Calculus 1 Study Guide - Mintchev

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Calculus I Course Review - Mintchev
This study guide is basically a topic by topic breakdown of each section of the
textbook that we covered in class (Fall 2014) with additional topics that we covered in
class but arent in the textbook. It is designed for Mintchevs Calculus 1 section but
should be applicable to all Calculus 1 sections as the topics covered are similar.
Hopefully this will reduce the amount of time you will spend studying by organizing
everything that you will be tested on for the final exam and explaining topics in non-
textbook terms (for better understanding, hopefully). For example, maybe you know
youre pretty good at differentiation but arent as good at Riemann Sums or Delta-
Epsilon proofs. You can use this guide to jump around topics that you know you need
practice on.
Ive also included some of the assigned exercises from Mintchevs class. Along
with these exercises, Ive pointed out a bunch that I think are especially good for review,
based on the questions Ive seen on tests or just based on how good they are for testing
how well you understand something.
Topics are organized by section in the approximate order we learned them in.
Also, Ive tried to include exactly what topics are included in each section so that you
have more to go by than just the title of the section. Ive also included pictures of my
math for some problems and formulas.

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Table of Contents
Exam #1:
Section 1.1- Functions and their Graphs 4-5
Day 1 of Algebra 1
Section 1.2- Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs 6-7
Manipulating functions and types of functions (including compositions)
Section 1.3- Trigonometric Functions 7-8
Day 1 of Algebra 2
Section 2.1- Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves 8-10
Secant lines and the average rate of change
The instantaneous rate of change via limits
Section 2.2- Limit of a Function and Limit Laws 11-12
Includes squeeze theorem
Section 2.3- The Precise Definition of a Limit 13-15
Delta-epsilon
Section 2.4- One-Sided Limits 15-16
Section 2.5- Continuity 16-18
When a function is continuous and when it isnt
Types of discontinuity
Intermediate Value Theorem
Section 2.6- Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs 18-20
End behavior including slant asymptotes
Section 3.1- Tangents and the Derivative at a Point 20-21
Limit definition only
Section 3.2- The Derivative as a Function 21-22
Limit definition only
Leibnizs notation
Section 3.3- Differentiation Rules 22-23
Section 3.4- The Derivative as a Rate of Change 23
Position vs. Velocity vs. Acceleration
Section 3.5- Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 24
Includes a proof!
Section 3.6- The Chain Rule 24-25
Section 3.7- Implicit Differentiation 25-26
Section 3.8- Related Rates 26-27
Section 3.9- Linearization and Differentials 27-29
EXTRA STUFF not covered on exam 1 29
% error approximations
Section 4.1- Extreme Values of Functions 29-30
Extreme Value Theorem
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Section 4.2- The Mean Value Theorem 30-31

Section 4.3- Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test 31-32
Section 4.4- Concavity and Curve Sketching 32-33
Section 4.5- Applied Optimization 33-35
Section 4.6- Newtons Method 35-36
Section 4.7- Antiderivatives 36
Section 7.1- Inverse Functions and their Derivatives 36-37
Section 7.6- Inverse Trigonometric Functions 37-39
Section 5.1- Area and Estimating with Finite Sums 39-41
Section 5.2- Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums 41-44
Section 5.3- The Definite Integral 45
Section 5.4- The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 45-46
Section 8.6- Numeric Integration 46-47
EXTRA STUFF 47
Section 5.5- Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method 48-49
Section 5.6- Substitution and Area Between Curves Ends here 49-51
Section 7.2- The Natural Logarithm 51-55
Section 7.3- Exponential Functions 55-56
Section 7.4- Exponential Change & Separable Differential Equations 56-57
Section 7.5- Indeterminate Forms and LHopitals Rule 57-59
Section 7.7- Hyperbolic Functions 59-61
Section 7.8- Relative Rates of Growth 61
Section 8.1- Integration by Parts 61-64
Section 8.2- Trigonometric Integrals 64-65
Section 8.4- Integration of Rational Functions By Partial Fractions 65-68
Section 8.3- Trigonometric Substitutions 68-69
Section 8.7- Improper Integrals 69-73
Also, I know there will probably be some errors in here somewhere. Im not
even close to perfect, so please, if you see one, tell me about it or post about it so
that everything gets cleared up and people dont make mistakes.

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Section 1.1 - Functions and their Graphs

Ok. This is basically everything you already knew. This whole chapter is stuff you
already knew about math. So this one will be quick for you because you can skip most
of it (probably).
A function is denoted y=f(x) which means that x is the independent variable (the one
you change) and y is the dependent variable (the one that changes as a result). The
easiest way to remember it is to remember that y is dependent on the value of x.
In order for an expression to be considered a function, the expression must have only 1
y-value for every x-value within its domain. (This is also known as the vertical line test,
where, if you graph the function, you can pass any vertical line through it and only hit
the curve once).
The domain of a function is all of the x-values it takes on.

The range of a function is all of the y-values it takes on.
In order to find the domain of a function, just think about all of the places that the
function isnt defined. In other words, are there places that you cant plug in a certain x-
value?
For polynomials, the domain is all real numbers, because there isnt any x-value that
cant be put into the function to get a y-value.
However, for something like f(x)=x^, you cant plug in x-values that are negative
because then youd be taking the square root of a negative number, which isnt going to
give you a real number.
Finding the range of a function is covered in later sections.
Set notation for a graph of a function:

{ (x,f(x)) | x D }
This means that the graph is of a set of points that each take the form (x, f(x)) and that x
is an element of D, which is the functions domain.
This section also goes over how to graph simple functions. If you ever need to graph a
function, I would just plug in a number of x values and their corresponding y values to
get the general shape.
Piecewise functions
Piecewise functions are functions that take on different graphs on certain intervals of x-
values. The classic example of a piecewise function is |x| because from 0 to
(including 0) the function takes on the form y=x and from - to 0 the function takes on
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the form y=-x. So, from - to 0, graph y=-x and from 0 to graph y=x. At points where
the function changes from one function to another (in this case, 0), find the y-value by
checking to see which function the x-value belongs to (in this case, 0 belongs to y=x)
and plug it in.
Increasing and Decreasing

Definition:
Let f be a function defined on I and let x=c and x=d be any two points in I
1. If f(c)>f(d) for every c>d then f(x) is said to be increasing.
2. If f(c)<f(d) for every c>d then f(x) is said to be decreasing.
Now, obviously you can only show this if you know every x,y pair of the function, so
there are better ways to tell if a function is increasing or decreasing.
A function is even if f(-x)=f(x)

A function is odd if f(-x)=-f(x)
This section goes over function types but you know what they are hopefully.
Absolute Value Function: |x|, remember its a piecewise function
Ceiling Function: rounds up to the nearest integer, so 1.1 and 1.7 are 2
Floor Function: rounds down to the nearest integer, so 1.1 and 1.7 are 1
Linear Function: highest power of x is 1. Constant slope
Identity Function: linear functions that go through the origin
Power Function: x^k where k is any real number > 1
Root Function: x^k where k is any real number 0 < k < 1
Polynomial Function: ax^(n)+bx^(n-1)+cx^(n-2)....+zx^(0)
Rational Function: f(x) = p(x)/q(x) where p(x) and q(x) are some functions
Exponential Function: b^x where b is some real number
Trig Function: f(x)=sin(x), g(x)=cos(x) and any combination of f and g
Logarithmic Function: logb(x) where b is the base. Inverse of b^x
Exercises Assigned:
Section 1.1: 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 14, 19, 28-32, 33-36
No recommendations from the assigned exercises. Pretty straightforward.
Section 1.2 - Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs

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Basically, this is just manipulating functions.
(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

(f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
(fg)(x) = f(x)*g(x)
(f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) *this doesnt work for values where g(x)=0*
Composition of functions
fog(x) f(g(x))
Just work from the last letter to the first letter. If your problem says aobocodoeof(x) you
know that f will be in the middle and a will be the furthest on the outside.
a(b(c(d(e(f(x))))))
This is called a composite function.
Shifting
f(x) = x^2 is your base function.
f(x) = x^2 + 2 is the base function shifted up 2.

f(x) = x^2 - 3 is the base function shifted down 3.
f(x) = (x+1)^2 is the base function shifted to the left 1.
f(x) = (x-3)^2 is the base function shifted to the right 3.
And yeah you can combine these shifts but as Mintchev would say, Look, a lot of this
stuff you keep asking me to do I could do, but its just not necessary.
Scaling
This is just making the graph wider or steeper. Its tough to say in words what it does.
f(x) = x^2 is your base function.
f(x) = 2x^2 scales the function by a factor of 2. (Its now steeper).

f(x) = ()x^2 scales the function by a factor of . (Its now wider).
Reflection
f(-x) is a reflection over the y axis.
-f(x) is a reflection over the x axis.
This section also goes over ellipses but I dont think we have to worry about those.
Exercises assigned:
Section 1.2: 1, 2, 5, 11, 21-24, 63, 79, 80
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Again, I dont think there are any real standouts.
Section 1.3 - Trigonometric Functions

This section goes over all of the algebraic ways you can manipulate trigonometric
functions, what they are, angles, and a few other things you probably covered in your
freshman year (of high school).
Degrees: 0 to 360
Radians: 0 to 2
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply your degree value by /180

To convert from radians to degrees, multiply your radian value by 180/
If, at this point, you still forget this, just remember that to get rid of the in a radian
value, you have to divide by .
Trigonometric Functions
Theyre periodic. That just means that there is a set interval length for which the function
graph is exactly the same.
Ok. Here is your first picture. Feel free to copy it into another document and make it
bigger if you cant see it. I mean, this is your study guide.
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Exercises Assigned:
Section 1.3: 7-20, 29, 30, 57, 61
Yeah this is the same. This is stuff you probably already know.
Section 2.1 - Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves
Average and Instantaneous Speed

Galileos Law:
In free fall, an objects distance traveled follows the formula y=16t^2 where t is in
seconds and y is in feet.
Following this formula, one can find the average speed by applying the beginning
speed, the ending speed, and the starting and ending times.
Final Speed - Initial Speed

Final Time - Initial Time
In this case, since the formula for finding the speed is given, the formula would be
16(h)^2 - 16(t)^2 t is the initial time, h is the final time
h-t
For example, if your initial time is 1 second, and your final time is 3 seconds, then the
formula reads
16(3)^2 - 16(1)^2
3-1
Secant Lines and the Average Rate of Change

This formula isnt really that important, to be honest. What is important is another
formula that looks just like this one, which is the equation of a secant line.
A secant line is a line that goes through two points on some curve.
The formula is f(b)-f(a) where a and b are x-values in the domain of the function.
b-a
The secant line gives you the average slope on that interval, which is the average rate
of change.
The formula is sometimes written as f(x+h) - f(x) where h is some distance from an x
h
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Please note that this formula only gives you the slope of the secant line if you can find
some interval [x, x+h]. For example, you can have the x-values 3 and 5. In this case, h
is 2 because your second x-value, 5, is 2 away from the first x-value, 3.
*If you want to find a formula for the secant line for any h value, just plug in any x-value
and leave the h alone.*
If you do this, youll get a formula for the secant line at any h value away from the x-
value you chose when finding the formula. This is easiest to see when you go over an
example.
f(x) = (x-1)^2
Now, we want the secant line for any h away from an arbitrary x-value within the domain
of f(x). Lets pick x=3
f(x+h) - f(x) f(3+h) - f(3) (3+h-1)^2 - (3-1)^2 (2+h)^2 - (2)^2
h h h h
4+4h+h^2 - 4 h^2+4h =h+4 This is the slope of the secant line any h
h h away from x=3.
If you want to find the slope at a point, not an average slope between two points, then
you can take a limit as h goes to 0 of the secant slope formula.
lim f(x+h) - f(x) This is known as the limit definition of the slope of a tangent
h0 h line. The reason this works is because a limit, by definition,
takes every point near 0 except 0. I will get to proving that
using delta - epsilon in later sections.
So, using the previous example, if you take a limit as h0 of the secant slope we found,
which was h + 4, then you see that the slope of f(x) = (x-1)^2 at x=3 is 4.
This is called the instantaneous rate of change.
You can find a formula for every instantaneous rate of change of any function by just not
plugging in any x-values. Lets try it.
lim f(x+h) - f(x) lim (x+h-1)^2 - (x-1)^2
h0 h h0 h
lim x^2+2xh+h^2-2h-2x+1 - (x^2-2x+1) lim 2xh+h^2-2h lim 2x-2+h

h0 h h0 h h0
Now that the h is gone in the denominator, plug in 0

=2x-2.
Now, lets check at x=3, which we found to be 4, using the old formula.
2(3)-2 = 6-2 = 4.
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It works. What you have just found is the slope of the tangent line to the curve y=(x-1)^2
at x=3.
If you wanted to find the equation of that line, youd first need a point because, at the
moment, you have a slope and an x-value.
So, lets find the y-value.
f(3)=(3-1)^2=4.
So the point is (3,4)
y-4=4(x-3)
y=4x-12+4
y=4x-8
This is the equation of the tangent line to the curve y=(x-1)^2 at the point (3,4)
Exercises Assigned:
Section 2.1: Exercises 3, 5, 6, 10, 13, 15, 16
15 and 16 are good ones to do. Both ask you to calculate average speeds without
giving you a function. Just remember to look at the graphs they give you to find the y-
values and x-values.
Section 2.2 - Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

A limit tells you what y-values a function is taking on near certain x-values. Remember
that a limit only talks about x-values near the one youre looking for.
Here is the easiest type of limit
lim f(x) is f(c) if f(x) is continuous near c.
xc
So then, continuity.
In general, most functions are continuous. Here are a few that arent:
rational functions
tan(x)
csc(x)
cot(x)
sec(x)
some piecewise functions
Now, the problems you will see that involve limits will often deal with functions that
arent continuous at c. Before we get there though, here are some limit rules
lim(f(x)+g(x)) = lim(f(x)) + lim(g(x))
lim(f(x)-g(x)) = lim(f(x)) - lim(g(x))
lim(k*f(x)) = k*lim(f(x))
lim(f(x)*g(x)) = [lim(f(x))]*[lim(g(x))]
lim(f(x))/g(x)) = [lim(f(x))]/[lim(g(x))]
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lim(f(x)^n) = [lim(f(x))]^n
Limits get interesting when we start taking limits of functions that arent continuous.
For example
lim 1 Here, the function isnt defined at x, so what do we do?
x0+ x
There are a few things to do when things like this come up.
Option 1: See if you can factor to get terms to cancel so that the function becomes
defined.
Option 2: Take 1-sided limits.
In the case of 1/x you cant do the option 1 because there is nothing to factor or cancel,
so lets try option 2.
lim 1 This notation indicates a limit from the right of 0. So, whats a number that
x0+ x is to the right of 0 but really close? 0.01? Sure. When you plug in 0.01 you
see that the function is 100. If you plug in numbers closer and closer to 0
(like .00001) you see that the function just gets bigger and bigger, so this
limit must go to infinity. Lets try the limit from the other side.
lim 1 This notation indicates a limit from the left of 0. When you choose a value
x0- x that is really close to 0 but smaller (to the left), you see that the function
goes to negative infinity.
*Since the limit from the left and the limit from the right are not equal, we say that the
limit from both sides does not exist*
Note: A limit exists if:
lim f(x) = lim f(x)
xc+ xc-
Squeeze Theorem
If h(x)<=f(x)<=g(x)
and lim h(x) = lim g(x) = some value L
xc xc
then lim f(x) = L
xc
In simple terms:
If you have a function f(x) and youre trying to find the limit but cant for whatever
reason, see if you can find a function h(x) that is bigger than it and a function g(x) that is
smaller than it.
If the limit of h(x) and g(x) is some value L as x approaches some value c, then the limit
for f(x) as x approaches c is also L.
Simple example:
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h(x) = x+2
g(x) = x-1
f(x) = x
lim h(x) = lim g(x) = infinity
xinfinity xinfinity
Therefore,
lim f(x) = infinity
xinfinity
Exercises Assigned
Section 2.2: Exercises 3, 4, 11-50, 51, 52; Problems 66, 75, 76, 78, 80
Definitely do the squeeze theorem ones. (66, 75, 76).
Section 2.3 - The Precise Definition of a Limit
This is delta-epsilon. The definition is as follows
This says, given f is a function that has some domain of real numbers, and a is a real
number and L is a real number.
Then
lim f(x) = L If and only if For every Epsilon greater than 0 there exists a delta greater
xa than 0 such that 0<|x-a|< delta satisfies |f(x)-L|<epsilon
Delta and epsilon are abstract ways of saying that youre close to the values you want.
limit as x approaches a. Well, how close does it get? delta close. Delta is an interval
around a. Epsilon is around L. When we say f(x) goes to L, its actually going epsilon
close to L.
This definition is saying that for every epsilon interval you can find a delta interval such
that 0<|x-a|< delta implies |f(x)-L|<epsilon is satisfied.
So when you do this proof, you have to do a few things.
1. You have to choose an epsilon that is greater than 0.
2. You find the delta based on that epsilon.
3. You have to run the proof.
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So, lets try one.

lim x+1 = 5 So L=5, a=4 and f(x)=x+1
x4 Plug them into your steps.
First choose an epsilon. Lets make this limit fairly accurate so lets choose an epsilon
thats pretty small. Like 0.1
So 0<|x-4|<delta |x+1-5|<epsilon = 0.1
|x-4|<0.1
Thats what we get when we take the epsilon bit a little further, and it looks just like the
delta part.
So we can say |x-4|<0.1=delta
Although it doesnt seem like we did anything, you just found that delta=0.1 for
epsilon=0.1
Now run the proof.
0<|x-4|<delta=0.1
|x+5-1|<epsilon
|x-4|<epsilon=0.1
Looks like it works.
Now, that seems not only really easy, but unnecessary. Of course lim x+1 is 5.
x4
Lets try something harder.
lim 2xsin(1/x) = 0
x0
0<|x-0|<delta |2xsin(1/x)-0|<epsilon
Step 1: Let epsilon be something and find the delta.
Lets let epsilon be delta (yeah, you can do that. After all, delta is greater than 0, the
only condition for picking an epsilon).
|2xsin(1/x)-0|<epsilon=delta
2|x||sin(1/x)|<epsilon=delta
We know that the absolute value of sin(1/x) is no bigger than 1, so we can just drop it; it
doesnt actually help out your case for finding an epsilon, since the greatest value of
epsilon is going to be whatever 2|x| is.
2|x|<epsilon = delta
|x|<delta/2
0<|x|<delta
Looks like delta=delta/2=epsilon.
This might not make sense, but what its really saying is that for whatever epsilon you
choose, your delta is going to be half of that.
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Lets try it with an actual number.

Let epsilon = 1
|2xsin(1/x)-0|<1 0<|x-0|<delta
2|x|<1 0<|x|<delta
|x|<
Looks like delta=
epsilon is 1 and delta is . Looks like what we found earlier turned out to be true.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 2.3: Exercises 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19, 23; Problems 33, 34, 35, 40, 44, 45, 49, 50, 52, 57,
58, 60
16, 19, and 23 are all finding deltas based on epsilons. Do those. Problems 33, 34, 35,
40, 44, 45, 49, and 50 have to do with doing the proof. Do those too. The rest are pretty
useless.
Section 2.4 - One Sided Limits

We actually already went over this.
Use one-sided limits if f is not continuous at a point or if youre not sure (for piecewise
functions).
You can do delta-epsilon with right and left hand limits too, but basically, its the same
equation.
If the limit from the left = limit from the right, then the two sided limit is that value.
Lets use 1-sided limits to find the behavior of tan(x) near /2
lim tan(x) This is the one-sided limit from the left (-).
x/2-
lim tan(x) This is the one-sided limit from the right (+).
x/2+
Remember that tan(x) is sin(x)/cos(x)
lim sin(x) sin(/2) = 1 and cos(/2) = 0. From the left, however, cos is positive
x/2- cos(x) so the limit will evaluate to 1/(really small + number) which is infinity
lim sin(x) Same thing, except that from the right, cos is negative, so the limit will
x/2+ cos(x) be 1/(really small - number) which is negative infinity.
Since lim doesnt equal lim lim does not exist

x/2- x/2+ x/2
However, you do know what tan(x) does near /2.
This section also tells us that
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lim sin(x) = 1 This also works if the x is on the top and sin(x) is on the bottom.
x0 x
Exercises Assigned:
Section 2.4: Exercises 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21-42
Definitely do 1, 2, 5, 6, 14, 16, 19, 20.

For 19, 20, remember what floor and ceiling functions do.
21-42 just test how well you can use the sin(x)/x limit identity. Just go back to the limit
rules in section 2.2 to do them. Do 22, 36, 40, 42 if you think youre good already.
Section 2.5 - Continuity

You may have wondered why I didnt include continuity in the previous section. Well, its
because its supposed to be here. Whatever. Heres continuity:
A function is continuous at x=c if
lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(c)
xc+ xc-
It basically says, the two sided limit must exist as xc and it must be f(c).
At the endpoints of a domain [a,b]
A function is left continuous at b if
lim f(x) = f(b)
xb-
A function is right continuous at a
lim f(x) = f(a)
xa+
Here are some properties of continuous functions.
If f and g are both continuous at c, then
f+g is continuous at c
f-g is continuous at c
f*g is continuous at c
f/g is continuous at c (g(c) cant be 0)
f^n and g^n are continuous for n>0
Intermediate Value Theorem:

Suppose f:[a,b]R is continuous on [a,b]. Then for every y satisfying the condition
min<=y<=max
there exists at least one x in [a,b] such that f(x) = y
Now, what does that mean?
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That means that if you can find an x value (x1) for which f(x) = -1 and another x value
(x2) for which f(x) = 1, then there must be SOME x value between x1 and x2 for which
f(x) = 0.
Example: Prove that y=2x has a zero.

Is y=x continuous on some interval [a,b]? Yeah, its continuous everywhere.
f(-1) = -2
f(1) = 2
Therefore, by intermediate value theorem, there must be some x value between 1 and -
1 for which f(x) = 0 because 0 is between f(-1) and f(1).
A function isnt that interesting if its continuous all the time though, so lets focus on
when a function is not continuous.
A function can have three types of discontinuity:

Jump discontinuity
Asymptotic discontinuity
Point discontinuity
A jump discontinuity is where, at x=c, the two one-sided limits arent equal.
A point discontinuity is where, at x=c, the two one-sided limits are equal but arent
equal to f(c), either because f(c) doesnt exist, or because f(c) is some other value.
An asymptotic discontinuity is where, at x=c, the two one-sided limits go to some
form of infinity (they dont have to be the same).
Example for jump discontinuity:

f(x) = { 2x x>1
{ x-1 x<1
lim f(x) = 0 From the left of 1. Thats a value that is less than 1. So we use x-1.
x1- x-1 is continuous at 1 so we can just plug in 1 to get 0.
lim f(x) = 2 From the right of 1. Thats a value that is greater than 1. So we use
x1+ 2x. 2x is continuous at 1 so we can just plug in 1 to get 2.
Since the one-sided limits arent equal, this is a jump discontinuity.
Example for point discontinuity:

f(x) = 2x Here, you can cancel the xs so that the function is f(x) = 2. But remember,
x you can only do that if x is not equal to 0.
So f(x) = 2 is equivalent to f(x) = 2x/x for every value except x=0.
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If you were to compute the one-sided limits as x0, youd see that they would both be 2
because a limit takes values infinitely close to 0 but not at 0 itself. Since the function is
being defined at points not equal to 0, it is equivalent to 2, and the limits are both 2.
However, at f(0), the function is not defined, so this is a point discontinuity. Sometimes,
this is called a removable discontinuity or a hole. However, using the term point
discontinuity is the most correct.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 2.5: Exercises 1-46; Problems 52, 53, 55, 59, 62, 65
I highly recommend doing every single one of these if all of the stuff you just learned
was relatively new to you. Otherwise, id just stick with 5, 6, 30, 36.
For IVT proofs, do the 52, 53, 55.
Section 2.6 - Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs

We actually already did the asymptotes part. However, this chapter primarily involves
end behavior (limits as x+/-infinity)
Some people use the term horizontal asymptote to describe the behavior of a function
at +/- infinity. This is often misleading, because people assume that there is actually an
asymptote through the entire function that it cant pass through. This is not true, so I will
use the term end behavior.
End behavior rules for non-rational functions:

If the highest power of x in your function is odd, then the function goes to +infinity as x
goes to +infinity and goes to -infinity as x goes to -infinity. Just look at the graph.
If the highest power of x in your function is even, then the function goes to + infinity as
x goes to +infinity AND as x goes to -infinity. Just look at the graph.
End behavior rules for rational functions:

The end behavior of rational functions follows that of the end behavior of the functions
you would get if you divided out the rational function.
For example, the rational function x^3/x is going to have end behavior like x^2 because,
when you divide x^3 by x, you get x^2.
This doesnt change if there are extra values in the numerator and denominator; it only
depends on the highest powers.
For example, (x^3-2x+1)/(x-1) is still going to have end behavior like x^2.
Special Case 1: The powers are the same

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If the highest power of x within the entire rational function is in both the numerator and
denominator, then the limit as x+/- infinity goes to the ratio of the coefficients of those
two highest powers.
Example:
lim x^2-1 is because that is the ratio of the coefficients on the highest
x+infinity 2x^2+5 power of x, in this case, x^2.
WHY?
Well, because if you divide out these terms, you get the highest power of x to be 0. x^0
is just 1, so the coefficients are all that remain.
Special Case 2: Slant Asymptote

A slant asymptote occurs when the highest power of x in the numerator is exactly 1
more than the highest power of x in the denominator.
A slant asymptote is also sometimes called a linear tendency because when you divide
out functions where the numerator has a power 1 greater than the power in the
denominator, you always get a linear function (highest power of x is 1).
Example:
lim x^2-1 is infinity because the highest power of x is x^2 which is in the top.
x+infinity x+2
However, when you divide out the terms on the top and bottom, you get
x + (-1-2x) Here, I think you can see that the highest power of x is 1.
(x^2-1)
In a linear function, the highest power of x is 1, so this is a linear tendency or a slant
asymptote.
However, it doesnt change the fact that this function still goes to +infinity as x+infinity
because all it does is follow the behavior of x.
***This is very important***

If the coefficient in front of the highest power of x is negative in either the numerator or
the denominator, take that into account.
For example, if the problem I used earlier were
x^2-1 then the end behavior would follow the line -x, not x because now the ratio is x^2
over -x.
-x+2
So, the limit as x+infinity would be -infinity because thats what -x does.
The limit as x-infinity would be +infinity because thats what -x does.
Limit Laws for End Behavior

These still apply.
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Example:
lim (5+1/x) = lim 5 + lim 1
x+infinity x+infinity x+infinity x
=5+0=5
Now, you already knew that it was 5 because the highest power of x in this function is 0
and for functions where the highest power of x is 0, the function goes to the coefficient,
which is 5.
Another way to think about it is to combine the terms.
5+ 1/x is the same as 5x+1 Well, the highest power of x is 1 and its in the top
x and in the bottom. So, the ratio of the coefficients is
5/1 which is 5.
As I said earlier, this section also covers asymptotes, but we covered that in section 2.5
so heres what to remember.
IF
lim f(x) = +/- infinity OR lim f(x) = +/- infinity
xc+ xc-
then f(x) has a vertical asymptote at x=c.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 2.6: Exercises 1-62, 63, 66, 68, 70, 71, 75, 76, 80, 82, 83, 99, 100, 104; Problems 91, 92, 96, 97
This was a HUGE part of our first exam. If you didnt do well on these parts, do all of
these.
Section 3.1 - Tangents and the derivative at a point

Yeah, this is the section is all about the limit definition of the derivative.
Remember that
lim f(k+h) - f(k) is the slope of the tangent line to f(x) through the point (k, f(k))
h0 h
This is also called the derivative or the difference quotient of f(x) at the point (k, f(k))
What is it, other than the slope of the tangent line?
Well
That formula will give you:

The slope of f(x) at the point (k, f(k))
The slope of the tangent like to f(x) at the point (k, f(x))
The rate of change of f(x) at the point (k, f(k))
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The derivative of f(x) at the point (k, f(k))
You can also check to see if a function has a slope at a certain point by taking one-
sided limits of the difference quotient.
You can also check to see at what point of a function the function has a certain slope,
like a slope of 0 (horizontal slope) by setting the difference quotient to be equal to that
slope value and having k just be a variable.
And that is literally the end of the section.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.1: Exercises 1-36
Do 23, 27-32, 33, 35
Section 3.2 - The Derivative as a Function

This section takes the formula you just learned again and turning it into a formula that
works for every x-value of a function.
f(x) = lim f(x+h) - f(x) This is saying that f(x) [pronounced f prime of x] is
h0 h equal to the function you get from that limit.
Lets do an example.
f(x) = 5x^2+3
lim 5(x+h)^2 + 3 - (5x^2 + 3) = lim 5(x^2+2xh+h^2) - 5x^2
h0 h h0 h
= lim 10xh+5h^2 = lim 10x+5h = 10x.
h0 h h0
There you have it.
The derivative of 5x^2+3 for every x value (within the domain of course) is 5x.
f(x) = 5x
Side theorem: differentiability implies continuity, but not the other way around.
If a function is differentiable, it is also continuous. However, as |x| shows us, continuity
does not imply differentiability. If you take the two one sided limits for the difference
quotient for the point x=0, you find that one gives you -1 and one gives you 1. Since
they arent the same, |x| is not differentiable at x=0, even though it is continuous.
This section briefly touches upon Leibniz's notation, so I will explain it in full.
Youve probably seen something like dy/dx or d/dx before.
Leibnizs notation is a different way of writing the derivative; it is a way that is more
specific to the variables that are used.
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For example, in the equation y=2x, the derivative is denoted as dy/dx because it is the
derivative of y with respect to the variable x. That derivative just so happens to be 2.
Now, normally, we would also include some other form of d/dx to show that we
differentiated the variable x but since the differentiation would be dx/dx, that is to say,
the derivative of x with respect to x, we dont include it. dx/dx is 1.
We must include some d/dx for every variable we differentiate. If I give you the equation
y= x^2 + 3z + 2x + 5z^2
and told you to differentiate it in terms of y, you would write out
dy/dy = 2xdx/dy + 3dz/dy + 2dx/dy + 10zdz/dy
dy/dy is just 1, but you cant do anything with the other variables because you dont
know their rates.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.2: Exercises 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21, 24-32, 37-48, 49, 50, 52; Problems 53, 57,
58, 61
Do #1 just to make sure you can do this using the limit definition. Do 43-48, I can
definitely see him asking questions like these and its a good review for continuity too.
Do 49, 53
Section 3.3 - Differentiation Rules

Finally! This is all of the stuff you already know.
Rule #1: The derivative of any constant is 0.

Rule #2: The derivative of x^n = nx^(n-1)
Rule #3: The derivative of any product f(x)*g(x) is f(x)*g(x)+f(x)*g(x).
Rule #4: The derivative of any quotient f(x)/g(x) is
g(x)*f(x) - f(x)*g(x)
g(x)^2
Rule #5: All of the limit laws apply here.
The derivative of c*f(x) is c*f(x)
The derivative of f(x)+g(x) is f(x)+g(x) etc.. etc
The proofs of all of these rules are in the textbook if youre interested.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.3: Exercises 1-12, 13, 16, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 52;
Problems 55, 56 (check your answers to these with a factorization method), 57, 59
If youre bad at these rules, do every single one. Otherwise, just do the problems.
Section 3.4 - The Derivative as a Rate of Change

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I mean, you already knew the derivative was a rate of change because the derivative is
the slope of a line. By definition, a slope is a rate of change.
More specifically, the derivative is the instantaneous rate of change. It is also the
velocity.
That means that the original function is the position. Well, that makes sense right,
because youre graphing coordinates of the function when you graph it.
The second derivative, or f(x) is the acceleration, or the rate of change of the rate of
change. The slope of the slope.
These are all types of motion, so, using derivatives, you can find things like
displacement over time, average velocity, and speed.
The easiest of these is speed.
Velocity is speed with direction, so just speed is |velocity| or |f(x)|
Displacement over the time t=3 to t=4 is f(4) - f(3)
Average velocity over the time t=3 to t=4 is f(4)-f(3)
4-3
This might remind you of the secant line. Thats because that is exactly what a secant
line represents: average velocity.
Based on the properties of velocity, we can find which way an object is moving or even
whether or not its moving at all.
If velocity is negative, then the object is moving to the left.
If velocity is positive, then the object is moving to the right.
If velocity is 0, then the object is not moving.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.4: Exercises 1-6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30
This is actually not that many to do. Do #1 to make sure you can find velocity and
acceleration. Otherwise, do 16.
Section 3.5 - Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
These you also already know. You can prove them by using the limit definition of a
derivative and applying the sin(x)/x and (cos(x)-1)/x rules and limit rules.
The derivative of sin(x) is cos(x)

The derivative of cos(x) is -sin(x)
The derivative of tan(x) is sec^2(x)
The derivative of csc(x) is -cot(x)csc(x)
The derivative of sec(x) is sec(x)tan(x)
The derivative of cot(x) is -csc^2(x)
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Lets prove that the derivative of sin(x) is cos(x).
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.5: 1-34, 36, 37, 45, 46, 47-54, 61, 62, 66 (Be able to explain this one!)
These are all good exercises but as long as you know what the derivatives are, I think
youll be fine. Maybe practice the proofs for the other 5 trig functions.
Section 3.6 - The Chain Rule

Ok, this one is the single biggest rule of differentiation, and you actually already learned
it when you learned how to do power rule.
Chain Rule:
If you have a function that seems to be obviously a composition of functions, like f(g(x)),
then chain rule states that the derivative of f(g(x)) is f(g(x))*g(x).
Here is the obvious example:
(2x+1)^2
Well, g(x) is 2x+1 and f(x) is x^2. Check to make sure it works. f(g(x)) is (2x+1)^2
So, lets use the chain rule.
dy/dx of (2x+1)^2 is 2(2x+1)*2
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I remember the chain rule by saying that it is the derivative of the outside multiplied by
the derivative of the inside.
So, remember how I said that the power rule is the chain rule without you realizing it?
Well, in the power rule, the function on the inside is always just x, and the derivative of x
is just 1, so each time you do the power rule, you also multiply by 1.
Heres another good example:
sin(x^2+5)
The inside function is x^2+5 and the outside function is sin(x)
So, this derivative is cos(x^2+5)*(2x)
*Heres an example that is so easy to screw up:*

sin^5(3x+5)
Derivative is 5*cos^4(3x+5)*3 right?

Well, you forgot that sin^5(3x+5) is actually (sin(3x+5))^5 where sin(3x+5) is actually an
inside function and the outside function is x^5.
So the derivative of this one is actually
5*sin^4(3x+5)*cos(3x+5)*3
Exercises Assigned:
Definitely do these if you dont think you completely grasp chain rule. Otherwise, do #46
and #53 to make sure you can do chain rule. Forget about the problems, theyre pretty
straightforward.
Section 3.7 - Implicit Differentiation

Remember that example I gave earlier that had all of those variables in it? Well, implicit
differentiation is like that.
Implicit differentiation is used when you have some equation in which you cant
separate the variables and therefore cant write explicitly in terms of one.
Try to solve the equation 2y+y^2=3x^3+2 for y or x.
Youll find that you cant get the equation to look like y= or x=.
This is a time where we use implicit differentiation. Remember leibnizs notation? Thats
useful here.
We should be pretty specific about how we want to differentiate this equation; should we
differentiate in terms of x (dy/dx) or in terms of y (dx/dy)?
Lets differentiate in terms of x. That means that whenever we differentiate y, we have to
include a dy/dx.
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2dy/dx+2ydy/dx=9x^2dx/dx+0
2dy/dx+2ydy/dx=9x^2
Solve for dy/dx, that is the derivative after all.
dy/dx(2+2y)=9x^2 dy/dx=9x^2/(2+2y)
Heres another reason its called implicit differentiation: because the derivative is in
terms of more than one variable.
And thats actually it. Implicit differentiation is pretty simple, youll just need some
practice to master it.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.7: Exercises 1-44; Problems 45, 47, 48, 51
I highly recommend doing 41, 42, 43, and 44, because those are all easy, but
interesting at the same time because the equations produce weird shapes.
Do all of the problems.
Section 3.8 - Related Rates

Possibly the easiest topic to give a word problem on, related rates seem difficult until
you realize that they are just an extension of implicit differentiation.
Related rates are, by definition, many variables changing at the same time. Related
rates are often in terms of a common variable, such as time, with all sorts of other
variables changing in terms of time. So a lot of your dy/dx and dz/dx are going to be
over dt (dy/dt, dz/dt, dx/dt).
Classic problem:
The height of a cone (V= r^2h) is increasing at a rate of 2m/s and the radius is
decreasing at a rate of 3m/s. How fast is the volume changing when h=1 and r=4?
Well, lets differentiate this. Remember, there are many variables here so we have to
use implicit differentiation.
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It is important to note that not every related rates problem will have all of your rates of
change and all of your values given to you. Sometimes you will be given only a few
values and you will have to go find the others based on what you have. The best way to
get good at those types of problems is to do the exercises. All of them.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.8: Exercises 1, 2, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 22, 23, 29, 33, 34, 40, 42
I highly recommend doing ALL of these and maybe even the ones he didnt include.
This is because there is guaranteed to be a big question on related rates on the final
and it will probably be worth at least 10 points. Do yourself a favor, get that question
right!
Section 3.9 - Linearization and Differentials

Linear approximations, the thing everybody forgets.
Definition:
If f is differentiable at x=a, then the approximating function
L(x) = f(a) + f(a)(x-a)
is the linearization of f at a.
The differential is the f(a)(x-a) part.
Now, how do we use this?

27
This L(x) thing will give you a function that you can use to approximate any x value,
assuming your x value is fairly close to a.
Take the function f(x) = x^5 and you want to use x=1 to approximate values like 1.007
Lets be honest, you could evaluate f(1.007), but you would rather not.
So, lets use this L(x) thing.
L(x) = f(1) + f(1)(x-1)
L(x) = 1^5 + 5*1^4(x-1)
L(x) = 1 + 5(x-1)
Now we can plug in the value you want to approximate: 1.007
L(1.007) = 1 + 5(1.007-1)
L(1.007) = 1 + 5(.007)
L(1.007) = 1 + .035
L(1.007) = 1.035
See, not so bad?
The actual value is 1.03549, so pretty darn close.
Remember that the differential is the .035 part. What that actually is is an estimate of
how much f(x) changes when x changes .007
*You can get closer and closer by adding more and more differentials.*
L(x) = f(a) + f(a)(x-a) + f(a)(x-a)^2
This is actually called a quadratic approximation.
L(x) = f(1) + f(1)(x-1) + f(1)(x-1)^2
L(x) = 1 + 5(x-1) + 20(x-1)^2
L(1.007) = 1 + 5(.007) + 20(.007)^2
L(1.007) = 1 + .035 + 20(.000049)
L(1.007) = 1.035 + .00098
L(1.007) = 1.03598
Obviously, there is an amount of error in these approximations.

The error is calculated if you know the actual change and the differential. The actual
change is f(x)-f(a), or in this case, f(1.007) - f(1). The error is:
|f(x)-f(a)-f(a)(x-a)|
In this case, it is
|.03549 - .035| = .00049
When you take a limit as (x-a) goes to 0, it should make sense that the error also goes
to 0 because (x-a) goes to 0 when x goes to a. So you eventually get |f(a)-f(a) - 0| = 0
Exercises Assigned:
Section 3.9: Exercises 1-40; Problems 41, 43, 45, 47, 48, 51, 53, 54
Please do a lot of the exercises and all of the problems.

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EXTRA Section (-1) - What wasnt in the book

Ok. This section covers everything we covered in class but not in the book.
In the case of these chapters, the only topic not covered is relative % error estimates.
Im a little shaky on this topic but from what I understand, all of the problems look like
this one, so do what I did here:
The delta r is (r-a) and dA is the differential of A.
Section 4.1 - Extreme Values of Functions

An absolute maximum of f is a point c for which f(c)=>f(x) for all x in the domain of f.
An absolute minimum of f is a point c for which f(c)<=f(x) for all x in the domain of f.
In order to calculate absolute extreme values, you must first compute all relative
extreme values and then check your endpoints.
Extreme Value Theorem:

If f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] then f attains both an absolute maximum
value M and an absolute minimum value m in [a,b]. That is, there are numbers x=c and
x=d such that f(c) = M and f(d) = m in [a,b] and that m<=f(x)<=M for every other x value.
29
Its pretty awkwardly worded, but what it is saying is that if you can find some closed
interval [a,b] on which f is continuous, then f has absolute extreme values on that
interval.
A local maximum of f is a point c for which f(c)=>f(x) for all values within some interval
around x=c.
A local minimum of f is a point c for which f(c)<=f(x) for all values within some interval
around x=c.
First Derivative Test:

If f has a local extreme value at a point c within the domain of f, then, as long as f is
defined at x=c, f(c)=0
Basically, this tells you that any local extreme value will have a derivative that is either 0
or undefined at that point. IT DOESNT WORK THE OTHER WAY AROUND.
The other way around is uncertain. That is why the powers that be decided to produce a
new thing to make sure you could tentatively use the zeroes of a derivative to find the
relative extreme values of a function.
This thing were talking about is a critical value.
Points at which f is either 0 or undefined are called critical values.
In order for one of those values to actually be a relative extreme value, however, f must
change sign at that value.
For example, f(x)=x^3 has a derivative that is 0 at 0. However, you see that f(x) = 3x^2
does not change sign at x=0, so 0 is not a relative extreme value.
By the way, what I just went over is also called the Theorem of the interior extrema.
Exercises Assigned:
These are all pretty easy, so Id just do the 4 problems.
Section 4.2 - The Mean Value Theorem

I wonder what this section will be about. This chapter is full of theorems.
Rolles Theorem:
Suppose f: continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b). If f(a) = f(b) then there is
some value c in (a,b) such that f(c) = 0.
Example: f(x) = x^2

f(-1) = 1
30
f(1) = 1
Therefore, there must be some x between -1 and 1 for which f(x) = 0.
Mean Value Theorem:

Suppose y=f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b) there
there is at least one point c in (a,b) such that f(b)-f(a) = f(c)
b-a
What is this saying? There must be some value in [a,b] for which the average rate of
change is equal to the instantaneous rate of change.
Example: Let f(x) be a function continuous on [-1,2] and differentiable on (-1,2).

f(-1)=5 and f(2)=8
Prove that there must be some value c in [-1,2] for which the derivative is equal to 1.
f(2)-f(-1) = 8-5 = 1 Since the average rate of change on [-1,2] is equal to 1 there must
2+1 2+1 be a value c within [-1,2] such that f(c) = 1 by MVT.
Corollary 1: If f(x)=0 for every point x of an open interval (a,b) then f(x) = c for all x
within (a,b), where c is some constant.
Corollary 2: If f(x)=g(x) at each point x in an open interval (a,b) then there exists a
constant C such that f(x)=g(x)+C for all x within (a,b). That is, f-g is a constant on (a,b).
Exercises Assigned:
Section 4.2: Exercises 1-14, 19-26, 31-40, 49, 52, 54; Problems 55, 59, 60, 66, 68
Just make sure youre able to state MVT verbatim and be able to use it. Do the
problems but focus on knowing the theorem.
Section 4.3 - Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test

I had thought that we had already done the first derivative test but whatever.
Corollary 3: Suppose that f is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b)
If f(x)>0 at each x in (a,b) then f(x) is strictly increasing on [a,b]
If f(x)<0 at each x in (a,b) then f(x) is strictly decreasing on [a,b]
First Derivative Test:

If f(x) = 0 at x=c and f(x) goes from +/- at x=c then f has a local max at c
If f(x) = 0 at x=c and f(x) goes from -/+ at x=c then f has a local min at c
If f(x) = 0 at x=c and f(x) does not change sign at x=c then f has no extrema at c
Remember that the f(x)=0 at x=c automatically makes x=c a critical point. But you need
the sign change in order to classify it as a relative extrema (either relative max or
relative min).
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Exercises Assigned:
I think this is pretty straightforward but practice makes perfect right? Haha, that 1-60
doe maybe 1-5 and then do the problems.
Section 4.4 - Concavity and Curve Sketching

Yeah, we get to do concavity and in doing that we can now sketch any curve.
Second Derivative Test for Concavity
Let y=f(x) be twice-differentiable on an interval I
1) If f > 0 on I, the graph of f over I is concave up
2) If f < 0 on I, the graph of f over I is concave down
A point of inflection is a point where the graph of a function both has a tangent line
and where the concavity changes
At such a point, (c, f(c)), either f(c)=0 or f(c) does not exist
Please remember that f must exist in order for the graph to have a point of inflection. If
f does not exist, then f does not have a tangent line.
Second Derivative Test for Extrema

Suppose f is continuous on an open interval that contains x=c
1) If f(c)=0 and f(c)<0 then f has a local max at x=c
2) If f(c)=0 and f(c)>0 then f has a local min at x=c
3) If f(c)=0 and f(c)=0 then this test is inconclusive
This test should make sense. Think about y=x^2. That graph is concave up, and only
has a local minimum value. Lets check.
f(x)=2x . f(x)=0 when x=0. 0 is your c. So f(0)=0
f(0)=2>0, so, by the second derivative test, this function has a local minimum at x=0
What is good to take from this section is now you know all of the steps to be able to
graph a function. Follow Mintchevs guide, its actually perfect, even though it seems
overly thorough, you cant get a graphing question wrong if you follow it.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 4.4: Exercises 1-92, 94; Problems 101, 102, 105, 109, 110, 112
I dont recommending doing 1-92. But you might want to do the problems and maybe a
few exercises from 1-92 just so that you know how to find concavity.
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Section 4.5 - Applied Optimization

Im here to tell you that optimization, just like related rates, is perfect for word problems
and that, like related rates, its actually really systematic.
This is how every optimization problem goes down:
1) Find a general formula for what youre looking to optimize (volume, area, cost)
2) This formula will have at least one variable, if it doesnt go to step 4.
3) You will need to use something else you know about this formula or perhaps
come up with another function to be able to substitute into the general formula so
that you finally have a formula with one variable. This is the hardest step
4) Now you have a general formula with one variable. Differentiate it to find the local
extrema of it. Now check your endpoints. When I say endpoints, I just mean
where the function cant exist. Usually these are fairly obvious, like obviously
volume cant be negative, etc.
5) See which of those is the biggest and smallest and chose the one that best fits
the question. For example, you probably want to minimize cost but maximize
volume.
That is how every optimization problem goes. Lets try the one that was on exam 2 from
2014.
33
Its totally okay if you dont see the substitution part in step 3 right away. I didnt see it
on the test. As I said, it is the hardest step.
34
Exercises Assigned:
Section 4.5: Exercises 12, 13, 16 (abd), 24, 25, 33, 34; Problems 61, 62, 63, 67
As I said in the related rates section, this is almost a guarantee to be on the test, and to
be a pretty big amount of points too. Do yourself a favor and do all of these so you can
get yourself some points on the test for sure.
Section 4.6 - Newtons Method

This is just a way to estimate the roots of a function in a rational way. In other words,
you know that f(x)=x^2-3 has roots at 3^() and -3() but you have no idea what those
values are. Newtons method allows you to approximate them.
Step 1: Find an appropriate place to start. Probably a value you know is going to be
close to the value of the root. For example, you know that 3^() is between 1 and 2. so
lets choose our starting value, x0, to be 1.
Step 2: Plug it into this equation.
f(x)=x^2-3
x0=1
f(x)=2x
x1 = x0 - f(x0)
f(x0)
x1 = 1 - (-2)/(2)
x1 = 1 + 1 = 2
x2 = 2 - f(2)
f(2)
x2 = 2 - (1)/(4) = 7/4 = 1.75
The actual value is 1.732 so you can see that were getting close.
You can even make a general formula for any x0 using Newtons Method.
Just dont choose an x0 and plug in.
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x(n+1) = xn - (xn)^2-3
2(xn)
Exercises Assigned:
Section 4.6: Exercises 2, 8, 9, 21; Problem 28
Only 5 of these. I think you can afford to do them all.
Section 4.7 - Antiderivatives

Definition of an antiderivative:
A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I if F(x) = f(x) for all x in I
Unnamed Theorem:
If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f on I
is F(x) +C where C is some constant
This section also goes over antiderivative rules, but they are basically the same as
everything else.
If youre finding the antiderivative of:
f(x) +/- g(x), then it is F(x) +/- G(x) +C
-f(x), then it is -F(x) + C
kf(x), then it is kF(x) + C where k is some constant
Indefinite Integral:
f(x)dx is the notation, where f(x)dx is called the integrand (the thing you are
integrating)
This chapter also goes over how to integrate most functions but Ill go over that when
we cover the fundamental theorem of calculus in section 5.4
Exercises Assigned:
Section 4.7: Exercises 1-66, 67, 69-80; Problems 101, 102
These are almost all integration questions, so theyre good for practicing integration.
Section 7.1 - Inverse functions and their derivatives

In order for a function to have an inverse, it must be one-to-one.
Definition of One-to-One:
A function is one-to-one on a domain D if f(x1) is not equal to f(x2) for all x1 not equal to
x2.
Basically its saying that a function is one-to-one if there is only one x value for every y-
value AND only one y value for every x-value.
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The first part is the function part (one y-value for every x-value) and the second part is
the one-to-one part (one x-value for every y-value).
The inverse of a function is denoted f^-1(b)=a if f(a)=b

You may remember that you find an inverse function by switching x and y and solving
back for y. Well, in doing that, everything about an inverse switches. The domain and
range of your function become your range and domain of your inverse function,
(1,2) becomes (2,1), a vertical asymptote at x=1 becomes a horizontal asymptote at y=1
everything switches.
The Derivative Rule for Inverses
If f has an interval I as domain and f(x) exists and is never zero on I, then f^-1 is
differentiable at every point in its domain (the range of f). The value of (f^-1) at a point b
in the domain of f^-1 is the reciprocal of the value of f at the point a=f^-1(b)
(f^-1)(b) = 1/f(a)
The most important part of this is the inverse derivative bit.

Lets look at an example
Find the derivative of the inverse of y=x^3 at x=8
x^3=8
x^3-8=0 IFF x=2 (if you do the difference of cubes, the quadratic has a neg discriminant)
f(2)=8
f^-1(8)=2
(f^-1)(8)=1/f(2)
= 1/12
Exercises Assigned:
Section 7.1: Exercises 1-54; Problems 55, 58, 59
Do enough of these so that you are comfortable using the derivative rule for inverses.
Section 7.6 - Inverse Trigonometric Functions

This chapter is mostly full of information about inverse trig functions. I think its boring to
go over these so I will just give you a picture of all of them and hopefully thatll be
sufficient. Then Ill prove one.
By the way, since none of the trigonometric functions are one-to-one, we have to restrict
their domains in order to make them invertible. The new domains are in the picture.
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Heres the derivation of the derivative of inverse sin(x).
You can use this type of derivation for all of the inverse trigonometric functions. Just
remember that for inverse csc(x) and inverse sec(x), the functions, when inverted, have
split domains (the ranges become the domains). Since the domains have two parts, you
38
have to come up with a derivative for the function on each domain, and then use |x| to
make the two parts into one formula.
Exercises Assigned:
Do a few of these to make sure you can do these types of questions and then derive the
other trigonometric functions.
Section 5.1 - Area and Estimating with Finite Sums

Not gonna lie, this section sucks, along with everything that ever had to do with
Riemann. This section doesnt even use the word Riemann, its all background
information on finding areas using sums.
Also, its pretty difficult to type this stuff out, so get ready for pictures.
The left handed estimate takes rectangles whose left side touches the curve.
The right handed estimate takes rectangles whose right side touches the curve.
The midpoint estimate takes imaginary midpoints of the intervals and takes rectangles
where the midpoint is what touches the curve.
Notice how the left handed estimate seems to be making rectangles that extend out
from underneath the curve. If you added these rectangles up, you would probably get
an area that is larger than the actual area under the curve. This is called an upper
estimate.
The right handed estimate does the opposite: it takes smaller rectangles and is
therefore a lower estimate.
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The midpoint estimate is neither, because it is unclear whether or not the area of the
rectangles is larger or smaller than the actual area under the curve.
To actually find the area though, one must add up the areas of the rectangles. You can
condense such an addition using a summation. This next picture shows a summation
and gives an example problem.
When you use those summations (in this case the left estimate), you first plug in 0, then
plug in 1, all the way to 5. Then you add all of these values together to get the actual
area estimate.
The section abruptly switches gears to talk about antiderivatives.

Remember how the derivative of position (s(t)) is velocity (v(t)) and the derivative of
velocity is acceleration (a(t))? Well, that means that the antiderivative of a(t) is v(t) and
the antiderivative of v(t) is s(t). With this relationship in mind, you can find the distance
traveled by knowing v(t) and approximating it using sums.
Distance~|v(t1)|dt+|v(t2)|dt+.....|v(tn)|dt
dt is just the total amount of time over the amount of intervals of time are used.
If you want to find the displacement of an object, you can use the same formula, just
drop the absolute values.
Definition of Average Value:

The average value can only be found if the function is non-negative and continuous.
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Average Value is equal to the summation or integral used divided by b-a. Its important
to note that the b-a is unaffected by whether or not your summation is a left handed or
right handed estimate.
Exercises Assigned:
These arent that important, but there are so few of them that you might as well be able
to do these types of problems.
Section 5.2 - Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums

This entire section covers how to do that 20 point question on the test. Basically, you
find a way to make your summation have n partitions and you take a limit as n goes to
+infinity (the partition sizes get infinitely small). This limit becomes the value of your
definite integral. Heres an example:
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The only sketchy steps I did were when I equated the summations of 1 and i^2 to n and
(2n-1)(n-1)n
6
The first one, where I said that
is equal to n, thats just an identity.
The second one, where I said that
is equal to (2n-1)(n-1)n is an application of telescoping sums. Ill get to it.

6
These types of summations, where there are n amount of partitions and its unclear how
big each partitions is, are called Riemann Sums.
The norm of the partition is the biggest interval.
Now, Ill go over those telescoping sums.

42
A telescoping sum is an estimate where the summation is written as the difference

between two different sums, like [(i+1)^2-i^2]
Here, this sum can be written as (i+1)^2 - i^2
If you were to evaluate these sums from 1 to n, youd see that many of the terms cancel
out, and youre left with the last term minus the first term.
In this case,
(n+1)^2 - 1
*Convince yourself that this is true.*
Using this concept, you can derive certain summations to be in terms of n, so that you
can use them in problems as n goes to +infinity.
Its hard to see whats actually going on with the telescoping sums, but hopefully you
can follow the work. You can use the same technique to derive the formulas for i^2 and
i^3 and even i^10 if Mintchev wants his exam to be 5 hours long.
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Here is the derivation for i^2
And for i^3
Exercises Assigned:
Section 5.2: Exercises 1-32, 35, 36, 37
Make sure you can do the derivations and use them. Otherwise, do a few of these
problems to make sure.
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Section 5.3 - The Definite Integral

Definition of the definite integral:
Let f(x) be the function defined on a closed interval [a,b]. We say that a number J is the
definite integral of f over [a,b] and that J is the limit of the Riemann sums assuming:
given any epsilon>0 there must be a delta>0 such that for every partition of [a,b] with
the norm of the partition<delta, |Riemann sum - J|< epsilon
Basically, youll never see nor care about this stupid definition.
Theorem on the integrability of continuous functions:

If a function f is continuous on [a,b] or if f has a finite number of jump discontinuities,
then the integral from [a,b] f(x)dx exists and f is integrable on [a,b].
Integration properties:
[f(x)+g(x)]dx = f(x)dx + g(x)dx
[f(x)-g(x)]dx = f(x)dx - g(x)dx
kf(x)dx = kf(x)dx
These all assume that f(x) and g(x) are integrable on some interval [a,b]
Max-min inequality:
f(x)dx on [a,b] is less than or equal to the maximum of f(x) * (b-a)
f(x)dx on [a,b] is greater than or equal to the minimum of f(x) * (b-a)
Domination:
If f(x) is greater than or equal to g(x) on [a,b] and both are integrable on [a,b] then:
f(x)dx is greater than or equal to g(x)dx on from a to be.
For a non-negative function, the area under the curve on [a,b], A, =f(x)dx from a to b
Average value, remember that 1/(b-a) thing? Yeah that applies to integrals too.
Just divide f(x)dx from a to b by (b-a) and you have the average value of f(x) on [a,b]
Exercises Assigned:
Section 5.3: Exercises 1-70; Problems 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79
These are mostly integral rules problems, which should be reviewed if you arent that
good with integration.
Section 5.4 - The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

This allows us to integrate the way we know how to. But before we do that
The Mean Value Theorem for integrals:

If f is continuous on [a,b] then at some point c in [a,b]
f(c) = the average value of the integral from a to b
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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

Part 1: If f is continuous on [a,b], then F(x) = f(t)dt from a to x is continuous on (a,b) and
its derivative, F(x), is f(x)
Part 2: If f is continuous at every point in [a,b] and F is any antiderivative of f on [a,b]
then f(x)dx from a to b is F(b) - F(a)
Definition of Net Change:

F(x) is a rate of change so,
F(x)dx from a to b = F(b) - F(a) is the net change on [a,b]
Exercises Assigned:
Almost all of these are integration problems. Make sure you know how to integrate basic
functions. Make sure you know these theorems word for word. I can guarantee that they
will be on the final.
Section 8.6 - Numeric Integration

All this section does is add a few different types of approximations.
Exercises Assigned:
Section 8.6: Exercises 1, 3, 6, 8, 10; Problems 11, 13, 16, 18, 27, 28
46
These are weird exercises and problems, but they will help you understand how to use
these approximations that youll probably only ever need to know for this exam.
EXTRA Section (-2) - What wasnt in the book

This section covers everything that wasnt in the book but was covered in class since
the first exam.
Error for approximations:
For left-handed, right-handed, and midpoint estimates (Riemann), the error is 1/n
For trapezoidal approximations, the error is 1/n^2
For simpsons method approximations, the error is 1/n^4
For all of these, n is the number of partitions. I dont think well need to know this but we
covered it.
Big O
A function, f(h) is big O(h) if |f(h)| is less than or equal to |h| as h goes to 0.
Functions that have powers greater than 1 are all big O
Why? Because if you plug really small values into them, they return values that are
smaller than the ones that just y=h returns.
Lets show this with y=h^2.

As h goes to 0, lets choose a value really close to 0, like
Is |f()|<| |?
f( ) is 1/16, so yes, 1/16 is less than . So h^2 is big O.
Lets try y=h^( ) and lets use again.

Is |f( )|<| |?
f( ) is , so no.
Therefore, h^( ) is not big O.
Geometric Sums:
All geometric sums look like this:
rî from i=1 to n
They are just some number to a variable power, like 2î
Whats cool about them is that they all converge to
1 - r^(n+1) where r is the base
1-r
Section 5.5 - Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method
The indefinite integral is just the integral without the [a,b] interval or bounds or
whatever you want to call them.
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When you do a definite integral, whatever you finish with must include + C because any
C when differentiating becomes 0 so you wouldnt even know it was there.
For example, the integral of x^2+1 and x^2-50 is 2x. Therefore, when you integrate 2x,
you need to account for all of those constants that could be in the equation, so you
include + C
Definition of U-Substitution:
If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I, and f is continuous on
I, then
f(g(x))g(x)dx = f(u)du
Now, that is a bunch of fancy talk. This is how I think you should think about u-
substitution:
Say you have to integrate a function that is made up of products like (x^3+1)(3x^2) that
you would rather not distribute or worse, a function like sin(x)cos(x) that you cant
distribute. What do you do? There is no product rule of integration
Introducing U-substitution, where part of the function becomes u and the other part
becomes du.
Most of u-substitution is choosing a u where, when you plug in u and du, the function
you are integrating becomes easy to integrate.
Lets use those two examples I gave:
f(x) = (x^3+1)(3x^2)
The integral would look like this:
(x^3+1)(3x^2)dx
Well, choose a u-value so that the function becomes simpler. Lets choose u=x^3+1
Now your integral looks like this:
u(3x^2)dx
Well, that cant be possible, you cant integrate something with two variables. You need
to make it all 1 variable. So lets differentiate u with respect to x
du = 3x^2
dx
This is the same as saying du = (3x^2)dx
Plug it in and now your integral looks like this:
udu
We know how to integrate xdx, so this is exactly the same, just with u as your variable.
= u^2 + C
Now plug back in for u = x^3+1
= (x^3+1)^2 + C
If you want to check it, differentiate it and you see that you get (x^3+1)(3x^2)
Lets try this with f(x) = sin(x)cos(x) sin(x)cos(x)dx
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u = sin(x)
du = cos(x)dx
udu
= u^2 + C
= (sin(x))^2 + C
Now, those were pretty straightforward, so heres a harder one: this is #60 from the HW
f(x) = 4sec^2(2x)tan(2x) find f(x) given f(0)=4 and f(0)=-1
u=tan(2x)
du=sec^2(2x)*2dx
2udu = 2udu
f(x) = u^2 + C
f(0)=0^2 + C = 4 therefore C=4
f(x) = u^2 + 4
f(x) = tan^2(2x) + 4
f(x) = sec^2(2x) - 1 + 4
f(x) = sec^2(2x) + 3
[sec^2(2x) + 3]dx = sec^2(2x)dx + 3dx
= tan(2x) + 3x + C
f(0) = tan(0) + 0 + C = -1 therefore C=-1
f(x) = tan(x) + 3x - 1
Exercises Assigned:
Section 5.5: Exercises 1-50, 55-60; Problems 53, 54, 63
These are all the same, just do every 5th or every 10th one to make sure you can do u-
substitution.
Section 5.6 - Substitution and Area Between Curves

We already did substitution, but this section tells us how to use u-substitution when we
use definite integrals (none of the examples before were definite).
Lets take an example we used: f(x)=(x^3+1)(3x^2) and lets integrate it from 0 to 1
49
Now for finding the area between the curves.
There are little issues that can make these types of problems harder though. Youll find
lots of them when you do the homework. I wont explain the many different types, but
50
will instead let you do the assigned problems and see where what you got and what the
solutions manual got differ.
Dont get tripped up by the curves though. Sometimes a question will ask for the area
between curves that dont intersect in two points the way were used to. For example,
the area bounded by the x-axis, the curve y=x^(1/2) and the line y=x-2. Lets take a
look.
51
52
Integration rules:
The integral from a to b is equal to the integral from a to c + integral from c to b if c is
within [a,b]
The integral from -1 to 3 is the same as the negative integral from 3 to -1
*In general, we want the bounds to make sense. The greater of the two should go on
the top, and if either is a variable, that should go on the top. Use this negative integral
rule to sort out the bounds in case youre given a problem that doesnt make sense.*
*General tip before finding the area*

Before integrating f(x), first find where f(x) is equal to 0 and see if that value, c, is within
your bounds [a,b]. If it is, then there is a good chance that part of your function is below
the x-axis and therefore, when you compute the area, you will get a negative value for
that portion. In order to fix this problem, split the integral up so that the first part is from
a to c and the second part is from c to b. Figure out which part is below the x-axis and
multiply that part by (-1). Then integrate and youll get the right answer.
Exercises Assigned:
You might want to do a lot of these to be able to see the different types. Definitely do
25-40, because youre given the graphs so you can apply all of the rules you just
learned by just looking at the thing.
Study guide continued in 2016

Section 7.2 Natural Logarithms
I already defined a logarithmic function way back in Section 1.1
A natural logarithm is a special kind of logarithmic function; it is the inverse function of

an exponential function e^x. That is, a natural logarithm is the logarithmic function of
base e.
Instead of writing it like we write it as ln(x)
The graph of ln(x) looks like

53
ln(x) has a domain of 0 to infinity with a vertical asymptote at 0, where the function
approaches negative infinity. It has a range of negative infinity to positive infinity and is
0 at x = 1.
Another way to define this function is like this:
Note that if x is less than 1, this function will be negative because youll have to flip the
bounds.
If x = e, ln(e) = 1 because if the argument of the logarithmic function and its base match,
the function will output 1.
Now, lets look at this integral definition. Based on the fundamental theorems of
calculus, it looks like the derivative of ln(x) is 1/x + C
Remember that the chain rule always applies, so if the argument of ln(x) is something
other than x, you need to also multiply by the derivative of that argument.
To be a little more precise, here are all the rules logarithms:
That last one is really nice because it means that you can convert any logarithmic
function into ln(x).
For example,
This is further important because it means that the derivative of
is the derivative of ln(x) divided by ln(2). Which is to say,

54
The previous definition of ln(x) as the integral of 1/t is very useful in computing the
integrals of several trig functions. For example, the integral of tan(x) requires a u-
substitution that leaves you with the integral of 1/u. We now know that that computes to
ln(u). Here is the full calculation:
Note the use of absolute values here. This is because in this problem, unlike when we
defined the integral definition of ln(x), there is NOTHING saying that the argument of
ln(x) must be greater than 0. By putting the absolute value, we are ensuring that the
argument, be it u or cos(x), will be forced to output something greater than 0.
The book illustrates how you can use this to produce the integrals of sec(x), csc(x) and
cot(x) as well.
cot(x) follows the same approach but csc(x) and sec(x) require a little more thought.
Heres a clip from the book:
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One last thing that the natural logarithm can be useful for is in differentiating
complicated rational functions or functions that are a product of several other functions.
Take, for example, the function
Now that is a function you dont want to differentiate. Its got product rules and chain
rules and, worst of all, the quotient rule.
An easier way to differentiate this thing is to first take the natural logarithm of both sides.
Like this:
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Section 7.3 Exponential Functions

Exponential functions are the inverse functions of logarithmic functions. The most
common of these is, as with the previous section, the function with base e:
Exponential functions look like this:
They have a domain of negative infinity to infinity, a range of 0 to infinity (not including
0), and a value of 1 at x=0. This should make sense of course, because any number to
the 0 power (with a few exceptions) is 1.
57
The derivative of the exponential function is itself. So the integral of the exponential
function must also be itself. Remember that the chain rule always applies, so the
derivative of the exponential function must also include the derivative of the exponent
(which is the argument) if that exponent is something other than x.
All properties of exponents also apply to exponential functions.

The only one that I think may be worth mentioning is
It just helps convert exponential functions without the base of e to an exponential

function with base e.
It also means that taking the derivative of a function that isnt base e results, from the
chain rule, with an extra term.
Taking the property above, the derivative of a^x would be as follows
Section 7.4 Exponential Change and Separable Differential Equations

Exponential change is defined as some function changing at an increasing rate. That is,
a function with a derivative that keeps getting bigger as the function progresses.
At its most fundamental state, this means that, for a function y(x), dy/dx = ky where k is
just a constant that can affect how quickly dy/dx changes.
Now, this equation is actually solvable for y(x). That is, with the relationship between the
function, y, and its derivative, dy/dx, you can actually solve for the function.
This entire field of examining relationships between functions and their derivatives is
called differential equations. This course only examines a few special cases (like this
one) where it is very easy to solve this equation.
How?
Try multiplying through by dx.
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This gives you dy = kydx

Now, if you divide both sides by y, you get an equation where each side is in terms of
only one variable. If you can turn a differential equation into an equation in which each
side is only in terms of one variable, its called separable.
1/y*dy = kdx
If you integrate both sides, youll see that ln|y| = kx + C

If you solve for y by exponentiating both sides (this means that you make each side the
exponent of the exponential function), youll see that
Differential equations typically have some sort of conditions associated with them. In a
typical problem, for example, y(0) might be some value c.
If you plug that value into the solution to the separable differential equation, youll see
that c = Ae^0 which means that A = c
The solution to the separable differential equation is then
More generally, if you can reconcile the differential equation into a form where each side
is a function of only one variable, you should be able to solve.
Remember that, although in the previous example it seemed like we had a two different
functions x and y, y was a function of x, so it worked out.
Section 7.5 Indeterminate Forms and LHopitals Rule

There are a few numbers in our number system that can present problems for us. The
first of these numbers is 0. If you divide something by 0, this quantity is called
undefined.
What happens, however, if you divide 0 by 0?
A similar problem arises if you try to divide infinity by infinity.
0 over 0, or infinity over infinity, are quantities called indeterminate. They are different
from some constant over 0, but calculating the values is the same: use limits
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The classic example of a quantity of indeterminate form is the function sin(x)/x.

What is the value of this function at x=0? Well, sin(0)=0 and x=0 so I guess its
indeterminate!
Here is how to tackle something like this: LHopitals Rule

This rule states that, in the limit, you can take derivatives of the top and bottom of the
function and try to evaluate after each one, hoping to find a point where plugging in 0
gives an answer that isnt indeterminate. Lets try it with the sin(x)/x example.
LHopitals Rule makes calculating tough limits incredibly easy. But remember, you can
only use it if it is indeterminate.
0 over infinity is NOT indeterminate.
Infinity multiplied by 0, however. Why? Because you can represent 0 as 1 over infinity,
so infinity multiplied by 1 over infinity is. Infinity over infinity!
Other indeterminate forms include 0^0, infinity^0, and 1înfinity.

For these exponential indeterminate forms, you have to be smart about using LHopitals
Rule since derivatives are going to be difficult. Heres an example of what to do:
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You can do something similar for the limit as x goes to 0 of x^x. Use the natural
logarithm to turn exponential indeterminate forms into regular indeterminate forms.
Just be careful about using LHopitals Rule on things that arent indeterminate.
Section 7.7 Hyperbolic Functions

Hyperbolic functions are functions that are tangent to the six trig functions and
comprised of exponential functions. Youll see them pop up in differential equations and
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some other branches of math and physics. For the purposes of this course, youre only
really supposed to know what they are. So here they are:
Their properties are similar to the standard trig functions. Here they are, you can easily
prove any of these by just plugging in each definition with the exponential functions.
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Similarly, the derivatives can be found to be
And, just as with trig functions, you can have inverse hyperbolic functions. Check out
the book section for more information on these, I dont think theyre very important for
this class.
Section 7.8 Relative Rates of Growth

This is a very strange and short section. It basically introduces the concept of a function
being O of another function or o of another function. O is Big O and o is Little O.
Basically, a function f is Big O of a function g if it grows faster than g. How do you know
if it grows faster?
Well, take the limit as x goes to infinity of f over g.
If that limit is 0, then g grows faster and f is Little O of g or o(g).
If that limit is infinity, then f grows faster and f is Big O of g or O(g)
If that limit is some constant, then the growth rates of f and g are comparable and we
cant say anything about f being Big O or Little O.
Section 8.1 Integration By Parts

This section is very important and will be used as yet another go-to method of
integration like u-substitution.
Integration by parts looks at the integrand of some integral and sees a product of a
function, u, and the derivative of another function, v. Therefore the integral is that of udv
It then states:
63
This is incredibly useful when you have to take the integral of a product of two functions
that are very different, like x and e^x.
Heres how it would go:
If you have a definite integral, you would need to make sure that each part is evaluated
at the bounds, even the uv part that ends up outside the integral.
This method of integration is incredibly powerful. In particular, it allows us to take the

integral of ln(x), the integral of various functions (including trig functions) multiplied by
e^x, and trig functions raised to any power.
Here are a few examples:

64
65
Yes, even I forget the constant of integration sometimes.
Section 8.2 Trigonometric Integrals

This section looks at using substitutions to solve integrals that involve complicated trig
functions.
One of these types of complicated trig integrals is:
Here is how to solve this type of integral, depending on exponents m and n:

66
There are other types of integrals that can be solved using substitutions that are based
on trig identities. For example,
can be solved by using these substitutions
This section is easy to learn if you just do a lot of examples to get used to what
substitution to use with each integral.
Section 8.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

This method of integration lets you integrate functions that are in fraction form.
For example, this method will let you integrate functions like
67
Basically, partial fraction decomposition is a way of turning the above fraction into
simpler fractions that can be easily integrated using logarithms.
Here is how it works:
Note that this requires the denominator of the fraction to be factored, if possible. There
are some special cases, such as when the fraction on the bottom is raised to a power.
In that case, here is how to approach the decomposition:
Another common case is when the denominator contains a factor that has a power of x
higher than 1, like x^2+1. That term cannot be factored and requires a different
approach, seen below.
68
In any of these cases, you need to first put it in the decomposed form, multiply through,
and then solve the system of equations for the constants A,B, and so on. Once youve
found the constants, you should be able to fully integrate these functions.
But then what happens if you have a lot of factors in the denominator, and therefore a
lot of constants A,B,C, etc How will you solve for so many unknowns? Well, you see,
the more factors you have, the higher powers of x you have, which produces additional
equations. This always works. Here is a more involved example to demonstrate:
But there is a way to solve for A, B, and C that is much faster. Its called the Cover-up
method. Lets look at the example above. The cover-up method states that, to find A,
you plug in the root corresponding to A into the rest of the original function. So what
does that mean exactly?
A corresponds to 1/(x+1) according to how weve written out the decomposition, so lets
just look at the denominator: x+1. The root of x+1 is what makes it 0, so set it equal to 0
and solve. x+1 = 0 is satisfied by x = -1
69
Plug x = -1 into the rest of the fraction 1/[(x+2)(x-3)] = 1/[(-1+2)(-1-3)] = -1/4
How easy was that?

You can do that for B and C with their corresponding roots (-2 and 3) to get their values.
*NOTE* - to my knowledge, cover-up method will not work if you have quadratic terms
like x^2 + 1 in the denominator since this factor does not have any real roots.
Section 8.3 Trigonometric Substitutions

So, even with all of these methods of integration, I challenge you to use any of them to
integrate
Integrating this type of function requires the use of simple geometry that is called a
trigonometric substitution.
Basically, you can make a triangle out of that function. Easy. It has legs 2 and x and a
hypotenuse of
Now, if you draw out the triangle, you can actually solve for that in terms of
trig functions and the angle theta. Check it out:
If you wanted to rewrite the integral above solely in terms of theta, you would need to
rewrite and you would need to rewrite dx. People always forget about the dx.
Ive already shown how to solve for that square root in terms of theta using the triangle
drawn. In order for the trigonometric substitution to work, you need to make sure you
use the same triangle drawn to solve for dx. To make things easy, you should choose a
70
trig function that has x only in the numerator such that, when you take the derivative,
you only get dx.
For our triangle, that function is cotangent.

Heres what this looks like:
When you combine all of this, you can solve the integral.
Its nice to know that the book used a different triangle and a different substitution to the
exact same answer.
You can play around with Pythagorean theorem to figure out that there will be a lot of
different scenarios where this method is applicable. I would just do a bunch of examples
to see typical uses. Some require multiple steps. Just be sure to always use the same
triangle.
Section 8.7 Improper Integrals
An improper integral is a definite integral where one or both of the bounds is an infinity.
Since you cant solve and then plug in infinity, you have to rewrite the integral as one
whose infinity bound is simply a constant that Im going to call S. You evaluate the
integral with said constant, and then take the limit as S approaches infinity.
71
Here is what the book says about it:
In the last case, where both bounds are infinities, you will need to replace each with a different
constant and then evaluate two different limits.
Since were dealing with integrals that are improper, we have to wonder whether or not they
even exist. That is, whether or not the area that the integral computes is infinity of some
constant.
So there are a series of integrals called the P-series of integrals, where you integrate
something of the form
This integral will diverge or converge depending on the value of P. Diverge means that
the limit will be infinity when you replace infinity with S and evaluate. Converge means
the limit will be some constant.
If P>1, the integral will converge to 1/(P-1)

If P<1, the integral will diverge.
If P=1, the integral will diverge.
These are all pretty easy to derive just by trying to solve this integral and plugging in
values for P.
But theres more. Improper integrals also contain integrals that are discontinuous or
undefined at one or both of their bounds. Take, for example, the natural logarithm. We
72
know that function does not have 0 in its domain, so if you took the integral of ln(x) from
0 to anything, youd be evaluating an improper integral.
In this case, you simply replace 0 with R and take a limit as S goes to 0 after evaluating
the integral; its the same concept.
Another series of integrals is called the R-series of integrals.
This series of integrals is the integral from 0 to infinity of

If R<0, this integral converges to 1/(-R)
If R>0, this integral diverges
If R=0, this integral diverges
But not all integrals fall into these two categories. So here are a few ways to figure out
whether or not an integral will diverge or converge.
The first is the Simple Comparison Test
It compares two functions, g(x) and f(x), both of which are strictly positive on the interval
between your bounds the interval you care about.
g(x) must be strictly greater than another function, f(x) on the interval.
If the integral of g(x) converges then f(x), which is smaller, definitely has to converge.
Alternatively, if the integral of f(x) diverges, then g(x), which is bigger, definitely has to
diverge.
Hopefully this makes a lot of sense to you.

73
In practice, it can be a little tricky because you will usually be given an integral and have
to find another function bigger or smaller than it. Finding that function is sometimes
difficult.
Example:
Step 1: Figure out whether or not you think the integral in question will converge or
diverge.
This is important because if you think the integral will diverge, youre going to be looking
for functions smaller than it that also diverge. Alternative, if you think it will converge,
youre going to be looking for functions larger than it that converge.
Now, looking at this function, it seems like cos^2(x) on top is just a function that
oscillates between 0 and 1. If anything, it makes 1/x^2 even smaller. 1/x^2 converges
because its a P-series with P>1.
So we think this one will converge.
Step 2: Find a function to compare it to, bigger or smaller, depending on what you
expect from Step 1.
Since we expect this function to converge, lets look for a function bigger than it that
also converges.
Well, in the previous step, I kind of alluded to it - 1/x^2
1/x^2 is bigger or the same as cos^2(x)/x^2 at every point, so we can compare them.
The test goes as follows:

74
These can get much harder though. Always try to compare things to functions you can
easily test for divergence/convergence, like P-series or R-series.
The next test for divergence or convergence is called the Absolute Convergence Test
It is particularly helpful in figuring out if functions that jump between positive and
negative values converge. Remember how in the Simple Convergence Test both
functions needed to be positive? Well this test doesnt require that.
Instead, it states:
Given a function f(x), the function will converge on an interval [a,b] if the absolute value
of that function converges.
In the previous example, if you replaced cos^2(x) with just cos(x), you wouldnt be able
to use the Simple Comparison Test right away. Instead, you would first have to take the
absolute value and THEN you could use the Simple Comparison Test to show that the
integral converges.
Moreover, if you use the Absolute Convergence Test, you say that the integral
converges absolutely.
The final test for divergence or convergence in this course is the Limit Comparison
Test.
It says that, given a function f(x) and a function g(x), you can take the limit as x goes to
infinity of f(x)/g(x). This limit will yield L.
If 0<L<infinity and the integral of g(x) converges, then the integral of f(x) also converges.
If L = infinity and the integral of g(x) diverges, then the integral of f(x) also diverges.
This is similar to the comparison test in that it will require you to find a g(x) that makes
one of these conditions satisfied.
This test is commonly applied to rational functions or functions where the Simple
Comparison Test doesnt work.

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1

Calculus I Course Review - Mintchev

how well you understand something.

math for some problems and formulas.

Section 4.2- The Mean Value Theorem 30-31

that everything gets cleared up and people dont make mistakes.

Section 1.1 - Functions and their Graphs

The domain of a function is all of the x-values it takes on.

Finding the range of a function is covered in later sections.

Set notation for a graph of a function:

Increasing and Decreasing

A function is even if f(-x)=f(x)

No recommendations from the assigned exercises. Pretty straightforward.

Section 1.2 - Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs

Basically, this is just manipulating functions.

(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

f(x) = x^2 is your base function.

f(x) = x^2 + 2 is the base function shifted up 2.

f(x) = x^2 is your base function.

f(x) = 2x^2 scales the function by a factor of 2. (Its now steeper).

Again, I dont think there are any real standouts.

Section 1.3 - Trigonometric Functions

To convert from degrees to radians, multiply your degree value by /180

Section 2.1 - Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves

Average and Instantaneous Speed

Final Speed - Initial Speed

Secant Lines and the Average Rate of Change

lim x^2+2xh+h^2-2h-2x+1 - (x^2-2x+1) lim 2xh+h^2-2h lim 2x-2+h

Now that the h is gone in the denominator, plug in 0

Section 2.2 - Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

Definitely do the squeeze theorem ones. (66, 75, 76).

Section 2.3 - The Precise Definition of a Limit

This is delta-epsilon. The definition is as follows

So, lets try one.

Lets try it with an actual number.

Section 2.4 - One Sided Limits

Since lim doesnt equal lim lim does not exist

Definitely do 1, 2, 5, 6, 14, 16, 19, 20.

Section 2.5 - Continuity

Intermediate Value Theorem:

Example: Prove that y=2x has a zero.

A function can have three types of discontinuity:

Example for jump discontinuity:

Since the one-sided limits arent equal, this is a jump discontinuity.

Example for point discontinuity:

Section 2.6 - Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs

End behavior rules for non-rational functions:

End behavior rules for rational functions:

Special Case 1: The powers are the same

Special Case 2: Slant Asymptote

***This is very important***

Limit Laws for End Behavior

Section 3.1 - Tangents and the derivative at a point

That formula will give you:

The derivative of f(x) at the point (k, f(k))

And that is literally the end of the section.

Do 23, 27-32, 33, 35

Section 3.2 - The Derivative as a Function

Section 3.3 - Differentiation Rules

Rule #1: The derivative of any constant is 0.

Section 3.4 - The Derivative as a Rate of Change

The derivative of sin(x) is cos(x)

Lets prove that the derivative of sin(x) is cos(x).

Section 3.6 - The Chain Rule

This is very important

Heres an example that is so easy to screw up:

Derivative is 5cos^4(3x+5)3 right?

General tip before finding the area