Cive 4364 Chapter 1 (MD Sp13)

CIVE 4364 Structural Steel Design Introduction to Structural Steel
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL

STEEL DESIGN
Common Uses of Structural Steel:
Bridges
Buildings
Special Structures
o Offshore Structures
o Power Distribution Towers
o Architecturally Unique Structures
Steel Bridges
Forth Railway Bridge Balanced Cantilever
(www.forthbridges.org.uk)
Page 1 of 30
Sydney Harbour Bridge Steel Arch/Truss
(www.wikipedia.org)
Golden Gate Bridge Suspension
(www.wikipedia.org)
Page 2 of 30
Okanogan Flyover Curved Box Girder
(www.cwmm.com)
Viaduct in Portugal Steel Space Truss
Page 3 of 30
Steel Buildings
Williams Tower 901 ft (roof)
(www.hickox.us)
Eiffel Tower 986 ft. (roof)/1063 ft. (spire)
Page 4 of 30
John Hancock Center 1127 ft. (roof)/1500 ft. (antenna)
(www.wikipedia.org)
Empire State Building 1250 ft. (roof)/1472 ft. (antenna)
(www.empire.state.ny.us)
Page 5 of 30
Willis Tower (Sears Tower) 1451 ft. (roof)/1730 ft. (antenna)
(www.wikipedia.org)
Special Structures
Offshore Structures
(http://ocvoice.files.worldpress.com)
Page 6 of 30
(www.synclaire.net)
Power Distribution Towers
Monopole towers Lattice towers

(www.ecplaza.net) (www.made-in-china.com)
Page 7 of 30
Architecturally Unique Structures
(www.frillseekerdiary.com)
Page 8 of 30
Collapse of Steel Structures
I-35W Bridge Collapse
(http://content.asce.org)
Kansas City Hyatt Regency Collapse
(http://en.wikipedia.org)
Page 9 of 30
Advantages of Steel
High strength-to-weight ratio
High ductility and energy absorption (good for seismic applications)
Slender members capable of very long spans
Equal strength and modulus in tension and compression
Excellent shear strength
Versatile for construction of complex and unique structures
No need for labor intensive formwork or shoring
Can serve structural & architectural functions
Disadvantages of Steel
Can be
avoided Slender sections prone to buckling and vibration problems
with
proper Some details are susceptible to fatigue failure
design
Material and fabrication costs can be high
Susceptible to corrosion
Temperature variations can cause distortion of slender members
Final structure is sensitive to construction tolerances
Page 10 of 30
Steel Material Characteristics

Steel is a metallic alloy composed primarily of Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C).
While at the macro-scale steel is a homogeneous material, at the micro-
scale the granular structure of steel is clearly evident.
Stress-Strain Behavior
Stress
Elastic Plastic Strain Hardening Strain Softening
Ultimate Strength
Fu
Yield Plateau
Fy Failure
(Rupture)
Strain
Permanent Set
Page 11 of 30
The material characteristics of steel are determined by several factors

including: carbon content, heat treatment, mechanical working and alloy
composition
Carbon content
Iron (Fe) Soft, ductile, metallic element
Carbon (C) Hard, brittle, non-metallic element
carbon content of steel = strength

hardness
ductility
Structural Steel or Mild Steel 0.1% 0.5% carbon content
Effect of carbon content on steel properties (Davis et al., 1982)
Page 12 of 30
(181 ksi)
(145 ksi)
(109 ksi)
(72 ksi)
(36 ksi)
Stress-strain relationship of steels with different carbon contents

(Davis et al., 1982)
Page 13 of 30
Heat Treatment
Steel can be subjected to several types of heat treatment to achieve the
desired mechanical properties:
Annealing Heating to 1500oF, hold temperature and gradually

cool
o Relieves internal stresses which form during mechanical
working
o Increases ductility and toughness of steel
o Reduces steel strength and hardness
Hardening Heating to 1500oF followed by rapid cooling

(quenching) in suitable fluid such as water or oil.
o Rearranges atomic structure of steel
o Increases steel hardness and strength
o Reduces ductility and toughness
Tempering Heating to between 400oF and 1000oF followed by

gradual or rapid cooling
o Enhances ductility and toughness of hardened steels
Page 14 of 30
Mechanical Working
Structural steel is commonly produced using one of two mechanical
working processes: Hot Rolling and Cold Working or Cold Forming.
Hot Rolling steel is heated to a red hot condition and passed through
a series of rollers to form gradually to the desired shape. This distorts
the crystal structure of the steel. Gradual cooling allows recrystalization
of the steel grains.
Bar
Wide flange H Piles C Channels Angles L Plate Hollow Structural

(beams) W Sections HSS
Page 15 of 30
Cold Forming Thin sheets of steel are mechanically formed to the

desired shape using a press or a brake without heating. Typically results
in increased strength, but reduced ductility.
(www.prosmetal.com) (www.structuresmag.org)
C channels, Z purlins, Sigma sections, sheet piles, steel decking

Stress
Failure
(Rupture)
Strain
Permanent Set
Page 16 of 30
Alloy composition
Specialty steels (stainless steel, tool steel etc.) can be formed by
alloying steel with other elements producing desirable properties. Some
common alloying elements and their function are (Davis et al., 1982):
Aluminum (Al) helps expel gasses from molten steel
Chromium (Cr) produces stainless and heat resisting steel,

increases hardness and strength
Copper (Cu) enhances corrosion resistance
Manganese (Mn) removes impurities, improves rollability,

slightly increases hardness and strength
Nickel (Ni) produces finer grain structure, makes quenching

more effective, increases strength with little loss
of ductility
Silicon (Si) deoxidizer, increases strength without reducing

ductility, increases hardness slightly
Vanadium (V) increases elastic and tensile strengths, produces

fine grained clean metal
Common Designations for Structural Steel

(Steel Construction Manual p. 2-39)
A36: Yield Strength, F y = 36 ksi Plates, Channels (C & MC),

Ultimate Strength, F u = 58 ksi Angles (L), Bars
A992: Yield Strength, F y = 50 ksi Wide Flange (W-Sections)

Ultimate Strength, F u = 65 ksi
Page 17 of 30
Components of a Steel Building
Foundations Joists (Beams) Steel-to-Concrete Connections

Columns Steel Deck Steel-to-Steel Connections
Girders (Beams) Concrete Slab
Connection
Joist
Girder
Steel
Decking
Column
Concrete
Slab
(http://math.buffalo.edu)
A bay is an area bounded by four columns as shown:
Single
bay
(www.wbdg.org)
Page 18 of 30
Analysis of a Typical Steel Frame
Applied load
Elevation View
Deflected
Shape
Centerline representation
Bending Moment Diagram
What types of loads do we have to consider?
Dead Load Snow, Rain, Ice Fluid pressure, Flood load

Live Load Wind Lateral earth pressure
Roof Live Load Earthquake Self-straining load
Page 19 of 30
Dead Loads (D)
Act continuously toward the ground, permanent loads.
Weight of the structure + Weight of attachments

(Unit weight of steel = 490 lb/ft3)
Live Loads (L) and Roof Live Load (L r )
Live loads are specified in the building codes, and vary in magnitude,
location and time.
Typical Live Loads (ASCE7 05)
Distributed Load Concentrated Load

Apartments Private areas 40 psf N/A
Public areas 100 psf
Libraries Stack rooms 150 psf 1000 lbs
Garages (cars only) 40 psf 3000 lbs
Tributary Area
The area of a floor or roof from which the load finds its way to the
structural member being considered.
Consider the framing plan shown on the next page.
Page 20 of 30
Column C
Girder B
Joist A
15
15
6 @ 5 3 @ 5
Tributary area for Joist A:
Tributary area for Girder B:
Tributary area for Column C:
Page 21 of 30
Wind Loads (Detailed presentation in ASCE-7)
Pressure Suction
Specified external wind pressure and suction on a building:

p = q GC p
q = 0.00256 K z K zt K d V2 I
p = design pressure
G = Gust factor
C p = pressure coefficient
q = velocity pressure
V = basic wind speed at h = 33 ft
K z = velocity pressure exposure coefficient
K zt = wind speed-up over hills
K d = directionality factor
I= importance factor
Page 22 of 30
Earthquake Loads
Due to horizontal and vertical ground motion.
Weight
Inertia Forces
Ground Motion
Calculation of loads and structural analysis techniques range from

relatively simple to highly complex methods:
Equivalent static load, linear analysis

Modal analysis
Dynamic, non-linear, time history analysis
Page 23 of 30
Snow Loads
Elevation View
Zone of snow
accumulation
Plan View
Page 24 of 30
Self Straining Force (ex. Temperature)
Uniform Temperature
Free end

Differential Temperature
Free end
+
Differential Temperature
+
Restrained End Induced moment
This can be particularly problematic in bridges which are typically

exposed to differential temperatures.
Page 25 of 30
Design Codes, Standards & Specifications:

Codes are legally binding rules that must be followed for the design of
all buildings and structures. Some codes include:
Uniform Building Code (UBC)

International Building Code (IBC)
Standards and specifications are written by different organizations,

typically by a committee of experts using similar language to codes.
When a standard or specification is incorporated into a building code it
must be followed. Standards and specifications give general rules for
most but not ALL cases. They generally include a provision for
reasonable engineering analysis. Some standards and specifications
are maintained by:
AISC hot-rolled steel for buildings

AISI light gage or cold-formed steel for buildings
AASHTO highway bridges
AREMA railroad bridges
Design Methods
AISC Steel Construction Manual (13th Edition) presents two design

methods:
Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
In both cases the fundamental design principal is:
Required Strength < Available Strength
Page 26 of 30
Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
Required strength to < specified value

support applied loads (allowable strength)
Rn
Ra

where:
R a = Required Strength
R n = Nominal Strength
= Factor of Safety (depends on nature of load applied
& failure mode)
Typically, = 1.67 for yielding or compression buckling

= 2.00 for rupture
ex.// A 1 diameter, circular A36 steel bar supports a dead load of 5 kips.
Using the allowable strength design method, what is the maximum
live load that the bar can support prior to yielding? The factor of
safety for tension yielding is 1.67.
Page 27 of 30
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Required strength < design strength.

(LRFD load combinations)
R u R n
where:
Ru = Required strength (LRFD)
Rn = Nominal strength (T n , P n , V n , M n )
= Resistance factor
R n = Design strength
Required Strength, R u
General Format:
R u = i Q i
where: i = Load Factor

Q i = Effect of applied load
Load factors mainly account for statistical variability of applied loads.

Higher for more uncertain loads (ex// Live Load)
Lower for well defined loads (ex// Dead Load)
Applied Loads:
Dead Load (D) Earthquake (E) Fluid Pressure (F)

Live Load (L) Snow (S) Flood (F a )
Roof Live Ld. (L r ) Rain (R) Lat. Earth Press. (H)
Wind (W) Weight of Ice (D i ) Self straining (T)
Page 28 of 30
AISC defines seven load combinations which are based on the ASCE-7
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures:
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L +0.5(L r or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(L r or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W)
4. 1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(L r or S or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D + 1.0W Cases when dead load counteracts
7. 0.9D + 1.0E effect of applied loads
NOTE: load factor on L in comb. 3,4, & 5 shall be 1.0 for garages, place of public assembly, and
areas where L > 100 psf
With Dead Load and Live Load only, combination 2 becomes:
1.2D + 1.6L
Design Strength, R n
The Resistance factor, , accounts for:
variations in dimensions
variations of material characteristics
variations in erected position
unavoidable inaccuracies in theory
It does NOT account for:

gross error
negligence
Value of depends on type of loading and expected failure mode:

Tensile Yielding t = 0.90
Tensile Rupture t = 0.75
Compression c = 0.90
Flexure & Shear b = 0.90, v = 0.90 (most cases)
Connections (bolted & welded) 0.75 1.0
Page 29 of 30
Calculation of nominal strength, R n , is the focus of the rest of the course.

Load and resistance factors are calculated based on a statistical analysis
to ensure a maximum probability of failure. A structure which fails is
said to have reached a limit state. Limit states can include:
Yielding and buckling (Strength)

Fatigue and Fracture (Strength)
Vibration and deflection (Servicability)
ex.// A 1 diameter, circular A36 steel bar supports a dead load of 5 kips.
Using the load and resistance factor design method, what is the
maximum live load that the bar can support prior to yielding?
Page 30 of 30

Cive 4364 Chapter 1 (MD Sp13)

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CIVE 4364 Structural Steel Design Introduction to Structural Steel

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL

Sydney Harbour Bridge Steel Arch/Truss

Golden Gate Bridge Suspension

Okanogan Flyover Curved Box Girder

Viaduct in Portugal Steel Space Truss

Eiffel Tower 986 ft. (roof)/1063 ft. (spire)

John Hancock Center 1127 ft. (roof)/1500 ft. (antenna)

Empire State Building 1250 ft. (roof)/1472 ft. (antenna)

Willis Tower (Sears Tower) 1451 ft. (roof)/1730 ft. (antenna)

Power Distribution Towers

Monopole towers Lattice towers

Architecturally Unique Structures

Collapse of Steel Structures

I-35W Bridge Collapse

Kansas City Hyatt Regency Collapse

Steel Material Characteristics

Elastic Plastic Strain Hardening Strain Softening

The material characteristics of steel are determined by several factors

carbon content of steel = strength

Structural Steel or Mild Steel 0.1% 0.5% carbon content

Effect of carbon content on steel properties (Davis et al., 1982)

Stress-strain relationship of steels with different carbon contents

Annealing Heating to 1500oF, hold temperature and gradually

Hardening Heating to 1500oF followed by rapid cooling

Tempering Heating to between 400oF and 1000oF followed by

Wide flange H Piles C Channels Angles L Plate Hollow Structural

Cold Forming Thin sheets of steel are mechanically formed to the

C channels, Z purlins, Sigma sections, sheet piles, steel decking

Aluminum (Al) helps expel gasses from molten steel

Chromium (Cr) produces stainless and heat resisting steel,

Copper (Cu) enhances corrosion resistance

Manganese (Mn) removes impurities, improves rollability,

Nickel (Ni) produces finer grain structure, makes quenching

Silicon (Si) deoxidizer, increases strength without reducing

Vanadium (V) increases elastic and tensile strengths, produces

Common Designations for Structural Steel

A36: Yield Strength, F y = 36 ksi Plates, Channels (C & MC),

A992: Yield Strength, F y = 50 ksi Wide Flange (W-Sections)

Components of a Steel Building

Foundations Joists (Beams) Steel-to-Concrete Connections

A bay is an area bounded by four columns as shown:

Analysis of a Typical Steel Frame

Bending Moment Diagram

What types of loads do we have to consider?

Dead Load Snow, Rain, Ice Fluid pressure, Flood load

Dead Loads (D)

Act continuously toward the ground, permanent loads.

Weight of the structure + Weight of attachments

Live Loads (L) and Roof Live Load (L r )

Typical Live Loads (ASCE7 05)

Distributed Load Concentrated Load

Consider the framing plan shown on the next page.

Tributary area for Joist A:

Tributary area for Girder B:

Tributary area for Column C:

Wind Loads (Detailed presentation in ASCE-7)

Specified external wind pressure and suction on a building:

Due to horizontal and vertical ground motion.

Calculation of loads and structural analysis techniques range from

Equivalent static load, linear analysis

Self Straining Force (ex. Temperature)

This can be particularly problematic in bridges which are typically