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VermontHydroelectric Handbook
Development
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 Acknowledgments
This book representsthe efforts of staff membersof the VermontPublicServiceBoardand the
VermontAgencyof Environmental Conservation. PublicServiceBoardengineersWayneFosterand
GordonStensrudcontributedto writingand editing.ThomasWillard,LeonardGerardi,AngeloIncerpi,
and EldonMorrisonof the Agencyof Environmental Conservation reviewedand commentedon sec'
tionspertainingto environmental impact.
Theauthorswouldliketo thankthe followingpersonsfor information R.StephenKlein'
andcritiques.
schmidt,FredAyer,and B. HaywardAdamsof Kleinschmidt and Duttinggavegenerously of timeand
experience to critiquethe technicaland licensingaspectsof the manual.PhilRettgerof EssexDevelop-
mentsAssociates,RogerLamson,and RichardHungerfordcontributedtheirexperience as developers
of small hydro.StephenCarrof the ChittendenBankofferedadviceon privatef inancing.Raymond
De Forgeof GreenMountainPowercritiquedthe operations and maintenance section.PorterCleveland
of GMPf urnishedmanywonderful photosof facilitiesin earlieryears.

FigureGredits

Figures2.3,2.7,3.2,3.3,8.1 and9.1 arereprintedwith permissionof GreenMountainPowerCompany,

Montpelier,VT.
d h p e rmis s i o n .
Re. p rin t ewit
Fi gu r e2 .1.is modifiedf roman originald ra win gb y A llis -Ch a lme rs
The Na'
Technicallllustrator,
FiguresAandB are reprintedwith permissionfrom HansHaumberger,
tionalCenterfor Appropriate P.O.Box3838,
Technology, MT.
Butte,
Figures3.1,4.1,5.1 aremodifiedf romthoseprepared and Dutting,Pittsfield,ME.
by Kleinschmidt
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F igur e 2. 1 T y p i c a l V e rm o n t H y d ro p o w e rIn stal l ati on.The w al l s of the pow erhouseand i ntake structur e ar e r em ovedt o
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Fi g ur eA P elt onW h e e l -

Turbines

There are two general types of turbines, impulse

and reaction turbines. Both convert energy in water
into mechanical energy, but by different means.
lmpulse turbines direct water through a nozzle at Fi gureB Franci sTurbi ne,
the runner blade, converting the water energy into
kinetic or velocity energy. lmpulse turbines are
more suitable for high head applications, since
small volumes a t a high velocity can turn the turbine
runner at a reasonable speed. A common type of
impulse turbine is the Pelton Wheel(Fig. A). Reaction
turbines work on a dif ferent principle. Water f lows
equally over all the runner blad€s,'both the pressure
and velocity of the water cause the runner to turn.
The draft tube has a vacuum in it that helpspull the
water through. A com m on reaction turbine, now
used chiefly af sifes with moderate heads, is the
Francis turbine (Fig. B). Propeller turbines operate
on the same principle as the Francis and are used
at low head sifes. Propellerturbines can be installed
vertically, horizontally,or on a s/ant (Fig. C).

be
Fi gureC P roP el l erTurbi ne' Thi s turbi ne m aYalso
i nstal l edat a sl ant.
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p a so d sl pp u e a u e l c l o puo uo l o) , l sequl
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le sxoer Llser1 'saleg elelul V'Z e'tn0l3
rffiffi
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alelu ! o rll 'f t'Z '0; 3) au !qrn l aq l o l e0 eL ueplua^
-a rdol (s),lunLl3 ocl pup'sa jll'p oo /v\se qcns)slJqap
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 The powerhousecontainSthe power equipment
(turbine, generator,governor, switch gear, etc.).
The buildingvariesin size,design,and construction
dependingon the size and orientationof the equip-
ment, and aesthetic preferencesof the owner and
community(Fig.2.6).

Water energy is converted by the turbine into

mechanical energy, which is then immediately
convertedinto electricalenergy by the generator.
The inset briefly describestypes of turbines.Suit-
able equipment to start, stop, and regulate the
mechanical energyoutputof the turbineare provided.

Water that has passedthrough the tu rbine exits

through the draft tube, into the tailrace canal and
back into the river (Fig. 2.7).The draft t ube outlet
is below the level of the river to form a seal; the
resultingvacuumallows the head betweenthe tur-
bine and the tailwaterto be used (in the case of a
reactionturbine).

The turbine is connected by a shaft to the rotor

of an electricgenerator,which produceselectricity
at its output terminals.The turbine and generator
must be matchedin size so that their power ratings
are similar.lf a turbineis too largefor the generator,
watermay be wasted,oI the generatormay burn out.
Figure 2.6 A Modem (1950's)Powerhouse- The power
fa c ilit yis an addi ti o nto a fl o o d c o n tro ld a m b u il t i n the Generatedelectricity is conducted t hrough the
1 930' s . switch gear and its controls before entering the
substation.The switch gear,locatedon the power-
house control panel,containsswitches,fllays and
other electricaldevicesfor connecting,disconnect-
ing, protecting,and monitcring the generatorout-
put. The control panel may also display meters f or

.:$it:

Fi g ur e 2. 7 E x c a v a te d T a i l ra c e U n d e r
co n s t r uc t ion. T h e c o n c re te fo rm fo r th e
d r af t t ube out le t fo r th e p o w e rh o u s e
$*.*$$
picturedin Figure2.6.The circularsection
i s wher e t he dr a ft tu b e w i l l b e l o c a te d .
The wat er lev elri s e s a b o v eth e o u tl e t.
ffi

F,-+
,
,,,,.,,,It,'].,
,,,,1
 (C U f J) uol ssl ur r uoof uoyel nO ag
r { D r au3l er apa3aqt A q } as prepue} sez
'n ro ldeLlcu I pauleluoc osnecaq'Allualstsuocapou auo ut unJMal lelqeltene
sl u ollelado tu eld to slcedt u; tp luauuolt^uoaLlllo sl Jol e/v\Jaql oq/n uodn 0ul puedep sapou osaql
u olssncs lp 'luau uo lt nt loo lll ol 0ulO euepssal sl
V lo lle u! unl uec sol l l l l cel cpl cal ool pAq auos
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o lp lad o o l lueld e Jol 'Aoll Jalp/ v\ ^lluals!suoc
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10
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i
 on a monthlyand yearlybasis,obtainedf rom USGS
rivergaugingstationson many rivers,are available
at the Departmentof Water Resources.
Averageannualf low data is sufficient for a rough
preliminaryassessmentof power potentialand is
adequatefor the very first analysisof a site. Infor-
mation concerning f low f luctuations,however,is
absolutely necessaryfor further studies, not only
to more accuratelypredictpowerpotential,but also
to ascertainthe feasibilityof hydroelectricdevelop-
ment at extremes of flow (flood and drought). lf
the USGS does not have informationfor f low at a
si te, f low data f rom a nearbyindex station can be
adjusted, or index station information on a river
with a similar drainagearea and runoff character-
is tics can be used.
The bibliographycontainsreferencesto manuals
that explain how head and f low can be measured
for a small project.In the case of a largerdam, it is
recommendedthat: a surveyorbe hired to determine
head,f low data locatedin state f iles be used when-
ever possible,and a consulting engineerbe hired
to perform or verify initial calculations of power
availability(installedcapacity).See the inset f or
an exampleof initial calculations.
once a theoreticalinstalledcapacityis obtained,
the servicesof a consultantwill probablybe needed
to calculatewhether there is f low at a site enough
of the time to install that amount of capacity,
especially in the case of a plant that will operate
as "run of the river."Usingwhat is known as a flow
duration curve (see glossary),the consultant will
draw up a curve that shows the amount of energy
produced annually as a f u nction of the installed
capacity.lt should be easy to see from this curvea
range within which an installed capacity can be
chosen that will maximizeenergyoutput.
lf a site is fargeenough,a consuftant may investi-
gate the power potentialat three or four different
installed capacities correspondingto a range of
head and flow conditions.correspondingaverage
annual energy outputs will be estimated,as well
as the rangeof outputs by month and overthe years.
Existing FacilitiesAssessment
lf there is developablepower potential,the de-
veloperand consultantshould assessthe dam, the
impoundment, and any structures or equipment
that may be at the site.
A visualinspectionof the dam may revealsurface
cracks, hol€s, leaks, and crumbling masonry or
concrete. As with assessmentof power potential
(and other aspects of development),a preliminary
reviewof dam safety by alayman must not be sub-
12
PowerPotentialDetermination
A simple calculation using flow and head at the
project yields approximate power availability. The
f ormu la used is;
Pp= Qxh
709
where:
P1 = power in kilowatts
O = dV€rageannualf low in cubic feet per minute
(cFM)
h = net head
709 - a constantderivedf rom the density of water
at 62.4 poundsper cubic foot
Flow might be expressedin cubic f eet per second
or gallons per minute. Multiply CFS by 60 to obtain
CFM. Dividegallons per minute by 7.a8b obtain CFM.
For example, a f low of 20ACFS (12000CFM) and
a net head of 25 feet would work out as follows:
P
l-
709 709
= 423 KW
The f igure of 423 KW represenfs the theoretical
power available,which is more than the generating
equipment will produc€, since all equipment will
operateaf /ess than 100percent efficiency. A reason-
able approximation is 85 percent eff iciency f or the
turbinegeneratorunit, thus:
423 KW x .85 efficiency = 360KW
The /ast f igure represenfsthe power that might
be availablein a stream. The one or more turbine'
generafors ins talled will have approximately this
power rating. Thepower rating is a/so called installed
capacity.
stituted for a professionalexamination.The State
Departmentof WaterResourcesemploysa structural
engineerfamiliarwith the conditionof manyVermont
dams and who would be willing to help assess a
dam's structural integrity.The Army Corps of En-
gineers(Corps)has conducteddam safety inspec-
tions on numerousdams in Vermont,that data also
being availablefrom Water Resourcesor from the
Corps.
Historicrecordsor signs of f lood damagearound
and below a dam may be evidencethat the spillway
has not been able to pass a f lood (Fig.3,2).lf it ap-
pearslikely that this might be a problem,the feasi-
bility study will haveto includethe cos t of redesign
of the spillway.
 OL
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14
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0ull eyapun stadol a^ap ol l rutad ql seal
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pu v ' {cu a$e oLl} lo syed Jall}o o } auo Jo}oJupc ' 000' 00t$se qcnu sp aq l qO!ulosuadxe
o rl/ vta ctllo uo l0ult lse M Jo IJo A / v\ oNalll Jotllla u! olll pue' aj ouJJo l l eq e pue teer{e ale} } q0l ul /v\al A
u osra d auo qllM lceluo c tlsllqelsao l Inldlotl s! ll -aJ ' tea( e ounsuoc l q0l uJ uol l etedal d l o ssacol d
' ap ln 0e se asn ol uollec; lddellut ad I nlssaccnse lo aLll' My 000' 9L{es ' a}!s JaOtelLl cnu e JoJ '000't$
A do oe'lsanbal u od n'puas osle lll/v\Aeql'0u!lU/v\ lsoc ltlOltupue 'solcuaOealels pue CH3J /v\al^aJ
u ! Jo a uoqd oq l Janosu ollcnJlsu!uo! Iec;;ddeaql Jol aJorrtJo sLlluotuxls tlll/v\aledetd ol^qstlluorrt
Atttelclll/v\saclllo uol0ultlseM pue ),UoA/v\aNaql o/vUoxpl ltl0!trl'a;duexaJol'al!s My 009e Jol suo!l
L llo qu! sle!clllo 'I caL lcol tlslrvrAeu JJadola^apaL{} -ecl l ddeosuacl l aLl l ' ol !s oLl ll o azl s aql uo'asl noc
ln q ' Atolcelst lpsuaaq an eq ( sde ur , ,PPnb,,) sdeut lo'0ul puadap {auou pue aLu!}u! ,{ ;1socAl ttel aq
clr.lde tOodolSgSn '1 sed aLll ul 'eare lcalotd aL1} uec sasuacl lal el s pue CH 3J l o uol ler edetdeqt
lo d ptu e sapnlcu! tlclLl/v\ 'uo! lecllddellulad aLlllo asuedx3 pue oul l
serdocolor1d ua1pue leu!Ot.to ue saJtnbelCUSJaql
'suo!lsaOOns 0 ul/nollolaql
/v\o llo pt lno qs ladola^ apaLll'pa J!Llse/ nluellnsuoc siltujAd puB sasuec!-l'nl
ou ll .uollec;ldde aq l lno ll!l plno qs uo!lenle^a
fu eu lL Urlald aql Jol palIq luellnsuoc aql'CU3J
a L lllo s aclllo leu or $atp ue le 1luacalll LuoJ;aOteqc
 As in the casewith the FERClicenc€,? developer design plans and plant constructionmay be a con-
will not f ile a formal applicationwith the PSB for a dition of the issuance.
certificate unless the project seems feasible.Be-
fore f iling, the developermust send site plans and 401Water QualityCertificate
prefiled testimony to the appropriatemunicipalor FERCwill not issuea licenseuntil the state certi-
f ies that the project meets state and federalwater
regionalplanningcommission,which has a 45-day
quality standards.nrhis certificate, known as a
periodto make recommendations.s
"401 Certificate" is obtained through the Depart-
Prefiled testimony consists of a written state- ment of Water Resources.The consultant must
m ent, either in narrativeor question-and-answer preparea letter,accompaniedby exhibits,describing
form, by each witness discussing various issues the impactof the developmenton water qualityand
of the project. f isheries(see ChapterV for a detailed discussion
After the 45-daywaiting period,a petitionis filed, of water quality).The issuance of the certificate
accompaniedby the prefiledtestimonyand exhibits. signifies that the Departmentof Water Resources
is satisfiedthat the project does not violate water
I
The petition, which can be in the form of a letter,
states that the applicant proposesto construct a quality standards.The approvalof the Department I
hydroelectricplant at a certainlocation,and explains of water Resourcesdoes not mean that the Agency
that the projectcomplieswith the criteriaset forth in of EnvironmentalConservationas a whole approves
the statute.The applicationis designedto demon- of the project, however,since the Agency might
strate that the project will not interferewith the recommendagainst the project on such grounds
orderlydevelopmentof the regionand will not have as impact on riverrecreation.
an "undue adverseeffect" on aesthetics,historic
sites,air and water purity,the naturalenvironment, Dredgingand Filling Permits
and public health and safety. Exhibits(see below) lf a projectinvolvesexcavationas for an impound-
are availablefor review by various state agencies ment or f illing as for a new dam, the consultant
(the statute enumeratesthem), which make their should apply to the Army Corps of Engineersand
recommendations known to the Public Service to the State of Vermont for the requisite permits.
Board at the public hearing.Most critical issues Theseapplicationsare usuallymadeafter the FERC
involvingtheseagenciesshouldhavebeen resolved licenseis filed and involvefairlydetaileddesign plans.
beforesubmissionof the application.
The Arrny Corps of Engineers requires a "404
It rnay be possible to submit the FERC license Permit"'0if any fill is to be deposited in any water-
applicationas an exhibitin the 248hearing.lt is likely way with a dischargeover 5 CFS,and a "section 10
that the state will require additional information, Permit"" if there is to be dredgingin any navigable
especially concerning environmental,aesthetic, waterway (most Vermont rivers are considered
and social issues.In any event,the exhibitsshould navigable).
include a map with the location of the proposed
project,a project site plan,?nd any other charts or In addition,the ProtectionDivision of the AEc,
illustrationsthat will clarifyaspectsof the project. throughthe District Environmental Office, reguires
a Stream Alteration Permit'2if dredging or f illing
lf the PublicServiceBoarddoes issuea Certificate
of Public Good, review of subsequent detailed
of 10 cubic yards or greaterwill be performedin a
streamwith a watershedof 10 squaremiles or more.
I
f

8lf th e y d o n o t r e s p o n dwith in 4 5 d a ys, th e y d o n o t fo r fe it th ei r ri ght to

'033U .S .C .1344
t o m a k e r e c o m m e n d a tio n sa t th e h e a r in g . "33 U .S .C 403
.
eAcc o r d i n gt o P u b l i c La w 9 2 - 5 0 0( F e d e r a lWa te r Po llu tio n C ontrol A ct "10 V .S .A .C hapter41, S ubchapter2, S 1021
of 1972as amended by the Clean Water Act of 1977\

16
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a pn lcul 0u lp unl Apnlsto soclno s alq lssodaaJLlI 's>UoMlpcUl col a pup l l ^l c aLl l l o u0l sop pal l el ap
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e p alue t0 a q lou AeutJo alq tsealu!,{ llecluJouoco
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a alu prpn 0o u t lll/v\puesnoLll0t $ o l 0 L$ LUoJI aOuet
lrl0 !u Jsa rn llp ua dx3',{ pn} suOlsappue At t tlqlseolP Apnt sAlllqlseal a q l ' n
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feasibility studies. Although there is competition
for only limited funds, governmentprogramsare
worth investigating, throughthe PSB,the Vermont
EnergyOff ice, or the U.S.Departmentof Energyin
Boston or ldaho. Dependingon the site and the
source of Federal f unding, a more detailed and
thereforemore costly study may be required,however.
EngineeringStudies
Severalschemesfor developmentwill be investi-
gated in the f easibility study. The product of the
engineeringstudy should be a plan showing the
layoutof all works,alongwith preliminarystructural
plans of the dam, spillway, penstock, etc. The
turbine and generatorshould be sized according
to f low variability and their layout described. A
preliminarydesignof the electricalsystemsshould
be performedas well.
Fees for engineering and design are usually
calculatedas 10 to 20 percentof total development
costs. The smallerthe project is, the largerthe fee
will be in proportionto developmentcosts, since
the same number of tasks must be undertakenf or
small as well as lar geprojects.
Equipment
Although several established American firms
manufacturehydroelectricequipment,most equip-
ment currentlyon the marketis of Europeandesign
and manufacture. Severalf oreign f irms, aff iliated
with U.S.companies,are planning manufacturing
plants in this country.A consultanttherefore,has
a wide variety of equipment to choose f rom for a
partic u lar application.
Tur bines, generators,and other equ ipment can
be purchased in a package unit or separately.
Separatecomponentsmay be lessexpensiveinitially,
but may prove to be incompatible in operation.
The selection and proper matching of machinery,
both to the site,and to the other machinery,requires
the servicesof an experiencedconsultant.
EconomicStudies
Based on the preliminarycost-benefitanalysis
and subsequent study findings, a calculation is
made of total projectcosts and comparedwith the
benefits derived fr om selling electricity.As with
any endeavor,the projectis feasiblefrom the economic
point of view if costs are met and a reasonable
returnon investmentis realized.
Total developm entcosts include the following:
capitalcosts (studycosts, licensefees, land acqui-
sition costs, construction costs), fixed charges
(taxes,insurance,depreciation,intereston loans),
and operating and maintenancecosts (salari€s,
18
repairs).Total developmentcosts are usually ex-
pressedin termsof total annualcosts of the project.
Annualcost is determinedby assuminga f inancial
life f or the project and dividing the total costs by
the number of years. Twenty years is often the
designated project life.
Constructioncosts includethose for excavation,
repairs,construction of new works, and the pur-
chaseand installationof equipment.In some cases,
the developeris requiredto pay for environmental
mitigation as in the construction of f ishways or
addition of aerators.The latter part of this chapter
deals with environmentalissues.A twenty percent
contingencyestimateis usuallyadded to construc-
tion cost estimatesto take into account unforseen
price increases,foundationconditions or damage
d ue to natural d isastersor u n i nsured vandalism.
Fixed chargescan be estimatedin the course of
discussions with insurance companies, lending
institutions,and the listersof the town(s)to which
the project will pay propertytaxes. Income taxes
can be calculated f rom the predicted amount of
income (see discussionbelow).Privatedevelopers
can take advantageof income tax credits,a tax al-
lowancefor initialrepairs,and accelerateddepreci-
ation allowances.These benefits should be con-
sideredin the economicstudies.
Operating and maintenancecosts are usually
small,but shouldbe includedin total annualcosts.
Maintenancecosts for items not directly related
to operations,such as recreationareas,shouldalso
be considered.Facilityoperatingand maintenance
costs vary with the installedcapacity and can be
calculatedby the consultingengineer.
Annualincomefrom the sale of electricityequals
annual KWH production multiplied by price per
KWH paid by the utility or other custom er. Price
negotiationswill be proceedingduringthe feasibility
study.A furtherdiscussionor marketingis continued
on ChapterVl.
EnvironmentalStudies
The VermontAgencyof Environmental Conserva-
tion (AEC)is chargedwith the protectionand con-
servationof Vermont waters. The Agency, which
is composedof severaldifferentdepartments,has
concerns about hydropower developm ent. The
Water Quality Divisionof the Departmentof Water
ResourcesprotectsVermontwaters f rom pollution
and water quality degradation of all kinds. The
Departmentof Fish and Game is responsiblefor
the managementof Vermont's f ish and game re-
sources and related recreational opportun iti€s,
and for special projectssuch as the restorationof
once-nativef ishesand game animals.The Planning
Divisionhas an interestin the recreationalresources
of water bodies.
 6L
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OO-ua6fxg pa^loss!O

Depending on its location, creation of a dam
where no naturalbarrierexisted before can affect
the mi grationof anadromousf ish and can block the
migration of local fish species.Anadromousfish,
such as salmon,Sometrout,and shad,travelupstream
in order to spawn. The Departmentof Fish and
Game plans to reestablishcertain populationsof
anadromousfish,such as landlockedAtlanticSalmon,
and American shad in the Connecticut River. lf
dams on tributariesof these bodiesare substantially
rebuilt,the Departmentof Fish and Game may re-
quire constructionof fish laddersor fish passage-
ways (Fig. 5.2).They may also require other such
measuresas trappi ngthe migratingf ish and trans-
porting them by truck to abovethe dam. Facilities
f or the passageof f ish migratingdownstreammay
also be necessary.
When a hydro facility is generating,fish may be
directedthrough the turbinedespitethe existence
of trash racks.The magnitudeof turbine mortality
varieswith the speciesand with the type of turbine.
The propellerturbine is the least harmfu l. The De-
partmentof Fish and Gamewill requireinformation
on species inhabitingthe riverand the reservoiras
wellas on turbinedesign.
A dam is not only a barrierto fish migration,it
also interruptsthe flow of the current and all that
it carries, causing both organic and inorganic
materials(silt) to settle in the pond. Silt deposits
eventuallyclog intakesand reducereservoirvolume
and may requireperiodicdredgingor flushing out.
A sudden releaseof silt will increasedownstream
water turbidity,damagingaquatic life (fish as well
as plants). Such a release might also scour the
downstream banks denuding them of vegetation,
thus increasinger osion potential and decreasing
20
Figure 5.2 Fish Ladder(DenilType). The
w ooden baffl es removedat l ef t f it t nt o
the groovesi n the concrete.
shady fish habitats. The Water Quality Division
must be notified prior to desilting operations(see
ChapterVlll).
Game Concerns
Wildlifehabitatsmay also be affected by creation
of impoundments changing wetlands to ponds.
Flow regulationmay also impingeon game habitats,
since reservoirand downstreamwater levels may
f luctuate independentof naturalf luctuations.The
principalgame species most influenced by these
problemsare waterfowland f urbearers.Uplandwild-
life species such as white-taileddeer may be af-
fected by the f loodingof deer yards.
SocialConcerns
Construction of a hydropower facility affects
land and water use in dramatic and subtle ways.
Such recreationaluse of a stream aS a white water
canoeingor kayakingcou rse, f or example, will be
affected by impoundment.lf a forested area is to
be f looded,the developerwill haveto submit a plan
for the harvestingand disposalof wood. A developer
might haveto bearmost of the costs of reconstruct-
ing bridgesand roadsthatwill be floodedout upstream.
The developermay be required to provide water-
basedrecreation facilitiesif thereis an impoundment
(ExhibitR of the major FERClicense).
lf the Federalagency(FERC)in consultationwith
the State H istoric PreservationOf f icer determines
that propertieswhich are included in or eligible
for inclusionin the NationalRegisterwill be adversely
affectedby the project,f urtherplanningand redesign
may be necessryin order to comply with Federal
regu latio n s.
 LZ
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e oJo la q,{lIso] o] o lqplt eAE
aq plnoLls]ue]lnsuoc -ueu ulel dpool l pue A l ol ps l .!ep l o uol ssncsl pV
alll 'lro da r aql lo uollecllqnd Jolt v 'lxal oLll dn 'ualqold slr,lllo luolxo oql lctpald ,{eur,{aq}}eq} os
0u;1ceqslrelopleclurlcolaletrdorddBr.lllm'e0en0ue1
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'uo !lec;ldde tl01t pue /nol l Mol l o spo;red 0u;rnp pol eJado
cu3J or.llul papnlcu!aq osle ll!/v\'uollcnJlsuoslueld l! l! Jo'poLl sJal e/v\l l eLusseq l col ord aLl ]]l 'aul ] ]o
0u ;rnpAlle lcad sa'lu au do lo^opto slllou oq llpJo^o po;red Uorl s ureyac e JaA o/v\ol l ul,{q paL4sl ua;der
aL llto u olssncslpV 'sa l! s c;uc; dp ue saLlcu nelleoq oq uec leLll Jale/v\Jo lunoup aql ,{|uo JtoAJasaJ
se Llcn s'lua udolo^op aql qll/v\po cnp ollu! aq lll/v\ e u/v\op/v\eJpol a3llcerd lpulJou s! ll 'spunolo
le ql sllla u aq lercosoLllaqrJcsaplsnr r Jlue llnsuoc Ieluauuojr^uapue 3llaqlsoeuo LlloquJacuocoutos
aL llu o lle c;lddeasuacll CUll aLlllo uo llco s e ul asnecAeurJloruosolp u! slanalJale/v\0ullenlcnll
' euol uc c!l aL{ } sae
{srapro
roluaudora^ap aLr} ararr.;:ll3il;'H
r.r}r/n s,pJeogoctruasc!lqnd aLllol rujoluoclsnu lca[ord
sa url u o!ss il.usueJlpue r{ tillcelaLl}}eLl}suo!sslur aql lo yed oJe l erl l sl oppJoc au!l uo!ssl LusueJI
-ruo c 0 uluu e;d leuo gO alp ue lpco l o l alellsuoruop 'sacual Jo s1uel d,{q 0ul uooj cs aJtnbar, ( eur} uel d
o sfp lsnur luellnsuoo aq l '0uUea q gVZ,uollcos orp{q V 'pasteJaq osle }L;0!LU }uaupunodu! aLl}pup
a Lll o l ,{yed e se c3v o tl} ,{ q se lla /n sp u o! 1ecl|d sa!llllcell cal ordaq] 0ul uJacuocsonsslcl]aq]sav

Vl. MarketingElectricity
A privatedevelopercan sell electricityto a utility
company or to a local industry.lt is also possible
to create a new utility to Sellto retail customers,'3
but in most casesthis option is not worth the effort
or expense.
The PURPAof 1978removedmarketingobstacles
f rom the path of non-utilitydevelopers.The Act re-
qu ires utility companies to purchase power f rom
and interconnect with a facility that is privately
developed.In addition,the Act mandatesthe s tate
regulatoryauthority(PSBin Vermont)to set a"iust
and reasonableprice" that protects the interests
of both utility ratepayersand the privatedeveloper.
A detaileddiscussionof this f ollows below.
Although a developer is guaranteeda market
with a utility,anotheroptionmay be equallyattractive.
A developercan negotiatea joint ownershiparrange-
ment with a localindustryor industries,for example.
ff the users of the power are also part owners, flo
state regulationis requiredand the developerdoes
' rEnablin gl e g i s l a t i o ni s 3 0 V.S A.SS2 4 9 ,2 5 1 ,2 5 9 .
22
not need a FERC license.This option thus avoids
a potentiallytime-consumingand costly process.
lf sellingto a utilitycompanyis the chosenoption,
the utility will need to know details of proposed
operation in order to estimate a price. The utility
will want to know the physicallocationof the plan,
its capacityand annual energy output (KWH),and
the plannedmode of operationand dispatch.Loca-
tion in regard to utility transmission lines is im-
portant, since the cost of lines interconnecting
with the grid is directly relatedto their length (as
well as the voltage of the transmission line).The
utility also must determine whether the nearest
transmissionline is alreadybeingused to full capacity.
By the time the feasibility study is underway,
the developerand utility should be negotiatinga
contract. The services of a lawyer are essential
here to write a clear contract.lf agreementcannot
be reachedover the price or terms of the contract,
a developershould contact the PSB to discuss the
difficulties.lf no resolutioncan be reached by in-
formal negotiations,the developershould send a
written petition to the PSB for a rate hearing,?S
mandatedby the PURPA.The PSB will define terms
of a purchase power contract that hopefu lly, is
satisfactoryto both parties.
 T,Z,
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pue radola^apaLllleql lueyodul s1ll '1a/nse luorrt
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a le slu au oltnber 0ulcue ut l lpr. ll sn olnqo st ll uao/vuaqsacuojalllp lelluelsqnsleJo^asaJPajoql
'lllo ld elqe uosea lp o pt noJdse lla/nse se0e0yout ' 0uIln paLl csI l p
q lo q u o le dt cuptdpue lsar alu t Ae d ol luolclllns aleulpJoocpue ,{auoujlo }unoup aorele aoeueuro}
o q aJo la laq l lsnuJ /n oll qse c lca[o td aL lI 'Jopual ,{11qeslLlut ocuoplluocaneq}snrusJapualaLl}'uol}
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il 'Ja pu !eu oJaql ,{ edo} Ja do la^apaq} } cad xa lll/vl JOU/rAO O tl l Ol ,,{O >,1 A q} JA A osuJh},,pup'uot} cnj } s
pue lunoue paltnballelol aq1;o a0eluocladuleyac -uoc aJ!l ueaql q0noJqlsatJJpcrrJJ!l e aJaLl Mauo sl
e A luo p ua l lll/ v\JapualaLll'e0 e0 uo ulau loq e ul se 'louq ut lseJluoc,{aIuJn}v '(s)rapual oq} pupledo;an
lsnf 'A Uedo rdaL lluo oO e0yourlsr !t e Aq pocueu!l -ap aLllr.l l oqol rsu sacnpoj s!rl l ocul s ' r ol ceJl uoc
a q lll/ v\lq a p uIJal-0uol'a clru asslLllJa llo osle ,{eu P rll!/\ ,,l ceJl uoc,{e1uJn},,E seq radol a^app aJoq/n
slue q le !cJauulo cluot ulon u l L l0noLllle'0ulcueu!l lcalold e o] on!]decel aJoru oq r{eur slapual
lqa p uJa l-O uolJollo Ale nsn sa! ueduoc ocueJnsul ' radol o^apaql ol 0uol e passed
p ue sXu eq s0 ulAe S'sueol uo tlcnllsuo c pue pua oq ol sunJJoA losoc uol l cnj l suoc Mol l e pl no/vll eLl l
luo ll a L llu o lsoJalu!pue led! cultdse llo/ v\se luotll lceJluoc,,sn|d1sOC,, B Ol lceJluocecr,rd-paxll e lalald
-dlnbeuo onp sluotur{edsopnlcu!}qap tuta}-Ouo-l sJapuol ' pouol sap sp pup ' l aopnq uo ,eur l l uo
'JOJn lCelnueu
ll!nq oq l l !M l cal ord or]] ]eq] 0ul ao]ueren0tcer ]uoc
lu au dln ba a u! qJnlaL llaq plno c 0ulp un l uotlcnJls uollcnjlsuoc p o^eLlosl e pl noqs l adol o^op or ]l
-u oc lo acJn os olqlssod JaLllouV'su eo l uotlcnJls 'sltuuadpue sosuasll to ou;ulPlqoaLll ol lcatqnsapeu
-u oc rce A-7J o -L aplnold { eu slupq le! cJaruuloC oq uec sl uotueel 0e
'asa ql rlll/vlJ e!l!t upla q , {eu o clilo Aolou3}u oujjan 0ul cueutl fueul url l er dual l o
'0ulcueullrol 0u;r{ldde aJoloq1ca[o.rd er]l Jol sasuocrl
orll lslso c u o!lcnJlsuo ca uo s Janoc ol alqeltene pup sllurad u!pl qo ol fuessocauosl e st l l .l er vr od
eq ,{eu su eJ Oold} uel0 lo ueol } uoulu Jon og'Jncco
,{tddnso} oJnl l etrol pesodur oq o} sol l l eued,{ ue
'{eq
'slsoc }se so sua dxaJanoco} alqplteneaq } snu LlspC pue'p!lpAst l cej l uoc aLl ll eLl lauIIl Jo rJl 0uol'^ l l cl Jl
lua uo0eueul pu e 'r oq el 'slepaleu Janocol -colaJol pl ed acr.rd' penl o^uI sal ued aql sal l l l uapl
0ugcueu;;ulal-UoLlsB saJlnbeluollcrulsuoc1ce[ol6
lcPJluoc aL{l 'rer{nqoLl} r.l}l/vl}ceJ}uoctarvrodaq}
's),1
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sueol LUJaI-uoLls ,{q ro 'sueol Jo s}uelo }uoruulenoo -uoseale oApL{ se lla/\ se 'ledola^opoLl}o} uJn}allo
,{q 'sp un l u /v\os, redolan opa q} }ouruo aq , {t tensn aleJalqeuoseoJp aprnoldpue 'upol aLlluo ledlcur.rd
a^eq 'uo tlcn Jlsu oc ol d n 0ululr ^q {la ^o 0u lpnlcul pue lsojolur,{edo} oclllns }snuj auocul 'Japuale o}
's1so c,, pUa- luojl, ,po lle c-os'0 ur cueut l olejedas poluosal d aoel ced e l o l uauJol o010u;sl ueuodur r
o^eL{,{eu e0e1s}uorudola^opoll} lo yed LlcBf lsoul oLlls! lcafold aLl]lo /v\ouLlsecpo]ca[ordolll-
6ulcueu!JutJa1.6uo'lpue -Uotls ' eUol Ucl ueyodLUI Jaqunu
to
e Ats!les l snur sl q} ul pocueul l aq }ouuec } eq}
'slue llnsu oc p up radolanap 'lca[ordaO rel "{ern ' ^]l l l l n ,{1l l ed!c!unuJ
v ro e s! radol a^ ap
a ql lo , {ullqp}n de rpue acuat jodxaa q} lo pue /noll aql ,{llercedse' auol e
ll radol a^ap oq} } ou
Jo r.l U o/v\
Llsecalenbapeue lo socueJnsse ojtnberlll/v\Japuol aLlluo pacueu!toq A tqeqord uec sl cel ol d l l eur s
a Lll 'lca lo rd uo!] cnJ]suocfueulp Joue ut upr .l]]uouj eualuc 6sjepua-l
-dolanaprernodorp{qe ur JoJJaJol r.uoolssol sr alaqr
'u eo l orll lo ( or1er'{1lnb ao } }qap) e oe ra^aloq} sl
ocuara#lppr!rllv '(allsJelnctued e rol pauolsepuolsnc
ale {e qt il , {lle;cedsa)rapuol aLl} o } on le^ olpsar
alutl a^eq luaurdrnba oLllua^a pue 'esnoqlervrod oLll
6ulcueu!J' l fn
's1q0;lJale/v\'ruep aql 'doqs ou!r.lcerrJ e Jo asnoLl
luaruuedeue o)| un 'leralpllocupol se Inlosnlou aJe
Vlll.Construction

Construction of the project is the next step in

developmentafter feasibilitystudiesand licensing.
A constructionengineer,a memberor subcontractor
of the f irm that designedthe project,usuallyman-
ages the entire building process (civil, hydraulic
and mechanical,and electricalwork)from excavation
to bringingthe new powerplanton line.This person
usuallyhas written or assistedwith equipmentbid
specifications,and is f amiliar with the intricacies
of the project. Occasionally,the equipment man-
ufacturerwill provideconstructionsupervisionfor
the equ ipment installationas a condition of the
guarantee.lt is importantthat one personsupervise
constructionfrom beginningto end.
The project managerputs the constructionwork
out to bid and chosesthe generalcontractor.There of a Propeller
Figure8.1 Installation Turbine.
are many qualified heavyconstructioncontractors
in Vermont and northern New England,although
none specializein hydro work. Contractorsusually Any activityinvolvedin constructionor operation
submit a performancebond with the construction of a plant that will violate water quality standards
bids. The bond, usually for 10 percent of the bid, requires a So-called1272 order'o f rom the Water
protectsthe developerf rom cost overruns,delays, QualityDivision.Examplesof such activitiesinclude
or errors in construction.lf the bid is rejected,the desilting of an impoundment,eXcavationof a tail-
check should be returnedto the contractor. race,and releaseof water f rom a coffer dam. The
The projectmanageris responsible for scheduling order specifies dates on which certain activities
cons truction so that outside bu ilding coincides cannot take place and requests notification of
with dry seasoos,inside work can be done in the Agencypersonnelso that they can monitoroperations.
winter, and equipment arrivesat the proper time
Becauseof delays in construction or other un-
to be installed (Fig. 8.1). Delays in construction
forseeablecircumstances,constructioncosts may
timing or equipmentarrivalcan be extremelycostly. have to be cut. A developershould be careful in
Public relationsis also part of the project man- cutting corners, since a rushed job may cause
ager's concern. Since construction can involve more problemsthan it solves.On the other hand,
blastingof ledgeand movementof heavyequipment, unnecessaryparts of the construction might be
such events should be timed to be convenientto eliminatedwithout loweringprojectdesign standards.
area residents.Such courtesieswill earn good will Discussionsbetweenthe developer,projectmanager,
for the project, dlthough it may be impossible to constructioncontractor,and f inancerscou ld yield
avoid some d isturbance. fruitful resultsin this area.

'osecti on1272 of 10 V .S .A .C hapter47

24
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uo dnpl l nq oct ' posn l ou st Jal qqnqe l l Jal ur /v\ul
,{ilepsorul }l pl o^aspaJeal caq o} o^pq sl unLl c
acl '(l'O ' 0g) l o pasodsrp strqap ol l^eu l pue',{ l l ep
lsPollp palpJ Jo poupolcoq lsnu s),l3eJ qseJlorll
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lnq'uo!l pcUqnl c!po;rad pue suol l cedsul r { l r eeA
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ol 9z r{luoturuoc' sopecop l ej a^osJo} ocupua} ul eu
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 The operationof a plant consists of starting up
the generatorand turlcines,and synchronizingthem.
l f the utility is dispatching the plant (switching it
on and off dependingon utility needs),automatic
synchronizing equipment may be needed. This
equipment is rather expensive and may not be
necessaryfor the smallerprojects.A run-of-the-river
plant, will probably have an operatorto start and
stop the generator manually. Proper training for
this is essential since an inexperiencedoperator
can damagethe plant equipment.

26
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uPajlsdn 0urler6rurr{srl s/y\ollPlBrl} slood a11|-da1s
lo sauas e 1o ou;1slsuocajn}cnrls v-reppel qslJ
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lo
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ajouj le uteallsdn trJ!/v\s
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lxlpuaddV
Flow-Volume of water per unit time. Can be expressedin gallons or cubic feet per minute (GPM,
CFM)or in cubic feet per second(CFS).See "Q" also.
Flow Duration Curve-Acurve which shows the percentageof time (in a certain time period)that a
river'sf low was equal to or greaterthan a given discharge.For example,it might show that over a
period of a yeara riverflowed 500 CFS 10"h of the time and 100CFS 80% of the time.
Flashboards-Boards placedon top of a spillwayor dam crest to temporarilyraise the impoundment
level.
Flume-A canal that conductswater to the intakegate.
Forebay-The enlargedbody of water abovethe intake.
FrancisTurbine-A reactionturbinecommonly used in moderateto high head facilities.See text.
Generator-A machinethat convertsmechanicalenergyinto electricalenergy.
Governor-A deviceto control the operationof a turbine or engine,which makes the speed constant
by varyingthe input (amountof water)to match the load. Governorscan perform other f unctions
such as maintaininga constant head pond levelor automaticallyrespondingto peaks in electrical
demand abovea certain level.
Historic or ArchaeologicalSite-A standing structure,part of a structure,or area where evidenceof
prehistorichabitationis found, which is listed or is eligibleto be listed in the NationalRegisterof
Historic Places.
Hydraulics-The sciencethat deals with the laws governingwater in motion.
HydraulicWorks-The works of a facilityassociatedwith the conversionof water energyinto mechan-
ical energy;for example,penstockand turbine.
lmpoundment- Reservoir or artif ic ial pond createdbehi nd a dam.
lmpulse Turbine-A turbine that uses the velocityof water to move the runnerand that dischargesto
atmosphericpressure.
Installed Capacity-The total of the capacitiesshown on the nameplatesof all the generatorsin a
hydro plant.
Intake-The structurethat lets water into the penstock.
IntermediateLoad-The amount of electrical power neededto be deliveredat times when the base
load does not f ill demand.
Kilowatt(KW)-One thousandwatts. A measureof electricalpower (work per unit time).
Kilowatt Hour (KWH)-The amount of electricalenergy involvedwith a one kilowatt demand over a
periodof one hour.
Load-The amount of power neededto be deliveredat a given point in an electricalsystem.
Low Head-Sometimes defined as head 66 feet (20 meters)or smaller.Many engineersuse the term
to refer to a type of facility (a)that utilizesa reactiontype turbine,or (b)where there is a short pen-
stock or the powerhouseis built into the dam, or both.
M echanicalWorks-Turbines, pumps,gatehoists,governors,cranes,and all other such equipment.
Megawatt(MW)-One thousandkilowatts.
NEPOOL-New EnglandPower Pool,a consortiumof New Englandutilities that sells power to each
other and that dispatches(callsupon)generatingstations in responseto demand.
On Line-Generating electricityand sendingit out over the transmissionlines.
Outage-The periodwhen a generatingunit is out of service.
PackingGlands-Sealing devicesused to providepressure-tight joints where rotatingor reciprocating
shafts pass through walls f rom one pressurezone to another.
Peak Load-The maximalload in a stated periodof time; for example,yearlypeak and daily peak.
PeltonWheel-A type of impulseturbine.
28
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 Appendixll
Stateand FederalAgencies

Agency Subject Phone

VERMONT (802)
Agencyof Development & CommunityAffairs
Pa vilio nb u ilding
StateStreet
Montpelier, VT05602
Divisionfor HistoricPreservation Historicandarchaeological 828-3226
Willia mP inney,Director s it e s
Agencyof EnvironmentalConservation
H er itag eBu ilding
79-81RiverStreet
Montpelier, VT05602
Fish& GameDepartment
Angelolncerpi,ChiefFisheries andgameconcerns
Fisheries 828-3371
Bio logist
BenD ay,ChiefWildlifeB iologist
Forests,Parks,and Recreation Dept. Recreation concerns, 828-3375
forestryconcerns
Pla n n in gDivision G e n e ra le n v iro n me nctoanl c e rn s 8 2 8 - 3 3 5 7
EdwardKoenemann, Director
ProtectionDivision Streamf low alterationpermit 828-3341
HowardFlanders. Director
WaterResources Department,
Divisionof WaterQuality
DavidClough,Director Waterqualityconcerns, 828'2761
Tho m a sW illard,E nvironmental
E ng in e e r " 4 0 1 "p e rmit
PeterBarranco, DamEngineer Existingdams,engineering 828-2761
andsafetyconcerns

Agencyof Transportation
B uilding
Adm in istr ation
Montpelier, VT05602
ShermanJ. Gage,Director Floodingof roadsor bridges 828-2661
Eng in eering
BrookinsDelano,UtilitiesDivision Floodingof roadsor bridges 828'2653
RobertMerchant, Divisionof Operations Floodingof railroads 828'2828

PublicServiceBoard
120StateStreet
Montpelier,VT05602
WayneFoster,ElectricalEngineer Section248application, all state 828-2839
lic e n s in gc o n c e rn s
ChiefEngineer
GordonStensrud, Electrical engineering, 828-2636
rateinformation

State EnergyO ff ice

4 East State Street
Montpelier,VT 05602
RonaldAlbee,Director Governmentgrantsfor 828-2393
Joseph G ainza f easibilitystudies

30
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 Appendixlll
NewElectricGeneration andTransmission Facilities:
Certificateot PublicGood(30V.S.A.,S 248)

(a)No company,as definedin 30 V.S.A.S 201,or cooperative, maybeginsite preparation or construc-

tion of an electric generation facilitywithinthe State,or electrictransmission facilitywithinthe State
whichis de signedfor immediate or event u aol p e ra t io an t a n yv o lt a g eo r e x e rc is et h e rig h to f e m i n e n t
domainin connection with site preparation for or construction of anysuchtransmission or generation
facility,exceptfor the replacement of existingwithequivalent facilities in the usual course of business,
unlessthe PublicServiceBoardfirst finds that the same to promote the general good of the State
and issuesa certificateto that effect. The Public Service Board shall hold a public hearing on each
p eti tio nfo r suchf indingandcertificatein a c o u n t yin wh ic ha n y p o rt io no f t h e c o n s t ru c t io o nf said
facilityis proposedto be located.Noticeshallbe givento the AttorneyGeneral,the Departments of
Health,Agencyof Environmental Conservation, HistoricSitesBoard,SceneryPreservation Council,
StatePlanning Office,VermontAeronautics Boardand by certifiedmailshallbe givento the chairman
o r dir e ctoro f the municipaland regionalp la n n in gc o mmis s io nas n d t h e mu n ic ip ale l g is la t iv beo d y
for eachtownand city in whichthe proposedfacilitywill be locatednot lessthanthirtydayspriorto
s a idhe a r in gNotice
. of the publichearings h a llb e p u b lis h e din a n e ws p a p eorf g e n e racl irc u lat i o ni n
the countyor countiesin whichthe proposedfacilitywill be locatedtwo weekssuccessively, the last
publication to be at leasttwelvedaysbeforethe dayappointedfor the hearing.
( b)Be for ethe P ublicS erviceB oardissu e sa c e rt if ic a t e o f p u b licg o o d ,it s h a llf in d t h a t t h e c o n -
s tr ucti on :
(1)willnot undulyinterfere with the orderlydevelopment of the regionwith dueconsideration having
b ee ngive nto the recommendations of the mu n ic ip aal n d re g io n apl la n n in gc o mmis s io n a s ndthe
m un icip alleg islative bodies;
(2)is requiredto meetthe needfor presentandf uturedemandfor service;
(3)will notadversely affectsystemstabilityandreliabilityandeconomicfactors;and
(a)will not havean undueadverse effecton esthetics, historicsites,air andwaterpurity,the natura
e nvir o n m e natndthe publichealthandsaf e t y .
( 5)p la n sh a vebeensubmittedto the mun ic ip aal n d re g io n apl la n n in gc o mmis s io n in s accordance
wi thth is se ction.
(c)Beforea certificateof publicgood is issuedfor the constructionof a nuclearf issionplantthe
PublicServiceBoardshallobtainthe approval of the GeneralAssemblyandthe Assembly's determin-
ationthatthe construction of the proposed facilitywill promotethe generalwelfare. The PublicService
Boardshalladvisethe General Assemblyof anypetitionsubmittedunderthis sectionfor the construc-
tion of a nuclearf issionplant,by writtennoticedelivered to the Speakerof the Houseof Representa-
tives and to the Presidentof the Senate.The PublicServiceBoardmay submit recommendations
relatingto the proposedplant,and shall makeavailableall relevantmaterial.The requirernents of this
s u b se cti on shallbe in additionto the f indin g ss e t f o rt hin s u b s e c t io (b n )o f t h is s e c t io n .
( d)H owe ve r, plansfor theconstruction o f s u c ha f a c ilit ymu s tb e s u b mit t e db y t h e p e t it io n er to the
municipalandregionalplanningcommissions no lessthan45 dayspriorto application for a certificate
o f pu b licg o o d underthis section.unles st h e mu n ic ip aal n d re g io n apl la n n in gc o mmis s io nss h a l l
waivesuch requirement. Suchmunicipalor regionalplanningcommissions may holda publichearing
on the proposedplans.Suchcommissions shallmakerecommendations, if any,to the PublicService
B oa r da n dto the petitioner at least7 daysp rio rt o f ilin go f t h e p e t it io nwit h t h e P u b licS e rv ic eBo a r d .
(e)However,notwithstanding the above,plansinvolvingthe relocationof an existingtransmission
l i n e m u st b e s ubmittedto the municipaal n d re g io n apl la n n in gc o mmis s io n sn o le s st h a n 2 1 d a y s
pr io rto ap p lication for a certificateof pub licg o o du n d e rt h iss e c t io n .

32
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