21/04/2017 Irony,Nostalgia,andthePostmodern,byLindaHutcheon

UTEL[HistoryofEnglish|EnglishComposition|LiteraryAuthors|LiteraryWorks|LiteraryCriticism]
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Irony,Nostalgia,andthePostmodern
byLindaHutcheon

AttheriskofsuccumbingtoNewHistoricistfashion,Ishouldnonethelessliketobeginwithapersonal
anecdote.ButIshallaskyou,thereader,totakeanactiverole:Ishouldlikeyoutopretendyouaremeand
imagineyourresponsetothefollowingsituation.ThetimeisafewyearsagoyouareinLondon,England.
Youhavejustthathoursubmittedtoyourpublisherthefinalversionofthemanuscriptofabookonthe
theoryandpoliticsofirony.1Inacelebratorymood,youwalkintoabookstore.Oneofthefirstthingsthat
catchesyoureyeforobviousanddeeplypersonalreasonsisthecoverofanEnglishmagazineentitledThe
ModernReview.Onitispicturedtheequivalentofa"nosmoking"sign,butthistimethebarredredcircleof
forbiddennesssurroundsapairofinvertedcommas,reinforcingtheheadline:"TheEndofIrony?The
TragedyofthePostIronicCondition."Youmightbesomewhatnonplussed:youknowyoudeliveredthe
manuscriptabitlaterthanyouhadpromisedbutyouhadnotreallycountedonthebookbeingutterlyoutof
datebeforeitwasevenpublished.

PerhapsyoumightreactasIdid:youmightquickly(andnotalittlenervously)turntothearticleinsideon
thecommodificationofironybytheverygeneration(the"twentysomething"generation)thatwassaidtobe
usingironyasitsonlydefenceagainstcommodification.2Dependingonyourtemperament,youmightthink
thisentireincidentwasuncannilyoddordisturbinglyinterestingordownrightirritating.Butstretchyour
imaginationalittlemoreandconsiderhowyoumightthenfeelif,onthesamepagesasthisarticleaboutthe
endofirony,youfoundacompanionarticleabouttheseventypesof(notambiguity,but)nostalgiathatwere
saidtogreetthe"endofirony."

Remember,youaremeinthisexerciseoftheimagination:andyouhavethereforespentnotalittletimeand
energyoverthelastdecadearguingthat(atleastwhatyouwouldliketocall)the"postmodern"haslittleto
dowithnostalgiaandmuchtodowithirony.3Theforcesrangedagainstsuchareadingofpostmodernism
wereformidableintheextreme,4butyouhavealwaysbeenalittlestubborn.Ofcourse,youhavenever
deniedthatalotofcontemporaryculturewasindeednostalgic:youcannotcloseyoureyes(andears)to
everythinggoingonaroundyou.Buttherewasalsolotsofironymaybetoomuchironyandthatiswhat
youhavebeentryingtothinkthroughforthelastfewyears.Butherewasirony'sendandnostalgia's
proliferatingtypessharingnotonlythesamepage,butthesamepopularcultureexamples.What'sworse,to
believetheauthorsofthesearticles,theendofironyseemedactuallytonecessitatethisproliferationof
nostalgia.Now(useyourimagination)wouldyoufeelsomekindofchallengeinallthis?Wouldyoufeelthat
welcome(orunwelcome)senseofunfinishedbusiness?Obviously,Idid.Ithoughtthisissueofthemagazine
wasDestiny,Fate,...andallthoseothercapitalizedmonstrositiesbywhichweexcuseourobsessionsinlife.
Andthisessayrepresentsmyattempttodealwiththisunfinishedbusiness,totrytounderstandwhyIhad
earlierchosentoallbutignorethenostalgicdimensionofthepostmoderninfavouroftheironic.Itcannot
simplybeputdowntothefactthatIamutterlyunnostalgic,thoughthatisapersonalityfaulttowhichI
mustadmit.Iamalsorelativelyunironic(andIcertainlymissmanyironies)ascountlesscolleaguesand
studentsovertheyearshavelearned,muchtotheirconsternationand,nodoubt,amusement.Isimply
believedironytobemorecomplicated,moreinteresting,more"edgy"thannostalgia,andinsobelieving,I
allbutignoredtheveryrealandveryuneasytensionbetweenpostmodernironyandnostalgiatoday.

Thespecificculturalformsofthepostmodernarenotmyonlyfocushere,becauseIalsowanttoconsider
morebroadlycertainformsofcontemporaryculture,notallofwhichcanbeconsideredcomplicitously
criticalanddeconstructingthatis,notallofthemarepostmodern.Butitwaspostmodernismthatbrought
theconjunctionofironyandnostalgiaquiteliterallyintothepubliceyethroughtheformsofitsarchitecture.
Theearlydebatesfocussedpreciselyonthatconjunctioninresponsetopostmodernarchitecture'sdouble
coding,itsdeliberate(ifironized)returntothehistoryofthehumanlyconstructedenvironment.5Thisreturn
wasinreactiontomodernarchitecture'sostentatiousrejectionofthepast,includingthepastofthecity's

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historicalfabric.Thetermsofthedebatewerebasicallyasfollows:wasthispostmodernrecallingofthepast
anexampleofaconservativeandthereforenostalgicescapetoanidealized,simplereraof"real"
communityvalues?6Ordiditexpress,butthroughitsironicdistance,a"genuineandlegitimate
dissatisfactionwithmodernityandtheunquestionedbeliefin...perpetualmodernization"?7Thequestion
soonbecame:howisitthatthesameculturalentitycouldcometobeinterpreted(apparently)sowidely
differentlyastobeseenaseitherironicornostalgic?Orasbothironicandnostalgic?8TheAmerican
televisionseries"AllintheFamily"wasoneexampleofthelatterconflation.Despiteitsallegedly
progressiveintentwhatitscreatorsintendedasironicdebunkingitseemsthatArchieBunkerwaspopular
inlargesegmentsofvariouspopulationsbecauseoftheshow'sconservative,indeedopenlynostalgic,appeal
toattitudesperhapsconsciouslydeniedbutdeeplyfelt.9

Ingeneralculturalcommentaryinthemassmediaasintheacademyironyandnostalgiaarebothseenas
keycomponentsofcontemporaryculturetoday.10Inthe1980s,itwasironythatcapturedourattentionmost
inthe1990s,itappearstobenostalgiathatisholdingsway.DavidLowenthalhasevenassertedthat,while"
[f]ormerlyconfinedintimeandplace,nostalgiatodayengulfsthewholepast."11Perhapsnostalgiaisgiven
surplusmeaningandvalueatcertainmomentsmillennialmoments,likeourown.Nostalgia,themediatell
us,hasbecomeanobsessionofbothmasscultureandhighart.Andtheymayberight,thoughsomepeople
feeltheobsessionisreallythemedia'sobsession.12Yet,howelsedoyouaccountforthereturnofthe
fountainpenasanobjectofconsumerluxuryintheageofthecomputer,whenwehaveallbutforgotten
howtowrite?

Theexplanationsofferedforthiskindofcommercializedluxuriatinginthecultureofthepasthaveranged
fromeconomiccynicismtomoralsuperiority.Theyusuallypointtoadissatisfactionwiththecultureofthe
presentsomethingthatistheneitherapplaudedorcondemned.Leadingtheapplause,anapocalypticGeorge
SteinerclaimsthatthedeclineinformalvaluesystemsintheWesthasleftuswitha"deep,unsettling
nostalgiafortheabsolute."13And,Isuspectmorethanonereaderlongsforatime(intheidealizedpast)
whenknowledgeanditspurveyorshadsomepurchaseandinfluenceonwhatconstitutedvalueinsociety.
Butevenonthelesscontentiouslevelofretrofashionsorvariousothercommercialnostalgias,itdoesappear
thatthe"derogatoryword'dated'seemstohavevanishedfromourlanguage."14Ithasbeentakenoverby
"nostalgic,"awordthathasbeenusedtosignalbothpraiseandblame.But,howeverselfevident(ona
commonsenselevel)itmayseemthatanoftensentimentalizednostalgiaistheveryoppositeofedgyirony,
thepostmoderndebates'conflation(orconfusion)ofthetwoshouldgiveuspause.

Beforebeginningtotacklethisconflation,Ineedtolayoutbrieflythedefinitionsofmyprincipalconcepts
andthetermsofmyargument.Ihavealreadydefinedmyparticularusageoftheterm"postmodern"which
isnotsynonymouswiththecontemporary,butwhichdoeshavesomemixofthecomplicitousandthecritical
atitsambivalentcore.AndIamgoingtotrustthatreaderswillallhavesomesortofsenseofwhat"irony"
meanseitherinitsrhetoricalorNewCriticalmeaningsorinitsmoreextendedsensesofsituationalironyor,
withanhistoricaldimension,of"romantic"irony.Whatexactlyis"nostalgia,"though?Orperhapsthefirst
questionreallyshouldbe:whatWASnostalgia?WithitsGreekrootsnostos,meaning"toreturnhome"and
algos,meaning"pain"thiswordsoundssofamiliartousthatwemayforgetthatitisarelativelynewword,
aswordsgo.Itwascoinedin1688bya19yearoldSwissstudentinhismedicaldissertationasa
sophisticated(orperhapspedantic)waytotalkaboutaliterallylethalkindofseverehomesickness(ofSwiss
mercenariesfarfromtheirmountainoushome).15Thismedicalpathologicaldefinitionofnostalgiaallowed
foraremedy:thereturnhome,orsometimesmerelythepromiseofit.Theexperiencingandtheattributing
ofanostalgicresponseappearedwellbeforethis,ofcourse.Thinkofthepsalmist'srememberingofZion
whileweepingbythewatersofBabylon.Butthetermitselfseemstobeculturallyandhistorically
specific.16

Thisphysicalandemotional"upheaval...relatedtotheworkingsofmemory"anupheavalthatcouldand
didkill,accordingtoseventeenthandeighteenthcenturyphysicianswasseenasa"disorderofthe
imagination"fromthestart.17Butbythenineteenthcentury,aconsiderablesemanticslippagehadoccurred,
andthewordbegantoloseitspurelymedicalmeaning,18inpartbecausetheriseofpathologicanatomyand
bacteriologyhadsimplymadeitlessmedicallycredible.Nostalgiathenbecamegeneralized,19andbythe
twentiethcentury,ithadbeguntoattracttheinterestofpsychiatrists.20Butcuriousthingshappenedinthat
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generalizingprocess:nostalgiabecamelessaphysicalthanapsychologicalconditioninotherwords,it
becamepsychicallyinternalized.Italsowentfrombeingacurablemedicalillnesstoanincurable(indeed
unassuageable)conditionofthespiritorpsyche.21Whatmadethattransitionpossiblewasashiftinsitefrom
thespatialtothetemporal.Nostalgiawasnolongersimplyayearningtoreturnhome.Asearlyas1798,
ImmanuelKanthadnotedthatpeoplewhodidreturnhomewereusuallydisappointedbecause,infact,they
didnotwanttoreturntoaplace,buttoatime,atimeofyouth.22Time,unlikespace,cannotbereturnedto
evertimeisirreversible.Andnostalgiabecomesthereactiontothatsadfact.23Asonecritichassuccinctly
putthischange:"OdysseuslongsforhomeProustisinsearchoflosttime."24

Nostalgia,infact,maydependpreciselyontheirrecoverablenatureofthepastforitsemotionalimpactand
appeal.Itistheverypastnessofthepast,itsinaccessibility,thatlikelyaccountsforalargepartofnostalgia's
powerforbothconservativesandradicalsalike.Thisisrarelythepastasactuallyexperienced,ofcourseit
isthepastasimagined,asidealizedthroughmemoryanddesire.Inthissense,however,nostalgiaisless
aboutthepastthanaboutthepresent.ItoperatesthroughwhatMikhailBakhtincalledan"historical
inversion":theidealthatisnotbeinglivednowisprojectedintothepast.25Itis"memorialized"aspast,
crystallizedintopreciousmomentsselectedbymemory,butalsobyforgetting,andbydesire'sdistortions
andreorganizations.26Simultaneouslydistancingandproximating,nostalgiaexilesusfromthepresentasit
bringstheimaginedpastnear.Thesimple,pure,ordered,easy,beautiful,orharmoniouspastisconstructed
(andthenexperiencedemotionally)inconjunctionwiththepresentwhich,inturn,isconstructedas
complicated,contaminated,anarchic,difficult,ugly,andconfrontational.Nostalgicdistancingsanitizesasit
selects,makingthepastfeelcomplete,stable,coherent,safefrom"theunexpectedandtheuntoward,from
accidentorbetrayal"27inotherwords,makingitsoveryunlikethepresent.Theaestheticsofnostalgia
might,therefore,belessamatterofsimplememorythanofcomplexprojectiontheinvocationofapartial,
idealizedhistorymergeswithadissatisfactionwiththepresent.Anditcandosowithgreatforce.Thinkof
howvisceral,howphysically"present"nostalgia'spromptingsare:itisnotjustProustforwhomtastes,
smells,sounds,andsightsconjureupanidealizedpast.Ifyouarenotlikeme(thatis,ifyouarecapableof
nostalgia),youcanthinkofyourownexperienceor,ifneedbe,doasIhavetodoandthinkofthepowerof
thetasteofProust'smadeleineorthescentofvioletsinTennyson's"Adreamoffairwomen"orofa
geraniumleafinDavidCopperfield.28

Thereare,ofcourse,manywaystolookbackward.Youcanlookandreject.Oryoucanlookandlinger
longingly.Initslookingbackwardinthisyearningway,nostalgiamaybemoreofanattempttodefytheend,
toevadeteleology.Asweapproachthemillennium,nostalgiamaybeparticularlyappealingasapossible
escapefromwhatLeeQuinbycalls"technologicalapocalypse."29Ifthefutureiscyberspace,thenwhat
betterwaytosoothetechnopeasantanxietiesthantoyearnforaMontBlancfountainpen?Butthereisa
ratherobviouscontradictionhere:nostalgiarequirestheavailabilityofevidenceofthepast,30anditis
preciselytheelectronicandmechanicalreproductionofimagesofthepastthatplayssuchanimportantrole
inthestructuringofthenostalgicimaginationtoday,furnishingitwiththepossibilityof"compelling
vitality."31ThankstoCDROMtechnologyand,beforethat,audioandvideoreproduction,nostalgiano
longerhastorelyonindividualmemoryordesire:itcanbefedforeverbyquickaccesstoaninfinitely
recyclablepast.

ThatoriginaltheoryofnostalgiaasamedicalconditionwasdevelopedinEurope"atthetimeoftheriseof
thegreatcitieswhengreatlyimprovedmeansoftransportationmademovementsofthepopulationmuch
easier"32inotherwords,youwouldbemorelikelytobeawayfromhomeandthusyearnforit.The
postmodernversionofnostalgiamayhavebeendeveloped(intheWest,atleast)atthetimewhentheriseof
informationtechnologymadeusquestionnotonly(asJeanFranoisLyotardtolduswemust33)whatwould
countasknowledge,butwhatwouldcountas"thepast"inrelationtothepresent.Wehavenotlackedfor
criticswholamentthedeclineofhistoricalmemoryinourpostmoderntimes,oftenblamingthestorageof
memoryindatabanksforourculturalamnesia,ourinabilitytoengageinactiveremembrance.But,as
AndreasHuyssenhasconvincinglyargued,thecontraryisjustaslikelytobetrue.Inhiswords:"Themore
memorywestoreondatabanks,themorethepastissuckedintotheorbitofthepresent,readytobecalled
uponthescreen,"makingthepastsimultaneouswiththepresentinanewway.34

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Nostalgia,however,doesnotsimplyrepeatorduplicatememory.SusanStewart'sprovocativestudy,On
Longingsuggestivelycallsnostalgiaa"socialdisease,"definingitas"therepetitionthatmournsthe
inauthenticityofallrepetition."35Theargumentisthat,denyingoratleastdegradingthepresentasitis
lived,nostalgiamakestheidealized(andthereforealwaysabsent)pastintothesiteofimmediacy,presence,
andauthenticity.Andheresheapproachesoneofthemajordifferencesbetweennostalgiaandirony.Unlike
theknowingnessofironyamarkofthefallfrominnocence,ifevertherewasonenostalgiais,inthisway,
"prelapsarian"andindeedutopian,saysStewart.36Fewhaveeveraccusedirony(evensatiricirony)of
successfullyreinstatingtheauthenticandtheideal.

Nostalgiahascertainlynotlackedfordefenders,mostofwhomarepsychoanalyticallyoriented.37Thisisnot
surprisingifyouthinkofthesignificantrelationshippsychoanalysispositsbetweenidentityandthepersonal
psychicpastunearthedbymemory.Thisrelationshipbecomesthemodelforthelinkbetweencollective
identityandmemoryforthosewhoseeamovetonostalgictranscendenceandauthenticityasapositive
move.Asonepersoninthiscamphasputit:"Longingiswhatmakesartpossible."38By"longing,"he
meanstheemotionalresponsetodeprivation,loss,andmourning.Nostalgiahas,inthisway,beendeemed
thenecessaryinspirational"creativesorrow"forartists.39Thispositiondrawsontheoriginalseventeenth
centurymeaningoftheworditseesnostalgiainourcenturyasthepositiveresponsetothehomelessness
andexileofbothprivate"nervousdisorderand[public]persecutionofactualenslavementandbarbaric
cruelty."40WhenIthinkofthedisplacedhomelesspeoplesofRwandaorBosnia,however,themore
trivialized,commercializedconnotationsoftheword"nostalgia"dostandinthewayforme.Myfeelings
whenexperiencingthoselushlynostalgicMerchant/Ivoryfilmversionsofearliernovelsmustbedifferent(in
kindandnotonlyindegree)fromtheexperienceofpoliticalrefugeesyearningfortheirhomeland.But
perhapsnot.

Inotherwords,despiteverystrongreservations(basedinpartonpersonalitylimitations),IdoknowthatI
shouldneverunderestimatethepowerofnostalgia,especiallyitsvisceralphysicalityandemotionalimpact.
Butthatpowercomesinpartfromitsstructuraldoublingupoftwodifferenttimes,aninadequatepresent
andanidealizedpast.41ButthisiswhereImustreturntothatotherobsessionofmineironyforironytoo
isdoubled:twomeanings,the"said"andthe"unsaid,"rubtogethertocreateironyandittoopacks
considerablepunch.Peopledonotusuallygetupsetaboutmetaphororsynecdoche,buttheycertainlydoget
workedupaboutirony,astheydidafewyearsagoinToronto,whereIliveandwork,whentheaptlynamed
RoyalOntarioMuseumputonanexhibitionthatusedironytodealwiththerelationshipofCanadian
missionariesandmilitarytoEmpireinAfrica.Sometimes,asweallknowwell,peoplegetupsetbecause
theyarethetargetsorvictimsofirony.Sometimes,though,angereruptsattheseeminginappropriatenessof
ironyincertainsituations.WitnesstheremarksoftheCurriculumAdvisoronRaceRelationsand
MulticulturalismfortheTorontoBoardofEducationatthetime:"Theimpliedcriticismofcolonialintrusion
andthebigotryofthewhitemissionariesandsoldiersreliesheavilyontheuseofirony,asubtleand
frequentlymisunderstoodtechnique.Indealingwithissuesassensitiveasculturalimperialismandracism,
theuseofironyisahighlyinappropriateluxury"especially,Imightadd,whencondemnationiswhatis
expectedanddesired.42

Whatironyandnostalgiashare,therefore,isaperhapsunexpectedtwinevocationofbothaffectandagency
or,emotionandpolitics.Isuspectthatoneofthereasonstheydosoisthattheysharesomethingelsea
secrethermeneuticaffinitythatmightwellaccountforsomeoftheinterpretiveconfusionwithwhichI
began,theconfusionthatsawpostmodernartifacts,inparticular,deemedsimultaneouslyironicand
nostalgic.Iwanttoarguethattocallsomethingironicornostalgicis,infact,lessadescriptionofthe
ENTITYITSELFthananattributionofaqualityofRESPONSE.Ironyisnotsomethinginanobjectthat
youeither"get"orfailto"get":irony"happens"foryou(or,better,youmakeit"happen")whentwo
meanings,onesaidandtheotherunsaid,cometogether,usuallywithacertaincriticaledge.Likewise,
nostalgiaisnotsomethingyou"perceive"inanobjectitiswhatyou"feel"whentwodifferenttemporal
moments,pastandpresent,cometogetherforyouand,often,carryconsiderableemotionalweight.Inboth
cases,itistheelementofresponseofactiveparticipation,bothintellectualandaffectivethatmakesforthe
power.

Becausepeopledonottalkaboutthiselementofactiveattribution,thepoliticsofbothironyandnostalgia
areoftenwrittenoffasquietisticatbest.ButironyiswhatHaydenWhitecalls"transideological":itcanbe

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madeto"happen"by(andto)anyoneofanypoliticalpersuasion.Andnostalgiatooistransideological,
despitethefactthatmanywouldarguethat,whetherusedbytherightortheleft,nostalgiaisfundamentally
conservativeinitspraxis,foritwantstokeepthingsastheywereor,moreaccurately,astheyareimagined
tohavebeen.43But,thenostalgiaforanidealizedcommunityinthepasthasbeenarticulatedbytheecology
movementasoftenasbyfascism,44bywhatJeanBaudrillardcalls"[m]elancholyforsocietieswithout
power."45Fromtheseventeenthcenturyon,nostalgiaseemstohavebeenconnectedtothedesiretoreturn
specificallytothehomeland.InnineteenthcenturyEurope,thathomelandbecamearticulatedintermsofthe
nationstate,andnostalgiabegantotakeonitsassociationswithnationalismandchauvinism.46Evenits
moreinnocentseemingformssuchasthepreparingandeatingoffamiliarfoodsbyimmigrantgroupscan
beseenasanostalgicenactmentofethnicgroupidentity,acollectivedisregarding,atleasttemporarily,of
generationalandotherdivisions.47

Onebraveanthropologisthasclaimedthat,unlikesuchsearchesforethnicity,feminismhas"notendency
towardnostalgia,noillusionofagoldenageinthepast."48Ithasbeensuggestedthatthislackofnostalgic
responseisbecausethenarrativesofnostalgiafromtheBibleonwardaremalestories,Oedipalstories
whicharealienatingtowomen(whousuallyremainathomelikePenelope,whilemenwandertheworldand
riskgettinghomesick).49And,insupportofsuchatheory,literaryandfilmcriticsalikehavelocatedstrains
ofacurrentantifeminist,nostalgicretreattothepastinthefaceofthechangesinculturebroughtaboutby
theriseoffeminism.50Humankindhasnotinfrequentlyrespondedwithanostalgicdefensiveretreatintothe
pastwhenfeelingthreatened:forexample,despiteitsforwardlookingideology,thelatenineteenthcentury
UnitedStatesgavegreatnewvaluetoitsColonialpastasan"exclusiveWASP[WhiteAngloSaxon
Protestant]heritage"inparttocombatthemassimmigrationthatwasaccompanyingindustrializationand
thatfeltsonewandsoun"American."51

Thepoliticsofnostalgiaarenotonlynationalorgenderpolitics,ofcourse.Thinkofthepopularityinthe
1980softheDavidLeanfilmofForster'sAPassagetoIndiaorofTheJewelandtheCrown,thetelevision
adaptationofPaulScott'sTheRajQuartet.Theintendedantinostalgicexposofthecorruptionand
exploitationofempireinIndiamayhavebeenlessthecauseoftheirsuccessthaneitheranostalgicliberal
utopianhopethattworacesmighthavebeenabletoliveasequalsdespitehistoryoranostalgicmemoryof
thetimewhenBritainwasnotaminorworldpowerbut,rather,rulerofanempireuponwhichthesunnever
set.52ThisiswhatRenatoRosaldocalls"imperialnostalgia,"thekindthatmakesracialdominationappear
innocentthrougheleganceofmanners.53But,thisnostalgiaputsus,asviewers,intothesamepositionasthe
veryagentsofempire,fortheytoohavedocumentedatlengththeirparadoxicalnostalgiaforthecultures
theyhadcolonizedinotherwords,theonestheyhadintentionallyandforcefullyaltered.Thisisthe
nostalgiaofthosewhobelievein"progress"andinnovation,anostalgia(again,paradoxically)formore
simple,stableworldssuchasthoseoftheputativelystaticsocietiestheydestroyed.

Postcolonialcriticshavepointedtonostalgicmomentsinthehistoryofthecolonized,too,however.To
some,the"ngritude"moveinAfricanculturaltheory,withitsfocusontheprecapitalist,preimperialpast,
wasthesignofanostalgicsearchforalostcoherence.54ManyoppressedpeopleHolocaustsurvivorsand
NorthAmericanFirstNationspeoplesamongthemhavehadastrongandunderstandablenostalgiaforwhat
isperceivedastheironceunifiedidentity.Butmostoften,thepostcolonialfocusofattentionhasbeenonthe
nostalgiaofthe(usually)Europeancolonizers,ontheirsenseoflossandmourningfortheculturalunityand
centralitytheyoncehad.55But,asFredricJamesonhassaid,"ahistorylessonisthebestcurefornostalgic
pathos."56

Jameson'sownattackonthepostmodernisinitselfworthexamininginthiscontextbecauseitisanattackon
bothitsregressivenostalgiaanditstrivializingirony.OneofJameson'smaintargetsiswhathecallsthe
postmodern"nostalgiafilm"atermthathehasusedtorefertoanythingfromGeorgeLukas'sAmerican
GraffititoLaurenceKasdan'sBodyHeat.Thesearewhathecalls"fashionplate,historicistfilms"thatreveal
"thedesperateattempttoappropriateamissingpast."57Tohim,thesearetheinauthentic,nostalgic
"celebrationsoftheimaginarystyleofarealpast"whichheseesas"somethingofasubstituteforthatolder
systemofhistoricalrepresentation,indeedasavirtualsymptomformation,aformalcompensationforthe
enfeeblementofhistoricityinourowntime."58Thismedicalizedpsychoanalyticlanguage"symptom
formation","compensation"isusedquitedeliberatelybyJamesonbecausehefeelsthatthepostmodern
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tasteforsuchfilmscorrespondstocertainneedsinwhathecalls"ourpresenteconomicpsychic
constitution."59

ButfilmtheoristAnneFriedberghaspointedoutthatwhatJamesonisreallyprotestinghereisthedistanced
relationofeveryfilmfromitshistoricalreferent.Inotherwords,itisthemediumandnotpostmodernism
thatgivestheillusionofa"perpetualpresentinterminablyrecycled."60Or,asDerekJarmanputitwhen
rewritingMarloweinhispostmodernfilmversionofEdwardII,"[f]ilmedhistoryisalwaysa
misinterpretation.Thepastisthepast,asyoutrytomakematerialoutofit,thingsslipevenfurtheraway."61
But,evenifJamesoniswronginwhereheputstheblameforthenostalgia,whatinterestsmeisthat,when
hefindssomethingnostalgicbeitinthetheorizingoftheFrankfurtSchoolorthenovelsofJ.G.Ballard
nostalgiaismeanttobetakennegativelyas"regressive."62Yethisownrhetoricandpositioncanthemselves
attimessoundstrangelynostalgic:inarticleafterarticleinthe1980s,herepeatedlyyearnedforwhathe
called"genuinehistoricity"inthefaceofapostmodernismwhich,inhiswords,was"anelaboratedsymptom
ofthewaningofourhistoricity,ofourlivedpossibilityofexperiencinghistoryinsomeactiveway."63And
yet,itispreciselynostalgiaforthiskindof"lostauthenticity"thathasprovedtimeandtimeagaintobe
paralyzingintermsofhistoricalthinking.64IndeedJameson'spositionhasbeencalledbothregressiveand
defeatist.65IsJameson'simplicitmythologizingandidealizingofamorestable,prelatecapitalist(thatis,
modernist)worldnotinitselfperhapspartofanaesthetics(orevenpolitics)ofnostalgia?Ifso,itisonehe
shareswithhisMarxistpredecessor,GeorgLukcs,forwhomitwasnotmodernismbutrealismthat
constitutedthatimplied"momentofplenitude"66inthepastaroundwhichliteraryhistoricalnostalgia
revolved.

MichaelBrubhas,infact,suggestedthattheLeft,inAmericaatleast,hasattimesrecentlyseemed
paralyzed"bydreamsofdayswhenthingswerebetter."Asheputsit:"itwasonlytherepeatedinterventions
ofwomen,ethnicminoritiesandvariouslyqueertheoriststhatfinallyshatteredthepernicioussenseof
nostalgiatowhichsomanymenontheantipostmodernleftfellvictim."67Nostalgiacancertainlybe,inTim
Reiss'sstrongterms,"functionallycrippling."68Jameson'spreferenceforsciencefictionovertheseperiod
recreation"nostalgia"filmsisabitdeceptive,foritsimplypointstohisorientationtowardtheverycommon
futuristicdimensionofanequallynostalgicutopiandrive.69Ifthepresentisconsideredirredeemable,you
canlookeitherbackorforward.Thenostalgicandutopianimpulsesshareacommonrejectionofthehere
andnow.

Itisnotthatthehereandnow,thepresent,doesnothaveitsproblems,however.All"presents"havealways
hadtheirproblems,butthereislittledoubtthattherehasbeen,inthelastfewdecades,acommercialization
ofnostalgia,especiallyinthemassmedia,acommercializationthatmanyhaveseenasarealevasionof
contemporaryissuesandproblems.70RalphLauren's"Safari"fashionandperfumelineafewyearsago
allowedustoexperiencethenostalgicstyleofanerawithoutbearinganyofitshistoricalcostsitalso
offeredus,asonewriterputit,"achancetorelivethedaysofthetragicallydoomedupperclassengagingin
theirwhitemischiefontheplainsoftheSerengeti"71"livingwithoutboundaries",astheadssaid.Thisisa
combinationofcommercialnostalgiathatteachesustomissthingswehaveneverlostand"armchair
nostalgia"thatexistswithoutanylivedexperienceoftheyearnedfortime.72

Isthispartofthe"postmodern"?Sinceitispartoflatecapitalistculture,Jamesonwouldsayitis.But,to
generalizetheterm"postmodern"intoasynonymforthecontemporaryistoabandonitshistoricaland
culturalspecificityanabandonmentJamesonwouldnevercondoneformodernism,forexample.To
illustratewhatImeanabouttheneedtomakedistinctions,thinkofthedifferencebetweencontemporary
postmodernarchitectureandcontemporaryrevivalist(nostalgic)architecturethepostmodernarchitecture
doesindeedrecallthepast,butalwayswiththekindofironicdoublevisionthatacknowledgesthefinal
impossibilityofindulginginnostalgia,evenasitconsciouslyevokesnostalgia'saffectivepower.Inthe
postmodern,inotherwords,(andhereisthesourceofthetension)nostalgiaitselfgetsbothcalledup,
exploited,andironized.73Thisisacomplicated(andpostmodernlyparadoxical)movethatisbothan
ironizingofnostalgiaitself,oftheveryurgetolookbackwardforauthenticity,and,atthesamemoment,a
sometimesshamelessinvokingofthevisceralpowerthatattendsthefulfilmentofthaturge.74

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Perhapsthehistoryofthewiderculturalentitycalledpostmodernitywouldhelpexplainthisparadox.If,asit
hasbeenarguedoften,nostalgiaisabyproductofculturalmodernity(withitsalienation,itsmuchlamented
lossoftraditionandcommunity),75thenpostmodernity'scomplexrelationshipwithmodernitya
relationshipofbothruptureandcontinuitymighthelpusunderstandthenecessaryadditionofironytothis
nostalgicinheritance.Ithasbecomeacommonplacetocomparetheendofthenineteenthcenturytotheend
ofourown,toacknowledgetheircommondoubtsaboutprogress,theirsharedworriesoverpolitical
instabilityandsocialinequality,theircomparablefearsaboutdisruptivechange.76Butifnostalgiawasan
obviousconsequenceofthelastfindesiclepanic"manifestinidealizationsofrurallife,invernacular
revivalarchitecture,inartsandcraftsmovements,andinasurgeofpreservationactivity"77thensome,not
all(notthecommercialvariety,usually),butsomenostalgiaweareseeingtoday(whatIwanttocall
postmodern)isofadifferentorder,anironizedorder.Ifthenineteenthcenturyturnednostalgicallytothe
historicalnovelsofWalterScottandfamiliarGothicRevivalarchitecture,thetwentiethhascombined
nostalgiawithironytoproducethehistoriographicmetafictionsofSalmanRushdieandhistorically
suggestive,parodicarchitecturalideasofCharlesMoore'soncesplendidPiazzad'ItaliainNewOrleans.
Goneisthesenseofbelatednessofthepresentvisvisthepasttheactofironizing(whilestillimplicitly
invoking)nostalgiaunderminesmodernistassertionsoforiginality,authenticity,andtheburdenofthepast,
evenasitacknowledgestheircontinuing(butnotparalyzing)validityasaestheticconcerns.

Ourcontemporarycultureisindeednostalgicsomepartsofitpostmodernpartsareawareoftherisksand
luresofnostalgia,andseektoexposethosethroughirony.Givenirony'sconjunctionofthesaidandthe
unsaidinotherwords,itsinabilitytofreeitselffromthediscourseitconteststhereisnowayforthese
culturalmodestoescapeacertaincomplicity,toseparatethemselvesartificiallyfromthecultureofwhich
theyareapart.Ifourculturereallyisobsessedwithrememberingandforgettingasissuggestedbythe
astoundinggrowthofwhatHuyssencallsour"memorialculture"withits"relentlessmuseummania,"78then
perhapsironyisone(thoughonlyone)ofthemeansbywhichtocreatethenecessarydistanceand
perspectiveonthatantiamnesiacdrive.Admittedly,thereislittleironyinmostmemorials,andnexttonone
inmosttrulynostalgicreconstructionsofthepastfromDisneyWorld'sMainStreet,USAtothoseelaborate
dramatizedreenactmentsofeverythingfromtheAmericanCivilWartomedievaljoustsrestagedin
contemporaryEngland.ButthereismuchironizednostalgiatooinAngelaCarter'smeditationongender
andthedawnofthetwentiethcenturyinNightsattheCircusorinthewonderfulgenericparadoxofanew
workcommissionedbytheMetropolitanOperaofNewYork:WilliamHofmanandJohnCorigliano'sThe
GhostsofVersailles.Itisironicallyandparadoxicallycalleda"grandoperabuffa"for"grand"istheonly
kindof"intimate"operabuffayoucanputonatthatparticularoperahouse,withitsmorethan3000seats
anditspenchantforspectacleandindeedfor"grandopera."Fromapostmodernpointofview,the
knowingnessofthiskindofironymaybenotsomuchadefenseagainstthepowerofnostalgiaasthewayin
whichnostalgiaismadepalatabletoday:invokedbut,atthesametime,undercut,putintoperspective,seen
forexactlywhatitisacommentonthepresentasmuchasonthepast.

Seenfromthatangle,though,notonlyhaveironyandnostalgiagonehandinhandinthepostmodern,but
perhapstheyhavedonesoforalongtime(asthosewhoworkinearlierperiodsmayknowonlytoowell):
DonQuijotegaveusthosewonderfulironiesofincongruityandinappropriatenesspreciselythroughhis
nostalgiaforachivalricpast.Inlikevein,thealltooreadyattributionofironytosomeonelikeMadonnain
herMarilyn(andmaybeeveninherEvita)phasecannotreallybeseparatedfromnostalgia.Thismayinpart
bebecauseironyandnostalgiaarenotqualitiesofobjectstheyareresponsesofsubjectsactive,
emotionallyandintellectuallyengagedsubjects.Theironizingofnostalgia,intheveryactofitsinvoking,
maybeonewaythepostmodernhasoftakingresponsibilityforsuchresponsesbycreatingasmallpartof
thedistancenecessaryforreflectivethoughtaboutthepresentaswellasthepast.

Endnotes

1.Irony'sEdge:TheTheoryandPoliticsofIrony(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1995).

2.TobyYoungandTomVanderbilt,"TheEndofIrony?"TheModernReview1.14(AprilMay1994):67.

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3.SeeLindaHutcheon,APoeticsofPostmodernism:History,Theory,Fiction(LondonandNewYork:
Routledge,1987)ThePoliticsofPostmodernism(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1988)TheCanadian
Postmodern(Toronto:OxfordUP,1998).

4.Thelistwouldbeendless,butletmesimplynotethemostcitedopponentofthepostmodern,Fredric
Jameson,whose1984essayon"Postmodernism,OrTheCulturalLogicofLateCapitalism"intheNewLeft
Review146(1984):5392inmanywaysprovokedmyownworkinthefield.

5.SeeCharlesJencks,TheLanguageofPostModernArchitecture(London:Academy,1977)andPost
ModernClassicism:TheNewSynthesis(London:Academy,1980).

6.SeeManfredoTafuri,TheoriesandHistoryofArchitecture(London:Granada,1980),529.

7.AndreasHuyssen,"MappingthePostmodern,"reprintedinJosephNatoliandLindaHutcheon,eds.,A
PostmodernReader(Albany:SUNYP,1993),112.

8.Ofcourseinthe1960sSusanSontagcharacterizedcampinpreciselythesetermsinher"Noteson'Camp'"
inAgainstInterpretationandotherEssays(NewYork:Farrar,Straus&Giroux,1966),27592.

9.SeeSherryLynneRosenthal,"FourEssaysontheNostalgicAppealofPopularFiction,Film,and
Television:HardTimes,TheBirthofaNation,TheGrapesofWrath,AllintheFamily."Ph.D.dissertation,
UniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego,1983.

10.SeePeterRist,"Nostalgia:StarsandGenresinAmericanPopCulture,"CanadianReviewofAmerican
Studies20.1(1989):11117.

11.DavidLowenthal,ThePastIsaForeignCountry(Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1985),6.

12.SeeChristopherLasch,"ThePoliticsofNostalgia,"Harper'sMagazine(November1984),68Lowenthal
29SandraErnstMoriartyandAnthonyF.McGann,"NostalgiaandConsumerSentiment,"Journalism
Quarterly60(1983):85ontheimpactofnostalgicprofessionaldesignmagazineadvertisementsonthe
media.

13.GeorgeSteiner,NostalgiafortheAbsolute,MasseyLectures,14thseries(Toronto:CBC,1974),50.

14.RobertRubens,"TheBackwardGlanceAContemporaryTasteforNostalgia,"ContemporaryReview
(September1981):149.

15.JohannesHofer,Dissertatiomedicadenostalgia,oderHeimwehe(Basel,1688),translatedinThe
BulletinoftheInstituteoftheHistoryofMedicine7(1934):37991.

16.Thisisinspiteofearlymedicalattemptstouniversalizeitintosomethingfeltbyallbeingsofallages
andtemperamentsanywhereonthefaceoftheearth.E.g.PhilippePinel'snostalgiaentryinthe
EncyclopdieMthodique:Mdecine,10(Paris:Agasse,1821).SeealsoB.Ruml,"TheoryofNostalgicand
EgoicSentiments,"PsychologicalBulletin30(1933):6567.

17.SeeJeanStarobinski,"TheIdeaofNostalgia,"Diogenes54(1966):81103.Thecitationsarefrompages
90and87respectively.

18.Themedicalmeaningdidseearevival,evidently,duringtheAmericanCivilWar.SeeJ.Theodore
Calhoun,"NostalgiaasaDiseaseofFieldService,"MedicalandSurgicalReporter11(27February1864)
DeWittC.Peters,"RemarksontheEvilsofYouthfulEnlistmentsandNostalgia,"AmericanMedicalTimes
(14February1863).

19.SeeAntonioPrete,"L'assediodellalontananza,"inAntonioPrete,ed.,Nostalgia:storiadiunsentimento
(Milan:RaffaelloCortina,1992),17.

20.Seethediscussionof,amongothers,KarlJaspers'HeimwehundVerbrechen(1909)inStarobinski99
101.

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21.Formoreonthemedicalandpsychologicalangleonnostalgia,seeWillisH.McCann,"NostalgiaA
ReviewoftheLiterature,"PsychologicalBulletin38(1941):16582and"Nostalgia:ADescriptiveand
ComparativeStudy,"JournalofGeneticPsychology62(1943):97104GeorgeRosen,"Nostalgia:A
'Forgotten'PsychologicalDisorder,"ClioMedica10.1(1975):2851.

22.ImmanuelKant,AnthropologieinpragmatischerHinsicht(1798).Morerecently,ithasbeenarguedthat
theappealofthecomicstripinFrenchculturetodayisnostalgiaforchildhood.SeeIrnePennacchioni,La
Nostalgieenimages:unesociologiedurcitdessin(Paris:LibrairiedesMridiens,1982).

23.SeeVladimirJanklvitch'smeditationonthisinL'Irreversibleetlanostalgie(Paris:Flammarion,
1974).

24.JamesPhillips,"Distance,Absence,andNostalgia,"inDonIhdeandHughJ.Silverman,eds.,
Descriptions(Albany:SUNYP,1985),65.

25.M.M.Bakhtin,TheDialogicImagination:FourEssays,ed.MichaelHolquist,trans.CarylEmersonand
MichaelHolquist(Austin:UofTexasP,1881),147.ThankstoRussellKilbournforcallingthistomy
attention.

26.SeePhillips65.

27.Lowenthal62DouglasT.MillerandMarionNowak,TheFifties:TheWayWeReallyWere(NewYork:
Doubleday,1977).

28.Butisthisperhapshownostalgiaonly"masqueradesasmemory,"asonetheoristputsit?SeeE.B.
Daniels,"Nostalgia:ExperiencingtheElusive,"inIhdeandSilverman84.

29.LeeQuinby,AntiApocalypse:ExercisesinGenealogicalCriticism(Minneapolis:UofMinnesotaP,
1994),xvi.

30.MalcolmChaseandChristopherShaw,"TheDimensionsofNostalgia,"inChristopherShawand
MalcolmCross,eds.,TheImaginedPast:HistoryandNostalgia(ManchesterandNY:ManchesterUP,
1989),4.ChaseandShawalsopointoutthatthephotographisthe"paradigmcaseofthemomentof
nostalgia"(9).

31.Lowenthal30.

32.Starobinski1012.

33.SeeJeanFranoisLyotard,ThePostmodernCondition:AReportonKnowledge,trans.GeoffBennington
andBrianMassumi(Minneapolis:UofMinnesotaP,1984).

34.AndreasHuyssen,TwilightMemories:MarkingTimeinaCultureofAmnesia(NewYorkandLondon:
Routledge,1995),253.

35.SusanStewart,OnLonging:NarrativeoftheMiniature,theGigantic,theSouvenir,theCollection
(Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUP,1984),23.

36.Stewart23.

37.See,forinstance,RoderickPeters,"ReflectionsontheOriginandAimofNostalgia,"JournalofAnalytic
Psychology30(1985):13548orNandorFodor,"VarietiesofNostalgia,"PsychoanalyticReview37(1950):
2538.

38.LaurenceLerner,TheUsesofNostalgia:StudiesinPastoralPoetry(London:Chatto&Windus,1972),
52.

39.MichaelM.Mason,"TheCultivationoftheSensesforCreativeNostalgiaintheEssaysofW.H.
Hudson,"Ariel20.1(1989):23.Ithasalsobeencalledour"moralconscience"foritissaidtoletusknow
whatvaluesweholdmostdearandhelpusfight"thesicknessofdespair."SeeRalphHarper,Nostalgia:An
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ExistentialExplorationofLongingandFulfilmentintheModernAge(Cleveland:PofWesternReserveU,
1966),28.

40.Harper21.

41.Allnostalgia,then,wouldbewhatFredDaviscalls"interpretednostalgia"whereinananalysisofan
experience,howeverbrieformistaken,comestobefusedwiththatprimaryexperienceandthusaltersit.See
YearningforYesterday:ASociologyofNostalgia(NewYork:FreeP,1979),25.

42.TheCurriculumAdvisoronRaceRelationsandMulticulturalismfortheTorontoBoardofEducation,
citedin"AnalyzingRacismatROM"inTheVarsity(June1990),4.

43.SeeSusanBennett,PerformingNostalgia:ShiftingShakespeareandtheContemporaryPast(London
andNewYork:Routledge,1996)5161,n.4.

44.SeeAnthonyArblaster,Vivalalibert:PoliticsinOpera(London:Verso,1992),180.

45.JeanBaudrillard,"ThePrecessionofSimulacra,"inNatoliandHutcheon361.Hegoesontocall
nostalgia"thephastasmalparodicrehabilitationofalllostreferentials"(372).

46.SeeJanklvitchKathleenParth,"VillageProse:Chauvinism,Nationalism,orNostalgia?"inSheelagh
DuffinGraham,ed.,NewDirectionsinSovietLiterature(London:Macmillan,1992),10621.

47.SeeRichardRaspa,"ExoticFoodsamongItalianAmericansinMormonUtah:FoodasNostalgic
EnactmentofIdentity,"inLindaKellerBrownandKayMussell,eds.,EthnicandRegionalFoodwaysinthe
UnitedStates:ThePerformanceofGroupIdentity(Knoxville:UofTennesseeP,1984),18594.

48.MichaelM.J.Fischer,"AutobiographicalVoices(1,2,3)andMosaicMemory,"inKathleenAshley,
LeighGilmore,andGeraldPeters,eds.,AutobiographyandPostmodernism(Amherst:UofMassachusettsP,
1994),92.

49.TeresaMariaBrown,"RewritingtheNostalgicStory:Woman,Desire,Narrative,"Ph.D.dissertation,
UniversityofFlorida,1989.

50.SeeJaniceDoaneandDevonHodges,NostalgiaandSexualDifference:TheResistancetoContemporary
Feminism(LondonandNewYork:Methuen,1987),xiii.SeealsoBarbaraCreed,"FromHeretoModernity:
FeminismandPostmodernism,"Screen28.2(1987):4767onfilmnostalgiaandissuesofgenderwhich
FredricJamesondoesNOTdealwith.Foradiscussionofthecondemnationofutopian"futurenostalgia"by
feministwriters,seeKatheDavisFinney,"TheDaysofFuturePastorUtopiansLessingandLeGuinFight
FutureNostalgia,"inDonaldM.Hassler,ed.,PatternsoftheFantastic(MercerIsland,WA:StarmontHouse,
1983),3140.Forageneralcritiqueofvariouskindsofutopianthinking,includingnostalgicones,see
VincentP.Pecora,HouseholdsoftheSoul(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUP,1996).

51.Lowenthal121.

52.OnShakespeare'sroleinthiskindofnostalgia,seeBennett145:"Toreproduceaclassictextofthe
Europeanimperialarchiveisalwaystoriskitswillingandwistfullynostalgicassentto(re)claimitsown
authority.Thosetextsaresimplysoheavilyovercoded,valueladen,thattheproductionandreceptionofthe
'new'textnecessarilybecomesboundtothetraditionthatencompassesandpromotestheold'authentic'
version.Thisremainstheargumentagainsttherevival/rewritingofTheTempestoranyotherclassicaltext:
thatcontainmentisaninevitableeffect."

53.RenatoRosando,CultureandTruth:TheRemakingofSocialAnalysis(Boston:BeaconP,1989),68.
ThankstoMonikaKaupforcallingthistomyattention.

54.SimonSimonse,"AfricanLiteraturebetweenNostalgiaandUtopia:AfricanNovelssince1953inthe
LightoftheModesofProductionApproach,"ResearchinAfricanLiteratures13.4(1982):45187.

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55.SeeIenAng,"HegemonyinTrouble:NostalgiaandtheIdeologyoftheImpossibleinEuropean
Cinema,"inDuncanPetrie,ed.,ScreeningEurope:ImageandIdentityinContemporaryEuropeanCinema
(London:BritishFilmInstitute,1992):2131.

56.FredricJameson,Postmodernism,ortheCulturalLogicofLateCapitalism(Durham,NC:DukeUP,
1991),156.

57.Jameson,Postmodernismxviiand19,respectively.

58.FredricJameson,SignaturesoftheVisible(NewYorkandLondon:Routledge,1990),85and130
respectively.

59.FredricJameson,"NostalgiaforthePresent,"TheSouthAtlanticQuarterly88.2(1989):527.

60.AnneFriedberg,"LesFlaneursduMal(l):CinemaandthePostmodernCondition,"PMLA106.3(1991):
41931.

61.DerekJarman,QueerEdwardII(London:BritishFilmInstitute,1991),86.

62.See,respectively,FredricJameson,TheIdeologiesofTheory:Essays19711986.VolumeI:Situationsof
Theory(Minneapolis:UofMinnesotaP,1988),110andPostmodernism156.

63.Jameson,Postmodernism19and21,respectively.

64.JohnFrow,"TourismandtheSemioticsofNostalgia,"October57(1991):135.

65.SimonDuring,"PostmodernismorPostcolonialismToday,"TextualPractice1.1(1987):3247.

66.SeeFredricJameson,MarxismandForm:TwentiethCenturyDialecticalTheoriesofLiterature
(Princeton:PrincetonUP,1971),38.ThephraseisusedtodescribeAdorno'scritiqueoftheoriesofhistory
organizedaroundthecoverthypothesisofsucha"momentofplenitude"inthepastorfuture.

67.MichaelBrub,"JusttheFax,Ma'am,Or,Postmodernism'sJourneytoDecenter,"VillageVoice
(October1991),14.

68.TimothyJ.Reiss,"CriticalEnvironments:CulturalWildernessorCulturalHistory?"CanadianReviewof
ComparativeLiterature10.2(June1983):193.

69.Butitdoessoatatimewhen,asAndreasHuyssenhasargued,Westernculture'sutopianimagination"is
shiftingfromitsfuturisticpoletowardthepoleofremembrance."SeeHuyssen,TwilightMemories88.

70.SeeAllisonGraham,"History,Nostalgia,andtheCriminalityofPopularCulture,"GeorgiaReview38.2
(1984):34864.SeealsoElizabethWilson,AdornedinDreams:FashionandModernity(London:Virago,
1985,onnostalgiainfashionasa"strangelyunmotivedappropriationofthepast"(172).

71.Vanderbilt7.

72.ThesearethetermsofArjunAppadurai,inhisModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsof
Globalization(Minneapolis:UofMinnesotaP,1996),778.

73.Thisisonestepbeyondwhathasbeencalledtheironicnostalgiaof,say,postSovietartistswho,
accordingtoSvetlanaBoym,"reconfigureandpreservevariouskindsofimaginedcommunityandoffer
interestingculturalhybridsofSovietkitschandmemoriesoftotalitarianchildhood."SeeSvetlanaBoym,
"FromtheRussianSoultoPostCommunistNostalgia,"Representations49(Winter1995):151.

74.TheremaybeanalogiesherewithwhatBennettcalls"queernostalgia"wherein"identityforming
discoursesofthepastarebothconfirmedandfracturedatthemomentofperformance"(159).

75.SeeChaseandShaw7.

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76.SeeLowenthal3946.

77.Lowenthal396.

78.Huyssen,TwilightMemories5seeLaschforcontrastingview:"IfAmericansreallycaredaboutthepast,
theywouldtrytounderstandhowitstillshapestheirideasandactions.Insteadtheylockitupinmuseumsor
reduceittoanotherobjectofcommercializedconsumption"(69).

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