Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Evaluating and Managing the Environmental Impact of Banana Production in Costa Rica: A
Systems Approach
Author(s): Carlos E. Hernandez and Scott G. Witter
Source: Ambio, Vol. 25, No. 3 (May, 1996), pp. 171-178
Published by: Allen Press on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
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 Article Carlos E. Hernandez and Scott G. Witter
Evaluating and Managing
the Environmental Impact of
Productionin Costa Rica:
A Systems Approach
This paper presents an overview of banana production in
Costa Rica based on the importance of bananas as an
export crop and the environmental impacts associated with
their production. The paper takes a systems approach to
identifying major environmental problems associated with
banana production. Ecomanagement alternatives are
recommended, based on what has been learned managing
a 306-ha banana plantation at EARTHCollege. It is hoped
that these experiences will help bring about a more
balanced approach to the exploitation of Costa Rica's
natural resources.
INTRODUCTION
"In the end, we need not merely a vision, but a sharedvision,
one that guides and unites us in our day-to-daydecision mak-
ing. Such a vision, a common blueprint,can infuse society with
a sense of purpose as we try to build a new world, one much
more attractivethantoday's" (1).
An importantpart of Costa Rica's 20th century agricultural
growth and development has been the increase in bananapro-
duction and economic growth without regardto ecosystem in-
tegrity. Humanwants and needs have prevailed,and natural-re-
sources have proved to be exhaustible.Furthermore,the alloca-
tion of the benefits from the exploitationof the natural-resource
base has not always been equitableamong Costa Ricans or be-
tween the Costa Rican and transnationalcompanies that mine
the country'sresources.
Ecologists, especially non-Costa Ricans, want to adopt John
Muir's(earlyAmericanecologist) approachto CostaRica's natu-
ral resources, conserving and preserving the abundant
biodiversityof flora and faunafor futuregenerations.Yet, if na-
tional and transnationalcompaniesthatpollute the environment
are too restrictedby environmentalregulationsand move to a
countrywith fewer restrictions,as they have throughouthistory
(2), it is only Costa Ricans who will suffer. A balance must be
sought between unsafe resource exploitation and needed eco-
nomic growth.
WithinCosta Rica and throughoutthe humidtropics,the con-
cept of sustainabledevelopmentis gaining momentumas coun-
tries face the reality that most renewable naturalresources are
quite limited (3-7). The necessity for long-termplanningis be-
ing discussed by all of the bananasector stakeholders.
This paperpresentsan overviewof bananaproductionin Costa
Rica based on the importanceof bananasas an export crop and
the environmentalimpactsassociatedwith theirproduction.The
authorstake a systems approachto identifyingproblemsand sug-
gesting ways that will help to balance the economic exploita-
tion of Costa Rica's naturalresources with long-termenviron-
mentalintegrity.
Amblo Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996 ( Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996
Ba
SYSTEMSAPPROACH
"Anyphenomenon,eitherstructuralor functional,havingat least
two separablecomponentsand some interactionbetween these
componentsmay be considereda system."A systems approach
is a tool that facilitates comprehensiveanalysis by considering
the natureof the system understudy on many levels and in such
a way that the decision making can take place in a logical and
coherentfashion, thus minimizing the occurrenceof "the falla-
cies of narrow-mindedthinking"(8).
The first step is to define the spatialand temporalboundaries
of the system underconsideration.The system is broken down
into components and functions that control exchange among
componentsand that are interrelatedby cause and effect, stimu-
lus and response.This process helps identify internaland exter-
nal causes and effects, inputs and outputs, and the appropriate
opportunitiesfor action. At least in theory, the consequences-
i.e., the reactionof every action-can be tracedthroughthe sys-
tem and resulting behaviorpredicted.On the basis of this pre-
diction, adjustmentscan be made to improve the system and/or
componentsand standardsmay be modified to fit reality. This
process is referredto as modeling,andits purposeis to help with
conceptualizing, organizing, and communicating complicated
phenomena(9). Modelingis often accompaniedby an extensive
effort to assign mathematicalformulasto quantifystimulusand
response.
At the beginning of a systems analysis, however, mathemati-
cal modeling is often unreliable.Models depend on the volume
and precision of existing data and especially on the quality of
the underlyingconcepts. When all are poor, as they frequently
are because of collection techniques and a lack of knowledge
of the system itself, the model may have little bearing on the
existing situation.It is often far better to startat the beginning
and develop a conceptual/descriptivemodel followed by a dia-
grammaticor flow chartdepicting the system (9). This is then
followed by the development of an appropriatemathematical
model which can be convertedto a computerprogramthat al-
lows for an analyticalquantificationand/orsimulationof the sys-
tem (9). Such analysis, by its very nature, requires inter-
disciplinarythinkingand action.
Costa Rica
Costa Rica's climate is tropical and subtropical,and the inter-
ception of the trade winds by the central mountainrange pro-
duces large quantitiesof precipitationalong the northeastslopes
with annualrainfallin excess of 1500 to 4000 mm. Large-vol-
ume, rapidlyflowing rivers originatingin the mountains,chisel
high-mineralvolcanic rock sedimentsfrom the mountainslopes
and deposit them in the lowlands. Some of these sediments are
ideally suitedfor high-productionbananaplantationsandaccount
for 98% of the total areaplantedalong the Atlanticcoastalplains
of Costa Rica (Fig. 1) (10).
171
 Commercialbananaplantationsare generally located at alti-
tudes below 200 m with annualrainfall levels below 4000 mm
and are usually on sites with little or no slope. They requirea
complex drainage system to funnel excess water from the site
(11).
Bananas producedfor the internationalmarketscan only be
commerciallyproducedon the best soils. "Theyrequireflat ter-
rain,deep (no less than 1.20 in), good structure,and well-drained
soils (humid but not saturated)with a high balance of nutrients
(especially potassium) and a pH between 6 and 7.5" (12). The
best soils are those found in the alluvial plains and on the vol-
canic ash deposits (12). To maintain commercial-production
rates, it is necessary to add significant amounts of fertilizer to
the soil throughoutthe entiregrowth cycle.
BANANAPRODUCTIONINCOSTA RICA
The firstcommercialbananaplantationin Costa Rica was started
by Minor Keith in 1872, in Zent Valley. By 1879, Costa Rica
was exportingbananasregularlyto the United States (12). It was
at this time that the first transnationalcompanies emerged, at-
tractedby generouslandconcessions,tax exonerations,and other
similargovernmentincentives.
The Boston FruitCompanyand Minor Keithjoined forces in
1899, forming the United Fruit Company. This partnership
helped develop a worldwide marketfor bananas,and began the
dominance of United Fruit over CentralAmericanbananapro-
duction. By 1920, United Fruitwas well establishedin most of
the Central American countries. And by 1930, United Fruit
owned about 4% of the total territoryof Honduras,Guatemala,
Costa Rica, and Panama. The company's political influence
broughtaboutthe humiliatingcharacterizationof these countries
as 'Banana Republics', a perception still held by much of the
world.
Unregulatedexploitation strategies of maximum production
with minimum input typified early transnationaloperations.
Eventually,productionefficiency droppedand, when the Panama
bananadisease forced productiondown further,United Fruitbe-
gan abandoningplantations along the Atlantic coast of Costa
Rica and transferringoperationsto the Pacific coast (2, 13, 14).
By 1956, the governmentof CostaRica had become concerned
aboutthe growing numberof bananaplantationsabandoneddue
to the 'Panamadisease', inefficientproductiontechnologies,and
the careless use of the country's naturalresourcesby the United
Fruit Company.The need for a shift in the bananaproduction
process was apparent,and so began the second era of banana
Figure1. Studyarea.
........
.......................U
..............
... ..................................
t).
..(fe
......
.....
...........
..........
.....................2
...~~~~~~
........ ~ ~ ~~~~
.........6.....56.........1............0..V
::2EL~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I=
172
Use of continuous
insecticide bags
reduces plastic use by
using correct size.
Measurement of the
bag.
Photo: C.E. Hernandez.
A plastic bag
cut to correct size 4
on banana bunch.
Photo:
C.E. Hernandez.
productionin Costa Rica. In an attemptto offset the downward
trends,the governmentrecruitedStandardFruitCompany,which
not only establishedits own plantations,but also began purchas-
ing fruitfrom Costa Rican producers(1, 14).
StandardFruitintroducedthe Valerybananaclone, which was
resistantto the Panamadisease, producedincreasedyields, had
favorablepacking and shipping characteristics,and generateda
product that was acceptable to internationalconsumers. This
transformation was not withoutside effects, however.The Valery
bananarequiredconsiderable chemical interventionas well as
intensivefield andprocessingmanagement(i.e. plasticbags, spe-
cial packaging, and atmospheric controls during shipment).
Therefore,while the additionof StandardFruitintroducedcom-
petition to the bananaeconomy, it changed bananaproduction
from a low chemicalinputsystem to one dependenton large vol-
umes of pesticides, herbicides,and fertilizers.While the type of
chemicals permittedfor use in Costa Rica is regulated by the
government,the transnationalcompanies have traditionallyde-
terminedthe volume, kinds, and frequency of chemical use in
bananaproduction.
The nationalizationof the bananamarketin Ecuadorin 1965
resulted in the migration of other transnationalcompanies to
Costa Rica, furtherintensifyingcompetitionand the need to pro-
an lev tio
e duce more per hectare (12). A decade later, United Fruit was
reorganized,becoming the United BrandsCompany, and intro-
0 duced the Chiquita label to Costa Rica. In the 1980s, United
Brandsclosed its operationson the Pacific coast of Costa Rica
ne 5
and returned to the Atlantic under the name of Compania
Bananeradel Atlantico Ltda (COBAL). COBAL aggressively
expanded bananaproductionalong the Atlantic and now is the
second largestproducerin the country.Today, the transnational
companies produce40% of the total harvestand control another
58% of the country'sbananaexports. Althoughthat 60% is pro-
duced by Costa Rican-ownedcompanies, the companies follow
transnational-dictatedproductionpracticesand qualitystandards,
and the bananas are exported under the control of the
transnationals.
? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996 Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996
 Bananaproductionplays a very importantrole in Costa Rica's Figure2 is a diagrammaticconceptualmodel of a bananapro-
economy. The agricultural sector of Costa Rica contributed duction system in Costa Rica. Three major components within
19.6% of the gross nationalproductand bananaproductionac- the ecosystem are identified: the plantation,the packing plant,
counts for almost 30% of the sector's total receipts (15). This and the housing units. Every input has an influence on the out-
tradegeneratescriticallyneeded foreign currency,which has an put and eventually on the bananamarket,if the system is main-
impact on the entireeconomy. In 1990, the foreign currencyin- tained through a continuous cycle. The output of bananas re-
come for bananaexportswas USD 317 mill., representing21.7% quires a series of inputs. It is necessary to rememberthat be-
of the total foreign currencyincome in the country;in 1991 it sides the desiredusable output,the fruit,there are outputwastes
was USD 400 mill., 25.7% of the total (10). In 1991, Costa Rica generatedthat must be managed if the bananaproductionsys-
exported 51.8% of its bananasto the United States and 49.2% tem is to be sustainable.
to Europe (10). By 1993, total income from bananas had in- Perhapsthe most complex and least-understoodcomponentof
creasedto USD 560 mill. with totalexports(everything)equaling the system, outside of the plantation manager, is the
USD 1502 mill. (16). No other exported commodity surpasses agroecosystem itself. To understandit, it is useful to redefine
the contributionof bananasto foreign currencyincome in Costa the boundariesof the system to a smaller scale (Fig. 3). There
Rica. It is unclearhow much of this money actually remains in are two types of dynamics presentin the system: those that can
the hands of the Costa Rican producers;however, if we subtract be controlledby humanactions, and those that are controlledby
productioncosts and export taxes, it is apparentthat production nature.The dynamics controlledby humans are shown outside
costs accountfor only about25% of the consumers'price. the rectangles and are the focus of this paper. The human and
The economic impact of this productionon Costa Rica's re- naturalfactors, however, are not independentof each other and
gional economy is also quite significant.Dur-
ing plantationdevelopment,1.76 jobs ha-' yr- Figure 2. Banana production system.
1 are created.Fromplantingto harvest,banana
productionrequires 0.81 positions ha-' yr-t, Sun r Ecosystem
and once productionstartsit takes 0.79 work-
ers ha-l yr-1to manage the plantation.An es-
timated43 000 Costa Ricans are directly de- Solid residuums Domete wage watts Canrboad
Cutting Spolledbauas
pendent on bananaproductionfor their live- k
Resources
Emsion 5 r

Polypropylene
c
BTosancanacnds Basapeoi
lihood, and this does not include part-time Lad
Soil
Palycltkeeo
Liquid residuals
Fungicide
Coagulant
stannot
Pobpmpelenw
s
Polyprapelene Wate resoduals
employment on plantations or the domestic Slon
dioxlde
Oygen
Leacsidues
Pesticidedrift Stems
Fossi
Fossil
service industries that support the banana Rainwater
Hydrogen
producers(17). Gnroundwao
Bials
r

HousingUnits Ground
DL - s s / * / ._ s ~~~~~~~~~water
SYSTEMSANALYSISOF BANANA sr , Ss a BmanPa_
_s
Cardboard
PRODUCTION Stems& Plantation Baanaracese r
PackingPlant - Polypopc _ Market
L,eaves PoytsleoFugicide
The ecosystem provides humans with the
habitat in which they live and the resources A 4 At Foists#c
/ 1 \Plastics '
necessary to satisfy their needs and expecta- f Pesticides Polyethdete aIn
\
tions. Development of resources requires Fertilizers
Niegn Fungicides Pathogenls& bteneficial
Nemalicides Pallets /
gtavluss
change. If managedproperly,the change pro- Potassium
Phosphotas
Herbicides
lsecficidos batlsogcal
bolgc
Intects
&abenctisi
ageots
Polypspeles
Fss
Cardboard
Fungicde Consumer
Caltitn cabtoieto Weeds
vides positive benefits; if not, the opposite is
true (18, 19). There are five basic paradigms O Majorproductionecosptnents
0= Flow of sotials andencey
for the management of the relationship be-
tween humansand nature:deep ecology (e.g.,
traditionalpractices),frontiereconomics (e.g.,
the exploitativepracticesof the transnational
Figure 3. Agroecosystem.
companies), environmental protection, re-
source management, and eco-development
(19). Each has both positive and negative tm ere
WindDrift
sides, but ecodevelopmentappearsto offer the
best change for long-termsustainability(19). Fungicide

Ecodevelopment attempts to restructurethe

relationshipbetween productionand the en- Harvest LeaDeopsitio
r4- Nematicide
vironment."It sees most development activ- + H4-Herbicide
ity as a form of managementof this relation- Packing _____{tLoafooeotnPonicon Banana 4- Fertilization
Plant
Plant _ z ~4- Plastics
ship; environmentalmanagement,economic v41-
Plantation
tnain+PaSsSi
Land,Soil &Minerals
development, and socio-ecological develop- Solid Waste
Water
ment might virtually become semantic dis-
Floor
Planstaton Dotcompmoion _ t
tinctions for the same subject:the integrated Subsoil Adrutteonataso
convolution of conscious civilization and na- = _
Imsobilizclon
/
I \t\to

ture"(19). = ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Runsoff
The ecodevelopment approachis used in Hydrosphere
this paperto seek a balancebetween the need Leachate SurfacsWater
to produce high quality bananas to generate * Canals
{ II ---- --------- --- -------- --- M I I
foreigncurrencyandthe need to protectCosta Groundwater *0 Rivers
* Lakes
Rica's environment. The discussion goes Oceans

through the conceptual, diagrammatic, and

mathematicalsystems modeling processes.

Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996 173
any human action in the system has an impact on the natural
processes.
Harvestinga crop removes nutrientsfrom the system (4, 20,
21). High-level productionsystems, like bananas,extract large
quantities of nutrientsand water. Soil nutrientscannot be re-
placed by mineralizationof the parent soil or naturalfertiliza-
tion via decomposition at the same rate as they are removed by
harvest,and must be augmentedwith commercialinputs.Water
losses from evapotranspirationare significant in the amount of
energy required,but the water loss itself is replenishedby the
large amounts of precipitationoccurring yearly in the banana
productionregion.
Monocultureproductionsystems, like bananas, increase the
concentrationof food sources for other organisms (i.e., insects,
bacteria,and fungi). As a resultof an abundantfood supply,such
organisms multiply readily and begin to compete with humans
for the harvest. Consequently,high-productionsystems require
high levels of inputs, not only to produce a product,but also to

Table 1. Inputs vs. residuals In banana production system.

System Inputs Residual Materials Type of Residual Treatment

component

Plantation 1. A rochemicals 1. Chemicals Non-point 1. Typeoftreatment

ungicides Liquids eduction
Nematocides Leachates Substitution
Herbicides Runoff
Fertilizers Gases
Insecticides Solids
Sediments 2. Non-point 2 eo ramn
2. Equipment 2. Chemicals source 2. Tpe of treatment
Fuel Liquids Proper maintenance
Oil Gases 3 Point source
3. Agrochemical containers 3. Containers 3 3. Type of treatment
Solid waste Solid waste
Paper bags Reduction
Cardboard boxes Triple rinse
Plastic bags Recycling
Plastic jugs Incineration
Metal drums Landfillash
Rinse water
Rinse water
Containment
Neutralization
Biodegradation
Oxidation
Evaporation

4. Plastics 4. Plastics 4. Point source 4. Type of treatment

Bags Polypropylene- Reduction
Twine Twine Collection
Polyethylene-Bag Reuse
Recycling
Incineration
Landfillash

Packing 5. Fruit packed for 5. Export Bananas () Pointsource 5. Alternatives

Plant export market Cardboard Boxes (*) Exit system and
First and second Pallets must
class fruit Plastic Straps be treated at
Cardboard boxes Plastic Bags market destination.
Pallets Spoiled fruit
Plastic straps Peels
Fungicide
Plastic bags 6. Substandard Bananas 6. Substandard Bananas
Reduction
Sale in local market
Value added by-
product
Animal feed
Compost
Biogas
Landfill

7. Raceme's Stems 7. Stems

Return to plantation
Value added by-
product
Fiber
Paper
Humic acid
Compost
Landfill

8. Banana flowers 8. Flowers

Return to plantation

9. Plastic bags 9. Plastic - Same as

previously given
solutions for plastic
waste

10. Banana wash water 10. Agrochemicals 10. Agrochemicals

Fungicide Reduction
Coagulant Substitution

11. Organic materials 11. Organic materials

Crowns Coagulation
Latex Filtration
Return to plantation

12. Water 12. Water

Treat
Recycle

174 C Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996 Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996
eliminate competing organisms(20-22). The amount of data on the actual and potential health impacts
Fertilizers,herbicides,fungicides, and insecticides are not en- from all chemicals is growing (22, 24, 25).
tirely used by the plants nor are they retainedwithin the planta- In order to grasp the magnitude of this waste problem, it is
tion, leaving the system as liquid leachates, surface runoff, ero- useful to contrastbananaproductionwaste to the total waste gen-
sion, or gases. These byproductsoften have a dramaticimpact eratedin Costa Rica (all urbansourcesfound in the waste stream
on the environment,especially through surface-watersystems combined) on a daily basis. A recent study by German
(Fig. 3). In addition, pests and soil organisms appearto adjust Cooperacion Tecnica Alemana (GTZ) found that the total
to biocides by developing a resistanceto the chemicals (22, 23). amountof waste generatedper day in Costa Rica is 11 764 tons
This generatespositive feedbackby creatingthe need for higher and the total waste generatedper day by bananaproductionre-
quantitiesof inputs and new chemicals to maintainproduction quiringonsite treatmentis 1520 tons or 12.9%of the total waste
levels. generatedin the country(28).
Unfortunately,humans do not readily develop resistances to
these chemicals and the adverseeffects can be severe, e.g., can-
cers, sterility, and genetic malformations(24). Epidemiological WASTESAND ALTERNATIVES
data regarding banana production in Costa Rica have shown The first solution to waste is to reduce its quantity at each
more than 10%higher instances of sterility and damage to kid- processing point. Waste productsgeneratedmust be reused un-
neys, liver, brain, nervous systems, lungs, heart, eyes, blood, til all useful qualitieshave been recycled or made into new prod-
skins, metabolism,and the overall immune system in people as- ucts. When all recycling strategieshave been exhausted,the re-
sociated with banana production as compared to the general maining waste must be disposed of via incinerationand/or de-
population(25). These side-effectsarehardto accountfor in eco- posited in a properly designed and managed landfill. Banana
nomic evaluations and are not internalizedas a cost of banana wastes may be broken down into five primary categories:
productionsystems. nonpoint source residuals,point source degradablesolid waste,
A list of human-controlledinputs has
been developed from the agroecosystem
Table 2. Indices and information needed to calculate waste generation in banana production
model (Fig. 3). The inputs and outputs at for 1993.
the plantationand packing plant, plus the
type of residual and its treatmentcompo- Descrption Indices Waste generated
in tons per year
nents, are listed in Table 1. Based on in-
formationgatheredfrom Costa Rican pro- 1. % Fruitexported 75%
2. % Fruit rejected 25%
ducers and the management experiences 3. Weight per box in kg. 18.14
gained at the EARTHCollege's plantation 4. Boxes exported in 1991 52 523 499
5. Tons exported = (4 X 3/1000)* 952 776
in Limon, indices have been developed to 6. Tons produced = (5/1) 1 270 368
7. Wasted substandard fruit = (6 X 2) 317 592
quantifythe residualmaterialsenteringthe 8. Boxes per raceme 1
ecosystem (Table 2). In some cases, cal- 9. Average weight per raceme in k. 27
10. No. racemes produced = (4 X 8/1) 70 013 824
culations using these indices by area and 11. No. of racemes per tree 1
by unit of productionhave resultedin dif- 12. Average weight of stems and leaves per raceme 25
13. Waste tree stems and leaves = (10 X 12/1000) 1 750 346
ferent estimates of the amount of waste 14. Area under production in hectares 49 394
generated. In these cases, the highest 15. Twine per raceme in kg. 0.03
16. Twine residuals 2100
numberis presentedto representthe larg- 17. Average weight of plastic bag in kg. 0.04
18. Plastic baq waste 2801
est potential impact. Table 3 summarizes 19. kg ha-' yr- plastic packing material 65.00
the results obtainedby applyingthe quan- 20. Plastic packing material = (14 X 19/1 000) 3211
21. Weight in KG. of crowns and flowers per raceme 0.35
tities reportedin Table 1 to the 1993 ba- 22. Crowns and flowers = (21 X 10/1000) 24 505
nana export statistics. The Table shows 23. Average weight of raceme's stem in KG. 2.05
24. Raceme's stem waste = (23 X 10/1000) 143 528
that for each ton of bananas exported, 3 25. Nitrogen applied (71.9 kg ha-') 0.22
tons of waste is producedthat will require 26. Nitrogen loss (14 X 25/1 000) 771
27. Total pesticides (ref. 25) 9475
onsite treatment.Of this 3-ton waste, all
*Thefirstnumberrepresentsthe rownumberwherethe value is takenfrom,i.e., row22,
but 0.38 ton is made up of the leaves and (10.35 X 70013824)/1000 = 24505 tons.
stems of the bananaplants.
There is considerable waste when
chemicals (fertilizers, insecticides, and Table 3. Waste generated in banana production 1993.
herbicides) are applied heavily and infre-
quently;the plantscan not benefitfrom the Description Tons of waste Tons Tons of waste
applicationbefore much of it was washed generated exported per 100 tons
peryear 1993 exported = TW
away or dissipated.Consequently,fertiliz- (Te X.01)
ers, insecticides, and herbicides are now
Banana production 1993 in tons 952 776
applied 22 times during the growth cycle
to reducethe amountnot fully used by the Twine 2100 0.22
Plastic bags 2801 0.29
crop. In addition, 1.4 L ha-' of fungicide Packing material 3211 0.34
is appliedfrom airplanes45 times in each Total non-degradable 8112 0.85

growth cycle (26). Of this, 15% is lost to Crown and flowers 24 505 2.57
Raceme's stems 143 528 15.06
wind drift and falls outside of the planta- Fruit rejected 317 592 33.33
tion; 40% ends up on the soil ratherthan Pesticides (estimated 25% loss)** 2369 0.25
Nitrogen 771 0.08
on the plants; and approximately 35% is Agrochemical containers Information Not Available
washed off by the rain (27). This results Sub-total
Total waste requiring treatment**
502 620
502 620 52.75
in a 90% loss of the estimated 11 mill. Stems and leafs 2 553 310 267.99
liters of fungicide, water, and oil mix ap- Total waste 3 055 830 320.74

plied each year to the banana production *TW/(TE / 100) = Waste in tons X .01 tons of banana exportedin 1993
"Theestimaterepresentsa best guess by the authors.
regions of Costa Rica (Table 2).

Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996 C Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996 175
point sourceliquid waste, point sourcenondegradablewaste, and
hazardouswaste.
Nonpoint Source Residuals
The nonpointresiduals are the least understoodand most diffi-
cult to treat.They are generatedthroughthe use of commercial
and naturalfertilizers(N = 56.3, P205= 24.3, K20 = 220.4, CaO
= 8.8, MgO = 20.7 kg per ha (12)), nematocides (Counter,
Furadan,and Tilt at 55 kg ha-' each-EARTH College rate),
fungicides (Calixin 0.6, Dithane 4, and Tilt 0.4 liters ha-'
EARTH College rate), and herbicides (Gramoxone 6.34 liters
ha-'-EARTH College rate). The only insecticides used are im-
pregnatedin the blue plastic bags used to cover the raceme.The
quantityof the residuals depends on the amount and frequency
of application,the type of chemical, soil type, precipitation,tem-
perature,wind velocity, location, and methodof application.
Again, even though the government approves the types of
chemicals that are used, the 'cocktail' (mixture of chemicals)
used is not made public because transnationalcompaniesbelieve
thatgiving out 'tradesecrets' would blunttheircompetitiveedge.
The chemicals most often used include (brandnames): Karrax,
Ranger, Roundup, Countar, Dipel, Furadan, Mocap, Rugby,
Beniate, Bravo, Dithane, and Mertak. All, if used in improper
concentrations,can cause acute oral, dermal, or inhalationpoi-
soning of people and animals in and aroundthe plantation(25).
Residualsare transportedoutside the system by wind and wa-
ter. It is very difficult to quantifythe volume and concentration
of these residuals. The best available method to determinethe
areal extent of the pollution is to sample and test surface wa-
ters. However, due to the extensive drainagesystem requiredfor
bananaproductionand the dilution from high rainfall amounts,
variations in concentrationlevel are often large and can vary
from day to day.
As mentioned above, the specific mix of chemicals and the
concentrationsof chemicals used in bananaproductionare not
public knowledge. As a result, testing programsto obtain reli-
able statistics are both complex and expensive. Currently,there
are no long-termdata bases that can be used to clearly quantify
the extent of the nonpointresidualsproblemand develop appro-
priate policies for dealing with it in Costa Rica. A solution to
this problemneeds to be a high governmentalpriority.Perhaps
a tax that can be passed on to the internationalconsumer could
fund such a programas they, too, will benefit from more envi-
ronmentally-soundproductionsystems.
Point Source Degradable Wastes
The racemestem is the centralshaft of the bananaplantto which
the bananafingers are attached.The stem is discardedonce the
fruit is harvestedand becomes a significant source (volume) of
waste. Disposal methodsfor the stem dependon where the waste
is generated.Some plantationsdetach the fruit from the stem in
the field, but the majorityremove it at packing plant. Because
most plantationsremove stems at the packing plant, the stems
have been transportedto dumps. Traditionaldumps are open-
air sites thathave historicallybeen locatedalong riverbanks.The
stems deterioraterapidly, and the residue is eventually carried
away by flood waters. Once in the river, this residue hampers
boat transportation.Also, the deterioratingstems often have a
pronouncedimpact on the water's oxygen content, limiting or
killing aquaticlife and adversely affecting the overall aesthetic
conditions for those who live on the banks of the river.
Appropriatetechnology consists of spreading the discarded
stems and leaves across the plantation floor, either whole or
chopped. Chopped stems decompose fairly rapidly, adding wa-
ter and nutrientsto the soil and providing weed control within
the plantation'sboundaries.Most commercialplantershave re-
alized that these wastes are valuable organic fertilizers. Value-
added alternativesare extractingthe fiber to manufacturepaper
176 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996
Bananas are harvested by hand and carried to a cable system for
transportation to the packing plant. Photo: C.E. Hernandez.
and removing the sap to producehumic acid, which can be used
for fertilizer. EARTH College has been successful in develop-
ing an economicallyviable process for producingpaperfrom the
stems.
From 16 to 25% of the bananasproduceddo not meet export
standardsbecause of handling bruises, scars, stains, crown in-
fections, mutilated fingers, and unacceptable dimensions. Of
these, 5 to 16%are exportedas second-class fruitat a 25% price
reduction.Most plantationsdeposit the remainingbananasin the
same open-airdumps as the stems.
Alternative uses for these damaged bananas are being ex-
plored. Several small industries have started processing these
bananas into puree, juice, chips, and baby food. EARTH Col-
lege uses these bananasas cattle feed with favorableresults. All
of these alternativescreate the opportunityfor more economic
growth in Costa Rica and are more environmentallyresponsi-
ble than dumping.
Point Source Liquid Waste
A large quantityof high-qualitywateris requiredduringthe ba-
nana packing operation.Water is used to cushion the fruit dur-
ing handlingand transportationfrom one section of the process
to the next, as well as to clean the fruit and processing facili-
ties. EARTH College's packing plant uses approximately12 L
of water per second to process 4000 boxes of bananasduring a
10-hrday (108 litersper box of bananasshipped).When extrapo-
lated to the yearly productionof Costa Rica, the total water re-
quired for banana productionis 5.7 mill. liters per year. Even
though the productionregions have no shortageof water, this is
a greatdeal of contaminatedwater to returnuntreatedto the en-
vironment.
Bananas have a flower attachedat the tip of the fruit at the
time of harvest.When the flower is removedat the packingplant,
the fruit oozes a white milky latex. If not handledproperly,the
latex will stain the fruit and make it unacceptablefor the export
market.Consequently,it is necessary to wash the fruit as soon
as possible after removing the flower. The fruit will continue to
secrete latex unless a coagulant-alum (aluminumsulfate)-is
added to the wound. Because the wound is also susceptible to
fungus, it is necessary to treat the crown of the banana with
Mertak,a fungicide. Alum and Mertakboth pose a risk of con-
tamination for the surface-water downstream of the packing
plants.
To address this problem, EARTH College has designed and
built an effective and inexpensive water filter system. Tests on
the water following filtrationhave found no signs of biocides,
aluminumhas been kept within acceptable limits, and biologi-
cal oxygen demand(BOD) was approximately26 ppm. The next
step in the process will be to recycle the water, thereby reduc-
Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996

The cable
transportation
system uses a diesel
tractor for pull.
This system is very
efficient and it
ensures the quality of
the fruit. This
reduces the amount
of fruit wasted for
quality problems at
the packing plant.
Photo: C.E
Hernandez.
_aql-
- ing the twine directly onto the plantationfloor. The twine is not
;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Bananas are received at the packing
plant. The plastic bags are opened and
tied to the top of the stem. The flowers
are removed and the fruit is detached
from the stem. The plastic bag is later
separated and sent to the recycler. The
stem is sent to the paper plant for
pulping. The flowers are returned to
the field. Photo: C.E. Hernandez.
a marketfor the new productsin Costa Rica.
Another significant nonbiodegradable residual of banana
productionis plastic twine. The twine is used to anchorthe ba-
nanas, so that the weight of the fruit and the wind will not col-
lapse the plant. Traditionalharvestingmethods include discard-
biodegradableand accumulatesover time. Eventually, the soil
becomes so contaminatedthatdevelopmentof an adequateplant
root system is impairedand mechanicaltillage becomes all but
impossible.
Researchinto alternativeshave includedbamboosupportsand
biodegradabletwine. However, neither has proved to be feasi-
ble for large-scaleproduction.The plastic twine is 40% cheaper,
less time-consumingto attach,and easier to use; thus, it will con-
tinue to be used. In some countries,the twine is reusedaftersev-
eral strandsof discardedtwine are braidedtogether.This is not
common in Costa Rica, but may offer the chance for cottage in-
dustries surroundingthe plantationswhere residents could har-
vest the twine from the plantation,braid it, and sell it back to
the plantation. Outreach educational programs are needed to
make the local people aware of the opportunityand teach the
skills necessary for them to take advantageof it.
Chiquita,throughits plastics division, Polymer, is combining
discardedplastic bags and twine to manufactureplastic wood.
StandardFruit and Del Monte are currentlybuilding a plant to
recycle plastics into fence posts. The planting of fast-growing
trees (among the bananaplants) and increasing the cultivation
density of bananaplants (a practice widely used in Taiwan) to
substitutefor plastic ties is also being studied at EARTH Col-
lege and may provide a cost-effective alternative. These are
promisingtrendsfor Costa Rica's environmentand should also
produceadditionalrevenues.

ing the amount needed for processing. Finally, the hope is to
eliminate processing water as a point source of pollution. This
may be accomplishedusing duck weed and waterlilies as a sec-
ondarytreatment,but furtherresearchis needed.
Point Source Nondegradable Waste
Plastic bags have been used in banana production for 30 yrs.
Workersput bags over the bananafingers as soon as they start
pointingupward.The bags performthreebasic functions:(i) they
are a physical barrierto insects; (ii) they serve as a chemical bar-
rier to contaminants(i.e., insecticides, fungicides, etc.); and (iii)
the plastic creates a micro-environmentthat stimulatesfruit de-
velopment. Bananasproducedwithout plastic bags have a 10%
higher rejection rate from the transnationalcompanies than do
those producedin a bag. This 10% is worth USD 40 mill. yr-'
to Costa Rican producers,so the bags will continue to be used.
Plastic is traditionallysold in precutbags, a wasteful practice
because plants are not entirely uniformin size. An alternativeis
to purchaseplastic by the roll so it can be cut to the precise size
needed for each fruit raceme. At EARTH College this practice
has resulted in a 25% reduction in the amount of plastic used
and yearly savings in material costs of USD 15 000 (USD 49
ha-'). There is no significant difference in the amount of labor
required.
The traditionaldisposal methodsare to simply rip the bags off
and throwthemon the plantationfloor or, most often, dumpthem
into the open-airdisposal areas. If all of the plastic bags used in
bananaproductionin Costa Rica in 1991 were joined together,
they could form a greenhouse large enough to cover the coun-
try's entire bananaproductionregion. Thus, suitable disposal is
not a small problem. The most promising environmentalalter-
native for the disposalof plasticbags is recycling by melting and
reformulating.While the technology to melt down and reuse the
plastic is available,the adoptionof recyclingis hamperedby lack
of a collection system, availabilityof processingequipment,and
Hazardous Waste-Agrochemical Containers
It is difficult to projectthe magnitudeof the containerproblem
on a nationalscale, because of the large variationin the size and
type of containers used. The primaryenvironmentalproblems
associatedwith agrochemicalcontainersarehandlingthem (spill-
ing) and storing them (leakage). The best procedurefor recy-
cling is to send the entire containerback to the company to be
filled and reused, much like Coca-Cola bottles. While this sys-
tem is fairly widespreadin the United States, it is currentlyonly
used in Costa Rica by one company and then only for fungicide
containers.Quite often the Costa Ricans, both ruraland urban,
use the plastic and metal containersto hold waterand grain that
are later used for human consumption. Again, there is a need
for governmentor universityoutreachprogramsto educate peo-
ple aboutthe risks and help them find safer alternatives.
The government of Costa Rica currentlywill not issue per-
mits to plantationsfor the incinerationof hazardousmaterials,
including plastic containers.Therefore,most empty insecticide
and herbicidecontainersare storedon site at the plantation.They
representa real and presentdangerto Costa Rica's environment
and citizens.
THECHALLENGE
Costa Rica has passed a numberof laws in an attemptto pro-
tect its citizens and environmentfrom human-introducedenvi-
ronmental hazards. Enforcement of these laws in Costa Rica,
as in most of the world, remains a major problem. Only re-
cently have the environmentalimpact of these combined prob-
lems been recognized by some banana producers.Their inter-
est is primarilybased on fears of how internationalconsumers
and marketswill react to documentedor inferredcases of envi-
ronmentaland/orhumanpoisonings (29). In orderto implement
rapidchange, it may be most importantto determinewhat it will
take to influence internationalconsumer preferences to buy a

Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996 C Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996 177

-~~---
Large amounts of water are used for cushioning, transportation and
washing of the fruit at the packing plant. This water is treated before it
is released to the environment. Few packing plants recycle the water.
Photo: C.E. Hernandez.
bananathat may not have a perfect skin color or size, but can
be producedwithoutfurtherdamagingCostaRica's environment.
Producerswill follow consumer demands faster than laws can
be passed or environmentalistsand politicianscan articulatetheir
fears and concerns.Until this happens,though,we must continue
to seek more and betterpracticesfor producingbananasto meet
the worlds needs.
CONCLUSION
This papersystematicallydepicts the environmentalimpacts as-
sociated with bananaproductionand some of the historical,po-
litical, and economic reasons why these conditions exist. The
challenge for the fifth paradigm(ecodevelopment)in the evolu-
tion of bananaproductionis to reconcileproductionmethodsand
economic needs with the conservationof Costa Rica's environ-
ment. This will requirelong-termcommitmentfrom Costa Rican
producers, transnationalproducers, the government of Costa
Rica, the researchcommunity,and the consumersof Costa Rican
bananas.
Promising signs of improvementand changes in the attitudes
and actions of some producersare apparentin the recycling of
fungicide containers, mulching of organic wastes, and turning
nonbiodegradablewastes into new commercialproducts.These
changes may stem from fear of a possible consumerboycott, the
recognition that traditionaltechnologies are self-destructive,or
the development of an environmentalethical code of conduct.
But regardless of the reason, since 1991 the environmentis a
common theme of discussion among bananaproducers.At the
same time, it is also evident thatproducersand the researchcom-
munity do not yet fully comprehendthe complex interactions
between humansand theirenvironment,and thatthere are many
problemsthat have no solutions at the presenttime.
History shows that changes in paradigms(e.g., from frontier
economics to ecodevelopment) are slow to occur and that the
periodof change is filled with conflict between immediateneeds
for economic gratificationand the perceived needs of the next
generation.The questions thatcannot be answeredyet are:
- How fast will the environmentdeteriorate?
- What will be the impact on Costa Rica's economy and
citizens?
- Will producersbe willing to change even if it means lower
profit margins?
- Will world consumersbe willing to buy a differenttype of
banana?
If the stakeholderswho depend on bananaproductionmain-
tain their traditionalways and rely only on new technology to
overcome production problems, the future is not bright. Such
178 ( Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1996
practices,when combined with the economic theory that allows
for the substitutionof new resources to meet consumer needs,
may also allow a transnationalcompany to simply move to an-
othercountryand leave Costa Rica holding the proverbial(plas-
tic) bag.
References and Notes
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Plantation. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
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Costa Rica. EditorialCosta Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica. (In Spanish).
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W.W. Norton & Co, New York.
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1970-1990. CorpoacionNational (CORBANA). San Jose, Costa Rica. (In Spanish).
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Forest Ecosystems. Lieth, H. and Werger, M.J.A. (eds). Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam,pp. 7-49.
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la ActividadBananera en Sarapiquf,Tortuguerov Talamanca.Draft Report.San Jose,
Costa Rica. (In Spanish).
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23. McKenry, M.W. 1991. The nature, mode of action, and biological activity of
nematocides.In: CRCHandbookof Pest Management.Pimentel, D. (ed.). CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, pp. 507-521.
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Boca Raton, FL, pp. 461-496.
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Costa Rica. EUNEO, Heliconia, San Jose, Costa Rica. (In Spanish).
26. Stover, R.H. and SimmondsN.W. 1987. Bananas. LongmanGroup,UK.
27. Soto, M. 1995. Interview at the Semana 1I Ecologica, San Jose, Costa Rica, by
Hemandez.February6-9.
28. Gobiemo de Costa Rica and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ). 1991. Plan Nacional de Manejo de Desechos de Costa Rica. Informe Final.
PN 84.2084.6-30.106. San Jose, Costa Rica, pp. 10.
29. Escuela de Agriculturade la Region TropicalHumeda. 1991. Seminario-Problematica
AmbientalRelacionada con el Cultivo de Banano en Costa Rica-Notes (Hernandez)
RegardingCommentsmade by ParticipantsduringDiscussion Session. San Jose, Costa
Rica.
30. First submitted 16 December 1994. Accepted for publication after revision 31 May
1995.
Carlos E. Hernandez is a professor at Escuela de
Agricultura de la Region Tropical Humeda (EARTH College),
San Jose, Costa Rica. He is responsible for the waste
management program for the college's 306-hectare banana
plantation and has developed a process for making banana
paper. His address: Escuela de Agricultura de la Region
Tropical Humeda (EARTH) College, San Jose, Costa Rica.
Scott G. Witter is an assistant professor in the Department
of Resource Development and Institute of International
Agriculture at Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan, USA. He is a scholar and practitioner of
watershed management with 14 years of experience
working in Latin America. His address: Dept. of Resource
Development and Inst. of International Agriculture, Michigan
State University, 305 Natural Resources Bldg, East Lansing
Ml 48824-1222, USA.
Ambio Vol. 25 No. 3, May 1996