factors:

EF :key to EI

EF: must be critically examined to determine tests from which

they are obtained. CO from vehicles may vary according to load,
engine speed, ambient temperature, ignition timing, carburetor
type, etc.

An average EF is perfectly all right for an area which can be

multiplied by number of each category of vehicles or kilometer
driven per year for that category of vehicle to determine total
CO released to the area.
Problem 1: Determine amount of CO from oil furnace emitted per
day during the heating season, in a small city of 50,000
population.

Solution:
1. Source : Oil furnace
2. Pollutant : CO
3. Emission factor for CO
(a) 240 gm /1000 litre of fuel oil
(b) 50 ml / day/burner
(c) 1.5% (by volume) of exhaust gas.
Let us use (a)
4. Fuel oil sales figure : obtain from local authority.
i.e 40,000 litres/day
5. (250 gm of CO) (40,000 liters)
------------------- x ----------------- = 9.6 Kg CO/day
1000 litres day
EFFECTS OF AIR
POLLUTANTS
 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
In India, air pollution is believed to cause 527,700 fatalities per year

It is estimated that 750,000 people die

prematurely in China each year

People killed annually from air pollution in US could be over 50,000.

World Health Organization: The European Union could save up to

161 billion euros a year by reducing deaths caused by air pollution.

Over 80% of lung getting damaged by particulate matter.

Global CO2 emissions actually dropped 1.3 percent in 2009, as

reported in the journal of Environmental Research Letters. However,
emissions in China and India went up 9 and 6 percent respectively.

The price of progress: By 2050, air pollution will kill an estimated 6

million people per year
AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
 MEUSE VALLEY-BELGIUM, 1930

63 died (mostly elderly)

Sore throats, shortness of breath, cough, phlegm, nausea, vomiting
SO2, sulfur dioxide
H2O
SO4 sulfuric acid mist
Cattle, birds and rats died
Got little news coverage
 CONT

Fumigation of a valley floor caused by an inversion layer that

restricts diffusion from a stack
 Donora, PennsylvaniaOct. 1948

Monongahela River Valley

Industrial townsteel mill, sulfuric acid plant,
freight yard, etc.
Population14,000
Steep hills surrounding the valley
Oct 26temperature inversion (warm air
trapping cold air near the ground)
Stable air, fog, lasted 4.5 days
Environs of Donora, Pennsylvania. Horseshoe curve of Monongahela River is surrounded by
mountains. Railroad tracks are located on both sides of the river. Low-lying stretch of Monongahela
valley between railroad and river is natural trap for pollutants.
POZA RICO, MEXICO 1950

Single source high sulfur crude oil

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Flare went out
Inversion in valley
22 sudden deaths, 320 hospitalized
All ages
Forerunner of Bhopal
 DECEMBER 1952 GREAT LONDON SMOG

Cold front, Londoners burned soft coal

Factories, power plants
Temperature inversion
5 days of worst smog city had ever seen
Public transportation stopped
Indoor concerts had to be cancelled because no one could see the stage,
etc.
Weekly death registered from diseases of the lungs and heart in the London
Administrative County around the time of the severe fog in December, 1952.
Total death in Greater London and air pollutants levels measured during
the fog of December 1952
 SEVESO, ITALY --DIOXIN

July 10, 1976, north of Milan

A valve broke at the Industrie Chimiche Meda Societa Azionaria
chemical plant
Cloud of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin (TCDD) traveled
southwest through Seveso toward Milan
Contaminant of herbicide
 BHOPAL, INDIA DECEMBER. 3, 1984

Union Carbide pesticide plant leak kills up to 2,000 with up to 350,000

injured and 100,000 with permanent disabilities
Methyl isocyanate (MIC)used as an intermediary in manufacture of
Sevin (Carbaryl)
CO + Cl = phosgene
Phosgene + methylamine = MIC
MICirritant to the lungs---edema, fluid (cause of death,
bronchospasms, corneal opacity
Hydrogen cyanide?
Sabotage or industrial accident?
Hundreds Troubled by 'World Trade Center Cough NYC fire fighters, school
workers have 9/11 breathing problems, new studies say
Some populations grow, some cycle and some crash:
Often with human causes
URBAN AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS ON
HUMAN HEALTH
URBAN AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS ON
HUMAN HEALTH IN INDIA
 Estimated PM10 Concentration in
World Cities (pop >=100,000)

PM10
(g/m3)

. 5-14

. 15-29

. 30-59

. 60-99

. 100-254
 AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term
and long-term effects.

Different groups of individuals are affected by air pollution in different

ways.

Some individuals are much more sensitive to pollutants than are others.
Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the effects of
air pollution.

People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease
may also suffer more when the air is polluted.

The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually

depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the
duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be
taken into account.
 AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS

On humans:
Total body burden
The concept of total body burden refers to the way a air
pollutant accumulates in the human system. The components of
body that can store materials are blood, soft tissue, teeth, hair
and bone.

Ex1: Lead
Source: motor vehicles, incinerators
Effects: impair hemoglobin synthesis, alter the nervous
system. Two routes for the entry of lead into our
body: inhalation and ingestion
Ex2: Carbon monoxide
Source: motor vehicles
Effect: increase the percentage of COHb.
PYRAMID OF HEALTH EFFECTS
 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The human respiratory system is

dominated by our lungs, which bring
fresh oxygen (O2) into our bodies while
expelling carbon dioxide (CO2).

The oxygen travels from the lungs

through the bloodstream to the cells in
all parts of the body. The cells use the
oxygen as fuel and give off carbon dioxide
as a waste gas. The waste gas is carried
by the bloodstream back to the lungs to
be exhaled.

Human respiratory system

 Human respiratory system overview:

The respiratory system may be divided into three regions:

Nasal : nose, mouth cavities and throat
Tracheobronchial: begins with the trachea and extends through
the bronchial tubes to the alveolar sacs.
Pulmonary: terminal bronchi and alveolar sacs.

Particle deposition in respiratory

system:
The relationship between the
aerodynamic size of particles and their
deposition in human respiratory
system is shown in Figure.

nasal region : larger particles (>10

m)
tracheobronchial : small particles
pulmonary : smaller particles
 SHORT-TERM AND LONG TERM EFFECTS

Exposure to air pollution can cause both acute (short-term) and chronic
(long-term) health effects.

Acute effects are usually immediate and often reversible when exposure
to the pollutant ends. Some acute health effects include eye irritation,
headaches, and nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such
as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches,
nausea, and allergic reactions.

Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of

individuals with asthma and emphysema.
Example: "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people
died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution.
 SHORT-TERM AND LONG TERM EFFECTS

Long-term health effects can include chronic

respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and
even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys.

Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs

of growing children and may aggravate or complicate
medical conditions in the elderly.

It is estimated that half a million people die

prematurely every year in the United States as a
result of smoking cigarettes.
 Some air pollutants harm plants and animals directly.

Acid rain harms living things: When acidic air pollutants combine
with water droplets in clouds, the water becomes acidic. When those
droplets fall to the ground, the acid rain can damage the
environment. Damage due to acid rain kills trees and harms animals,
fish, and other wildlife. Acid rain can destroy the leaves of plants like
in the picture at the left. When acid rain soaks into the ground, it can
make the soil an unfit habitat for many living things. Acid rain also
changes the chemistry of the water in lakes and streams, harming
fish and other aquatic life.

The thinning ozone layer harms living things: Air pollutants called
chlorofluorocarbons(or CFCs) have destroyed parts of the ozone
layer.The ozone layer, located in the stratosphere layer of Earth's
atmosphere, shields our planet from the Sun's ultraviolet radiation.
The areas of thin ozone are called ozone holes. Ultraviolet radiation
causes skin cancer and damages plants and wildlife.
 Tropospheric ozone harms living things: Ozone molecules wind
up near the Earth's surface as a part of air pollution. Ozone
molecules near the ground damages lung tissues of animals and
prevent plant respiration by blocking the openings in leaves where
respiration occurs. Without respiration, a plant is not able to
photosynthesize at a high rate and so it will not be able to grow.

Global warming harms living things: Our planet is currently

warming much more rapidly than expected because additional
greenhouse gases are being released into the atmosphere from air
pollution. When fuels are burned, some of the pollutants released
are greenhouses gasses. Through the process of photosynthesis,
plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen and use the carbon to
grow larger. However, the amount of carbon dioxide released by
burning fuels is much more than plants can convert.
 On plants:
Plants reacts with air pollution over a wide range of pollutant
concentrations and environmental conditions.
The influencing factor for plants injury are species type, age,
temperature, humidity and sun light.
Injury is observable alteration in the plant when exposed to air
pollution.
Damage is the economic or aesthetic loss due to interference with the
intended use of plant.

Figure 4. Injury versus damage

Figure 5. Cross section of leaf
 On materials:
(1) Metals : corrosion of the surface
Influencing factors
* moisture
* type of pollutant
* temperature

(2) Stone: soiling and deterioration of limestone, which is widely

used as a building material and for marble statuary.

SO2 + H2O + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CaSO4 2H2O

Figure 6: Relationship between mean NO2 concentrations and weight loss
(3) Fabrics and dyes

major effects of air pollution on fabrics are soiling and loss of tensile
strength.
the dyes used to color fabrics have been subjected to fading caused by
exposure to air pollutants..

(4) Rubber
Ozone cracks rubber products under tension
Summary of sources and effects of the key air pollutants
Pollutant Description Sources Harmful Health Effects and Scale of effect
A toxic gas caused by Combustion of motor spirit Mortality Hospital admissions congestive heart
CO incomplete and other combustion failure Decreased time to onset of angina.
combustion. processes. Scale: local
Lung irritant and acid Fuel combustion for power Morbidity in exercising asthmatics: Changes in
rain. stations, domestic heating, pulmonary function Respiratory symptoms.
SO2
industrial boilers, diesel
vehicles, waste incinerators. Scale: Local and Regional
Major urban air Secondary pollutant Mortality Minor RADs Respiratory RADs Hospital
pollutant caused by resulting from chemical admissions Asthma attacks Changes in pulmonary
O3
NOx and VOCs reactions with nitrogen function Chronic sinusitis and hay fever.
combined in sunlight. oxides and VOCs. Scale: Regional
Toxic, contribute to Combustion of fuels in Respiratory illness.
ozone. vehicles, combustion for
NO2 domestic heating, power Scale: Local and Regional
stations, industrial boilers,
chemical processes etc.
TSP Inhaleable particles Fuel combustion for power Mortality Chronic and acute bronchitis Hospital
consisting of bits of stations, transport, heating, admissions Lower respiratory illness Upper
PM10
fuel and carbon. other industrial processes. respiratory illness Chest illness Respiratory
symptoms Minor RADs Days of work loss Moderate
PM2.5 or worse asthma status.
Scale: Local and Regional
Element used in older Combustion of leaded Mortality Hypertension Nonfatal coronary heart
fuel additives. petrol, coal combustion, disease Nonfatal strokes Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Pb
metal production and loss.
batteries. Scale: Local