Normans in Ireland
For other uses, see Peerage of Ireland and Gaelic nobility diaspora, but no longer commonly identify as Norman.
of Ireland.
The Normans in Ireland, or Hiberno-Normans, were
Ireland in 1300 showing maximum extent of Hiberno-Norman
control
a group of Normans who invaded the various realms
of Gaelic Ireland. They arrived from the Kingdom of
England from the 12th century onwards and established
themselves as a feudal aristocracy and merchant oligarchy
in the Lordship of Ireland which existed throughout the
High Middle Ages and Late Middle Ages. They can in
many ways be seen as a branch of the Normans in England
and Wales. Some of the Normans became Gaelicised, es-
pecially in the West.
These Normans nominally owed their position and claims
to territory due to the King of England and were also
closely associated with the Gregorian Reform of the
Catholic Church in Ireland. Their fortunes took a dip
in the 17th century and much of their caste merged
with native Irish Gaels under the denominator of "Irish
Catholic. This was because a New English Protestant
elite had arrived as a new ruling class in Ireland during
the Tudor period. Some Normans opted to assimilate
with these Anglo-Irish people. Their descendants live in
Ireland to this day and have spread out through the Irish
Some of the most prominent Norman families were the
Burkes, FitzGeralds and Butlers. One of the most popular
Irish surnames, Walsh, derives from the Normans based
in Wales who arrived in Ireland as part of this group.
1 Etymology
Historians disagree about what to call the Normans in Ire-
land at dierent times in its existence, and in how to de-
ne this communitys sense of collective identity.
Irish historian Edward MacLysaght makes the distinc-
tion in his book, Surnames of Ireland, between Hiberno-
Norman and Anglo-Norman surnames. This sums up
the fundamental dierence between Queens English
Rebels and the Loyal Lieges. The Geraldines of
Desmond or the Burkes of Connacht, for instance, could
not accurately be described as Old English as that was not
their political and cultural world. The Butlers of Ormond,
on the other hand, could not accurately be described as
Hiberno-Norman in their political outlook and alliances,
especially after they married into the Royal Family.
Some historians now refer to them as Cambro-Normans,
and Sen Duy of Trinity College, Dublin, invariably
uses that term rather than the misleading Anglo-Norman
(most Normans came via Wales, not England), but after
many centuries in Ireland and just a century in Wales or
England it appears odd that their entire history since 1169
is known by the description Old English, which only came
into use in the late sixteenth century. Some contend it is
ahistorical to trace a single Old English community back
to 1169 as the real Old English community was a product
of the late sixteenth century in the Pale. Up to that time,
the identity of such people had been much more uid; it
was the administrations policies which created an oppo-
sitional and clearly dened Old English community.
Brendan Bradshaw, in his study of the poetry of late six-
teenth century Tr Chnaill, points out that the Normans
were not referred to there as Seanghaill (Old Foreign-
ers) but rather as Fionnghaill and Dubhghaill. He ar-
gued in a lecture to the Mchel Clirigh Institute in
University College, Dublin that the poets referred in that
way to hibernicised people of Norman stock in order to
grant them a longer vintage in Ireland than the (Fionng-
haill meaning fair-haired Foreigners, i.e. Norwegian
Vikings; Dubhghaill meaning black-haired Foreigners,
i.e. Danish Vikings). This follows on from his earlier ar-
1
2 2 HISTORY

guments that the term ireannaigh (Irish people) as we

currently know it also emerged during this period in the
poetry books of the U Bhroin of Wicklow as a sign of
unity between Gaeil and Gaill; he viewed it as a sign of
an emerging Irish nationalism. Breandn Buachalla es-
sentially agreed with him, Tom Dunne and Tom Bartlett
were less sure.
It was noted in 2011 that Irish nationalist politicians
elected between 1918 and 2011 could often be distin-
guished by surname. Fine Gael parliamentarians were
more likely to bear surnames of Norman origin than those
from Fianna Fil, who had a higher concentration of
Gaelic surnames.[1]

1.1 Old English vs. New English

The term Old English (Irish: Seanghaill, meaning old

foreigners) began to be applied by scholars for Norman
descended residents of The Pale and Irish towns after the
mid-16th century, who became increasingly opposed to
the Protestant "New English" who arrived in Ireland af-
ter the Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th and 17th
centuries.[2] Many of the Old English were dispossessed
in the political and religious conicts of the 16th and
17th centuries, largely due to their continued adherence
to the Roman Catholic religion. As a result, those loyal to
Catholicism attempted to replace the distinction between
Norman and Gaelic Irish under the new denomina-
tor of Irish Catholic by 1700, as they were both barred
from positions of wealth and power by the so-called New
English settlers, who became known as the Protestant As-
cendancy.
The earliest known reference to the term Old English is
in the 1580s[3] The community of Norman descent prior
to then used numerous epithets to describe themselves
(such as Englishmen born in Ireland or English-Irish),
but it was only as a result of the political cess crisis of the
1580s that a group identifying itself as the Old English
community actually emerged.
2 History
2.1 Normans in medieval Ireland
Traditionally, London-based Anglo-Norman govern-
ments expected the Normans in the Lordship of Ireland
to promote the interests of the Kingdom of England,
through the use of the English language (despite the fact
that they spoke Norman-French rather than English), law,
trade, currency, social customs, and farming methods.
The Norman community in Ireland was, however, never
monolithic. In some areas, especially in the Pale around
Dublin, and relatively urbanised communities in south
county Wexford, Kilkenny, Limerick and Cork, people
spoke the English language (though sometimes in arcane
Ireland in 1450 showing territories recognising English
sovereignty in blue and red
local dialects such as Yola), used English law, and, in
some respects, lived in a manner similar to that found in
England.
However, in the provinces, the Normans in Ireland (Irish:
Gaill meaning foreigners), were at times indistinguish-
able from the surrounding Gaelic lords and chieftains.
Dynasties such as the Fitzgeralds, Butlers, and Burkes
adopted the native language, legal system, and other cus-
toms such as fostering and intermarriage with the Gaelic
Irish and the patronage of Irish poetry and music. Such
people became regarded as more Irish than the Irish them-
selves as a result of this process (see also Norman Ireland).
The most accurate name for the community throughout
the late medieval period was Hiberno-Norman, a name
which captures the distinctive blended culture which this
community created and operated within. In an eort to
halt the ongoing Gaelicisation of the English community,
the Irish Parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in
1367, which among other things banned the use of the
Irish language, the wearing of Irish clothes, as well as pro-
hibiting the Gaelic Irish from living within walled towns.
2.1.1 The Pale
Despite these eorts, by 1515, one ocial lamented, that
all the common people of the said half counties [of The
Pale] that obeyeth the Kings laws, for the most part be
of Irish birth, of Irish habit, and of Irish language.[4]
English administrators such as Fynes Moryson, writing
in the last years of the sixteenth century, shared the lat-
ter view of what he termed the English-Irish: the En-
2.2 Tudor conquest and arrival of New English
glish Irish and the very citizens (excepting those of Dublin
where the lord deputy resides) though they could speak
English as well as we, yet commonly speak Irish among
themselves, and were hardly induced by our familiar con-
versation to speak English with us.[5] Morysons views
on the cultural uidity of the so-called English Pale were
echoed by other commentators such as Richard Stani-
hurst who, while protesting the Englishness of the Pales-
men in 1577, opined that Irish was universally gaggled in
the English Pale.[6]
The Pale in 1488
Beyond the Pale, the term 'English', if and when it was
applied, referred to a thin layer of landowners and no-
bility, who ruled over Gaelic Irish freeholders and ten-
ants. The division between the Pale and the rest of Ire-
land was therefore in reality not rigid or impermeable, but
rather one of gradual cultural and economic dierences
across wide areas. Consequently, the English identity ex-
pressed by representatives of the Pale when writing in En-
glish to the English Crown often contrasted radically with
their cultural anities and kinship ties to the Gaelic world
around them, and this dierence between their cultural
reality and their expressed identity is a central reason for
later Old English support of Roman Catholicism.[7]
There was no religious division in medieval Ireland, be-
yond the requirement that English-born prelates should
run the Irish church. After the Henrician Reformation
of the 1530s, however, most of the pre-16th century in-
habitants of Ireland continued their allegiance to Roman
Catholicism, even after the establishment of the Anglican
Church in England, and its Irish counterpart, the Church
of Ireland.
3
2.2 Tudor conquest and arrival of New En-
glish
Main article: Reformation in Ireland
In contrast to previous English settlers, the New English,
that wave of settlers who came to Ireland from England
during the Elizabethan era onwards as a result of the
Tudor conquest of Ireland, were more self-consciously
English, and were largely (though not entirely) Protestant.
To the New English, many of the Old English were de-
generate, having adopted Irish customs as well choosing
to adhere to Roman Catholicism after the Crowns o-
cial split with Rome. The poet Edmund Spenser was one
of the chief advocates of this view. He argued in A View
on the Present State of Ireland (1595) that a failure to con-
quer Ireland fully in the past had led previous generations
of English settlers to become corrupted by the native Irish
culture. In the course of the 16th century, the religious
division had the eect of alienating the Old English from
the state, and eventually propelled them into making com-
mon cause with the Gaelic Irish as Irish Roman Catholics.
2.2.1 Cess crisis
The rst confrontation between the Old English and the
English government in Ireland came with the cess crisis
of 15561583. During that period, the Pale community
resisted paying for the English army sent to Ireland to put
down a string of revolts which culminated in the Desmond
Rebellions (156973 and 157983). The term Old En-
glish was coined at this time, as the Pale community em-
phasised their English identity and loyalty to the Crown,
while, at the same time, contradictorily they refused to
co-operate with the wishes of the English Crown as rep-
resented in Ireland by the Lord Deputy of Ireland.
Originally, the conict was a civil issue, as the Palesmen
objected to paying new taxes that had not rst been ap-
proved by them in the Parliament of Ireland. The dis-
pute, however, also soon took on a religious dimension,
especially after 1570, when Elizabeth I of England was
excommunicated by Pope Pius V's papal bull Regnans
in Excelsis. In response, Elizabeth banned the Jesuits
from her realms as they were seen as being among the
Papacy's most radical agents of the Counter Reforma-
tion which, among other aims, sought to topple her from
her thrones. Rebels such as James Fitzmaurice Fitzger-
ald portrayed their rebellion as a Holy War, and indeed
received money and troops from the papal coers. In
the Second Desmond Rebellion (157983), a prominent
Pale lord, James Eustace, Viscount of Baltinglass, joined
the rebels from religious motivation. Before the rebel-
lion was over, several hundred Old English Palesmen had
been arrested and sentenced to death, either for outright
rebellion, or because they were suspected rebels because
of their religious views. Most were eventually pardoned
after paying nes of up to 100 pounds, a very large sum
4 2
for the time. However, twenty landed gentlemen from
some of the Pales leading, Old English families were ex-
ecuted some of them, died in the manner of [Roman]
Catholic martyrs, proclaiming they were suering for
their religious beliefs.[8]
This episode marked an important break between the Pale
and the English regime in Ireland, and between the Old
English and the New English.
In the subsequent Nine Years War (15941603), the Pale
and the Old English towns remained loyal[9] in favour of
outward loyalty to the English Crown during another re-
bellion.
2.3 Establishment of Protestantism
In the end, however, it was the re-organisation of the
English governments administration in Ireland along
Protestant lines in the early 17th century that eventually
severed the main political ties between the Old English
and England itself, particularly following the Gunpowder
Plot in 1605.
First, in 1609, Roman Catholics were banned from hold-
ing public oce in Ireland. Then, in 1613, the con-
stituencies of the Irish Parliament were changed so that
the New English Anglicans would have a slight majority
in the Irish House of Commons. Thirdly, in the 1630s,
many members of the Old English landowning class were
forced to conrm the ancient title to their land-holdings
often in the absence of title deeds, which resulted in some
having to pay substantial nes to retain their property,
while others ended up losing some or all of their land in
this complex legal process (see Plantations of Ireland).
The political response of the Old English community was
to appeal directly to the King of Ireland in England, over
the heads of his representatives in Dublin, eectively
meaning that they had to appeal to their sovereign in his
role as King of England, a necessity which further dis-
gruntled them.
First from James I, and then from his son and successor,
Charles I, they sought a package of reforms, known as
The Graces, which included provisions for religious toler-
ation and civil equality for Roman Catholics in return for
their payment of increased taxes. On several occasions
in the 1620s and 1630s, however, after they had agreed
to pay the higher taxes to the Crown, they found that the
Monarch or his Irish viceroy chose instead to defer some
of the agreed concessions. This was to prove culturally
counterproductive for the cause of the English adminis-
tration in Ireland, as it led to Old English writers, such as
Georey Keating to argue (as Keating did in Foras Feasa
ar irinn (1634)), that the true identity of the Old English
was now Roman Catholic and Irish, rather than English.
English policy thus hastened the assimilation of the Old
English with the native Irish.
HISTORY
2.4 Dispossession and defeat
In 1641, many of the Old English community made a de-
cisive break with their past as loyal subjects by joining the
Irish Rebellion of 1641. Many factors inuenced the de-
cision of the Old English to join in the rebellion, among
them fear of the rebels and fear of government reprisals
against all Roman Catholics. The main long-term reason
was, however, a desire to reverse the anti-Roman Catholic
policies that had been pursued by the English authorities
over the previous 40 years in carrying out their adminis-
tration of Ireland. Nevertheless, despite their formation
of an Irish government in Confederate Ireland, the Old
English identity was still an important division within the
Irish Roman Catholic community. During the Irish Con-
federate Wars (164153), the Old English were often ac-
cused by the Gaelic Irish of being too ready to sign a treaty
with Charles I of England at the expense of the interests
of Irish landowners and the Roman Catholic religion. The
ensuing Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (164953), saw
the ultimate defeat of the Roman Catholic cause and the
almost wholesale dispossession of the Old English no-
bility. While this cause was briey revived before the
Williamite war in Ireland (168991), by 1700, the An-
glican descendants of the New English had become the
dominant class in the country, along with the Old En-
glish families (and men of Gaelic origin such as William
Conolly) who chose to comply with the new realities by
conforming to the Established Church.
2.4.1 Protestant Ascendancy
In the course of the eighteenth century under the
Protestant Ascendancy, social divisions were dened al-
most solely in sectarian terms of Roman Catholic, An-
glican and Protestant Nonconformist, rather than eth-
nic ones. Against the backdrop of the Penal Laws (Ire-
land) which discriminated against them both, and a coun-
try becoming increasingly Anglicized, the old distinction
between Old English and Gaelic Irish Roman Catholics
gradually faded away,
Changing religion, or rather conforming to the State
Church, was always an option for any of the King of Ire-
lands subjects, and an open avenue to inclusion in the of-
cially recognised body politic, and, indeed, many Old
English such as Edmund Burke were newly-conforming
Anglicans who retained a certain sympathy and under-
standing for the dicult position of Roman Catholics,
as Burke did in his parliamentary career. Others in the
gentry such as the Viscounts Dillon and the Lords Dun-
sany belonged to Old English families who had originally
undergone a religious conversion from Rome to Canter-
bury to save their lands and titles. Some members of
the Old English who had thus gained membership in the
Irish Ascendancy even became adherents of the cause of
Irish independence. Whereas the Old English FitzGer-
ald Dukes of Leinster held the premier title in the Irish
 5

House of Lords when it was abolished in 1800, a scion Bodkin

of that Ascendancy family, the Irish nationalist Lord Ed-
ward Fitzgerald, was a brother of the second duke. Burke, also the variants Bourke, de Brc, de Brca
and de Burge

Butler
3 Norman surnames in Ireland
D'Alton

D'Arcy, also the variant De Arcy

de Barry

de Cogan (Seen now as Goggin)

de Clare

Candon, Condon, from de Caunteton

Colbert

Costello

Cusack, also the variant de Cussac (from Gascony

Bordeaux region of France)

de Lacy

Delaney

Dillon (surname), from de Leon

Devereaux

Deane, from de Denne

English

Fagan

Fanning

Fay (surname), from de Fae

Maurice FitzGerald, Lord of Lanstephan, progenitor of the Irish Finglas
FitzGerald dynasty, from a manuscript of the Expugnatio Hi-
bernica, an account of the 1169 invasion of Ireland written by FitzGerald
Maurices nephew, Gerald of Wales, in 1189.
FitzGibbons
The following is a list of Hiberno-Norman surnames, Fitzhenry, also the variant Fitzharris
many of them unique to Ireland. For example, the pre-
x "Fitz" meaning son of, in surnames like FitzGerald Fitzmaurice, also the variant Fitzmorris
appears most frequently in Hiberno-Norman surnames.
(cf. modern French ls de with the same meaning).[10] Fitzralph
However, very few names with the prex Fitz-" sound
Fitzrichard
Norman but are actually of native Gaelic origin; most no-
tably FitzPatrick (from the Mac Giolla Phdraig, kings FitzRoy
of Osraige) and FitzDermot (Mac Gilla Mo-Cholmc, of
the U Dnchada sept of the U Dnlainge based at Lyons Fitzsimons/Fitzsimon
Hill, Co. Dublin).
Fitzstephen

Barrett Fitzwilliam

Blake, from de Blaca French

Blancheld, from De Blancheville Gault (from Gualtier)

6 4 HIBERNO-NORMAN TEXTS

Hussey (From Houssaye in Seine-Maritime region Russell (Derived from a French term for a red-
in Normandy.) Also the variant O'Hosey, Oswell haired individual.)
and others
Sallenger, Sallinger, from St. Leger
Harpur
Savage
Joyce

Jordan Seagrave, Segrave

Kiely, Keily Sinnott

Kilcoyne, derived from the original Gaelic O Cad- Stack
hain, emerged in Norman Galway.

Lambart (There is a possible kinship between the Taae

Lambarts and Lamberts)
Testard
Lambert, also the variant Lamport. Most notably
John Lambert of Creg Clare Tyrrell or Tyrell

le Gros or later translation, le Gras (anglicized Tobin

Grace).
Wall (Anglicized from Du Val). See academic ge-
Mansell, from Le Mans, France
nealogy text Wall family in Ireland (1170-1970).
Marmion
Walshe/Walsh/Welsh (meaning Welshman or lit-
Marren erally a native Briton, as distinct from Anglo-
Saxon. Gaelic Breathnach)
Martyn, also the variant Martin

Manseld Woulfe (Anglicized from the Original Norman-

Gaelic De Bhulbh [Wolf])
Mac Eoin Bissett
White/Whitty (Anglicized from the original de
Mee (Anglicized form of Le Me: habitational Faoite meaning of fair skin)
name from (Le) Me in Mayenne, Eure-et-Loir, and
Seine-et-Marne) [11]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Mohan (surname) (early descendant)

Nagle

Nangle 4 Hiberno-Norman texts

Nicolas, Nicola
The annals of Ireland make a distinction made be-
Perrin,Perrinne tween Gaill and Sasanaigh. The former were split into
Fionnghaill or Dubhghaill, depending upon how much
Petit, Petitt, Pettit
the poet wished to atter his patron.[12]
Plunkett There are a number of texts in Hiberno-Norman French,
Power (le Poer) most of them administrative (including commercial)
or legal, although there are a few literary works as
Prendergast well.[13][14] There is a large amount of parliamentary leg-
islation, including the famous Statute of Kilkenny and
Preston municipal documents.
Redmond The major literary text is The Song of Dermot and the
Earl, a chanson de geste of 3,458 lines of verse con-
de Tiit/Tuite cerning Dermot McMurrough and Richard de Clare, 2nd
Roche (Derived from de Rupe or de la Roche) Earl of Pembroke (known as Strongbow).[15] Other
texts include the Walling of New Ross composed about
Rossiter (other form to write Rosseter, Rossitur, 1275, and early 14th century poems about the customs
Raucester, Rawcester, Rochester) of Waterford.
 7

5 See also [11] Genealogy of the Mee Family, 1913, LSFHC Film
#0944099 #ID# M/F 46
Dubgaill and Finngaill [12] See Art Cosgrove, 'Hiberniores Ipsis Hibernis, Late Me-
dieval Ireland 1370-1541 (Dublin, 1981) for a discussion
The Deeds of the Normans in Ireland
of the dierences between 'Gaill', 'Gaedhil' and 'Saxain'
Later Medieval Ireland (1185 to 1284) in late medieval Irish identity. Fionnghaill, fair-haired for-
eigners, were of Norwegian descent; Dubhghaill, dark-
Tribes of Galway haired foreigners, were of Danish descent. The former
had longer roots in Ireland and thus was, as Brendan Brad-
Irish nobility shaw demonstrated, used as a greater compliment. Nor-
mans were, of course, originally men of the North i.e.
Norman Ireland from Scandinavia. See CELT (http://www.ucc.ie/celt/
publishd.html) for English translations of these distinc-
Normans elsewhere tions made in all the principal late medieval Irish annals.

[13] list of Hiberno-Norman French texts at CELT

Anglo-Norman
[14] Bibliography of Hiberno-Norman French at CELT
Cambro-Norman
[15] Online text of Song of Dermot and the Earl at CELT
Italo-Norman
Scoto-Norman
7 Further reading

6 References Healy, John (1892). "The Anglo-Norman Invasion".

The ancient Irish church (1 ed.). London: Religious
[1] Irish Times, 27 June 2011. FF and FG tribal split traced Tract Society. pp. 18186.
back to 12th century, based on research by Drs. Byrne
and O'Malley

[2] Oxford Companion to Irish History online

[3] Canny, Nicholas, From Reformation to Restoration : Ire-

land 15341660 (Dublin 1987); the third volume in the
Helicon history of Ireland paperback series.

[4] 'State of Ireland & plan for its reformation' in State Papers
Ireland, Henry VIII, ii, 8

[5] Cited in Graham Kew (ed.), The Irish Sections of Fynes

Morysons unpublished itinerary (IMC, Dublin, 1998), p.
50.

[6] Cited in S. J. Connolly, Contested Island: Ireland 1460

1630 (Oxford, 2007), p. 29.

[7] See Vincent Carey, 'Bi-lingualism and identity formation

in sixteenth-century Ireland' in Hiram Morgan (ed.), Po-
litical Ideology in Ireland, 15411641 (Dublin, 1999) for
a study of this aspect of Old English culture and identity.

[8] Colm Lennon, Sixteenth Century Ireland, The Incomplete

Conquest,204205

[9] Colm Lennon, Sixteenth Century Ireland, The Incomplete

Conquest, p 322, Despite the proclamations of O'Neill...
there is little evidence that the townsfolk and Pale gentry
were in sympathy with the Ulster chieftains war, and in
this they had the backing of leading Jesuits such as Fa-
ther Richard Field SJ. Whatever their common Catholi-
cism, any links with the Spanish monarchy were strongly
eschewed by the vast majority of those of 'Old English'
origin in Ireland.

[10] Edward MacLysaght, Guide to Irish Surnames (1965)

8 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text
Normans in Ireland Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland?oldid=801729045 Contributors: Kaihsu, Henrygb,
Kainaw, Grant65, Rich Farmbrough, John FitzGerald, Xezbeth, Jnestorius, Man vyi, Ricky81682, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Ardfern,
Mbutler, Jdorney, Cuchullain, Red King, Mark Ironie, Rsrikanth05, Murphys Law, Gardeyloo, SmackBot, Kintetsubualo, Yopie, Srnec,
Bluebot, Brianlacey, Hibernian, Mike hayes, Texas William, Rinnenadtrosc, Korovio, Dl2000, Cydebot, Burkem, Walgamanus, Jon C.,
Thijs!bot, Marek69, Rafax, UtDicitur, Froid, BilCat, PurpleHz, Peter Clarke, David Lauder, Billinghurst, Captain Fearnought, Laburke,
TheOldJacobite, Niceguyedc, Lantzy, Addbot, Landon1980, Luckas-bot, Senator Palpatine, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Neurolysis,
The Banner, WickerWiki, The real Marcoman, Satprof, Nora lives, Chnou, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, Gabe.loggins, EmausBot, Laurel
Lodged, Manytexts, 87v7t76fc4iguwevf7657436253yd4fug754ws67dtfugiy67t8576, Gareth Grith-Jones, Jack Greenmaven, Scotfree-
girl, Jaedit, Gob Lofa, SurnamesGalore, Blackhound63, Kingdom of desmond assn, Marcocapelle, Konzagirl, Jacob van Maerlant, Chris-
Gualtieri, Hmainsbot1, Claomh Solais, Caoillainn, Dannyboyuk52, Jean Po, MickeyCool33, Ri Osraige, Narky Blert, Roach85, Vladeraz,
CV9933, BlueHussars, GrapefruitSculpin, Eric39022 and Anonymous: 94

8.2 Images
File:Flag_of_Basse-Normandie.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Flag_of_Basse-Normandie.svg
License: GFDL Contributors: own work + <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Haute-Normandie_flag.svg' class='image'><img
alt='Haute-Normandie ag.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Haute-Normandie_flag.svg/
30px-Haute-Normandie_flag.svg.png' width='30' height='18' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/
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Haute-Normandie_flag.svg/60px-Haute-Normandie_flag.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='500' data-le-height='300' /></a> Original artist:
Zorlot
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tributors: www.irelandstory.com: http://www.wesleyjohnston.com/users/ireland/maps/historical/map1300.gif Original artist: Patrick Ab-
bot / Wesley Johnston
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tributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was (Automated conversion) at English
Wikipedia
File:Maurice_FitzGerald,_Lord_Lanstephan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Maurice_
FitzGerald%2C_Lord_Lanstephan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Library of Ireland, MS 700, f77, right margin,
taken from [1] Original artist: Unknown artist of the 12th century
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tributors: This vector image includes elements that have been taken or adapted from this: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Crown_of_prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg' class='image'><img alt='Crown of prince of the Holy Roman Empire.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Crown_of_prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg/22px-Crown_
of_prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg.png' width='22' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/6/69/Crown_of_prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg/32px-Crown_of_prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Crown_of_prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg/43px-Crown_of_
prince_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='140' data-le-height='130' /></a> Crown of prince of the Holy Roman
Empire.svg. Original artist: Tom Lemmens
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:The_Pale_According_to_the_Statute_of_1488.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/The_Pale_
According_to_the_Statute_of_1488.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Weston St. John Joyce (1858-1939), 'The Neighbourhood
of Dublin' (Dublin, 1921) Original artist: Weston St. John Joyce

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