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transforms
45.1 Introduction A transient state will exist in a circuit containing one or more energy
storage elements (i.e., capacitors and inductors) whenever the energy
conditions in the circuit change, until the new steady state condition is
reached. Transients are caused by changing the applied voltage or current,
or by changing any of the circuit elements; such changes occur due to
opening and closing switches. Transients were introduced in Chapter 17
where growth and decay curves were constructed and their equations
stated for step inputs only. In this chapter, such equations are developed
analytically by using both differential equations and Laplace trans-
forms for different waveform supply voltages.
vC
V i.e., capacitor p.d., vc = V 1 e t=CR 45.4
V
0 t where is the steady state current, I.
R
Figure 45.4 This is an exponential decay curve as shown in Figure 45.4.
After a period of time it can be determined from equations (45.4) to (45.6)
that the voltage across the capacitor, vC , attains the value V, the supply
voltage, whilst the resistor voltage, vR , and current i both decay to zero.
V t/CR
(a) From equation (45.6), current, i D e
R
V V 50
Initial current, i.e., when t D 0, i0 D e0 D D
R R 100 103
D 0.5 mA
V t/CR
(b) Current, i D e hence, when time t D 150 ms or 0.15 s,
R
50 9
e0.5/50010 10010 D 0.5 103 e3
3
iD
100 10 3
Discharging a capacitor
If after a period of time the step input voltage V applied to the circuit of
Figure 45.1 is suddenly removed, by opening the switch, then
t
from which, ln vC D Ck 45.7
CR
where k is a constant.
At time t D 0 (i.e., at the instant of opening the switch), vC D V
Substituting t D 0 and vC D V in equation (45.7) gives:
ln V D 0 C k
Substituting k D ln V into equation (45.7) gives:
t
ln vC D C ln V
CR
t
and ln vC ln V D
CR
vC t
ln D
V CR
vC
and D et/CR
V
i.e., the capacitor voltage, vC , decays to zero after a period of time, the
rate of decay depending on CR, which is the time constant, t (see
Section 17.3, page 260). Since vR C vC D 0 then the magnitude of the
resistor voltage, vR , is given by:
vR = Ve t=CR 45.9
dvC d t/CR 1
and since i D C DC Ve D CV et/CR
dt dt CR
V t=CR
i.e., the magnitude of the current, i = e 45.10
R
S
Problem 2. A d.c. voltage supply of 200 V is connected across
+ a 5 F capacitor as shown in Figure 45.5. When the supply is
suddenly cut by opening switch S, the capacitor is left isolated
2 M except for a parallel resistor of 2 M. Calculate the p.d. across the
200 V 5 F
capacitor after 20 s.
di
vL vR
Voltage vL D L and voltage vR D iR
dt
i
di
Hence V D L C iR 45.11
dt
Switch
This is a linear, constant coefficient, first order differential equation.
V
Again, such a differential equation may be solved by separating the
Figure 45.6 variables.
di V iR
Rearranging equation (45.11) gives: D
dt L
di dt
from which, D
V iR L
di dt
and D
V iR L
1 t
Hence lnV iR D C k 45.12
R L
where k is a constant
di
Use the algebraic substitution u D V iR to integrate
V iR
1
At time t D 0, i D 0, thus ln V D 0 C k
R
1
Substituting k D ln V in equation (45.12) gives:
R
1 t 1
lnV iR D ln V
R L R
1 t
Rearranging gives: [ln V lnV iR] D
R L
V Rt
and ln D
V iR L
V Rt
Hence DeL
V iR
V iR 1
and D Rt/L D eRt/L
V e
V iR D VeRt/L
V VeRt/L D iR
Transients and Laplace transforms 907
i
V V
R and current, i= 1 e Rt=L 45.13
R
i = RV 1e Rt/L
(a) From equation (45.13), when t is large, the final, or steady state
current i is given by:
V 110
iD D D 22 A
R 5
V
(b) From equation (45.13), current, i D 1 eRt/L
R
110 3 3
When t D 4 ms, i D 1 e5410 /5010
5
D 221 e0.40 D 220.32968 D 7.25 V
(c) From equation (45.14), the voltage across the resistor,
vR D V1 eRt/L
908 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
3 /50103
When t D 6 ms, vR D 110 1 e[5610
D 1101 e0.60 D 1100.45119 D 49.63 V
(d) From equation (45.15), the voltage across the inductance,
vL D VeRt/L
When t D 6 ms,
3 /50103
vL D 110e5610 D 110 e0.60 D 60.37 V
(Note that at t D 6 ms,
vL C vR D 60.37 C 49.63 D 110 V D supply p.d., V
(e) When current i reaches 15 A,
V
15 D 1 eRt/L from equation (45.13)
R
110 3
i.e., 15 D 1 e5t/5010
5
5
15 D 1 e100t
110
75
and e100t D 1
110
75
Hence 100t D ln 1
110
1 75
and time, t D ln 1
100 100
D 0.01145 s or 11.45 ms
Current decay
If after a period of time the step voltage V applied to the circuit of
Figure 45.6 is suddenly removed by opening the switch, then from equa-
tion (45.11),
di
C iR 0DL
dt
di di iR
Rearranging gives: L D iR or D
dt dt L
di R
Separating the variables gives: D dt
i L
di R
and integrating both sides gives: D dt
i L
R
ln i D t C k 45.16
L
Transients and Laplace transforms 909
V Rt=L
and current, i = Ie Rt=L or e 45.17
R
di d V Rt/L
The voltage across the coil, vL D L DL e
dt dt R
from equation (45.17)
V R Rt/L
DL e
R L
(a) When the supply is cut off, the circuit consists of just the 10
resistor and the 2 H coil in parallel. This is effectively the same
Figure 45.8 circuit as Figure 45.6 with the supply voltage zero.
910 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
V Rt/L
From equation (45.17), current i D e
R
V
In this case D 5 A, the initial value of current.
R
When i D 200 mA or 0.2 A,
0.2 D 5e10t/2
0.2
i.e., D e5t
5
0.2
thus ln D 5t
5
1 0.2
and time, t D ln D 0.644 s or 644 ms
5 5
(b) Since the current through the coil can only return through the 10
resistance, the voltage across the resistor is a maximum at the
moment of disconnection, i.e.,
vRm D IR D 510 D 50 V
45.4 LR C series For the circuit shown in Figure 45.9, from Kirchhoffs voltage law,
circuit response
V D vL C vR C vC 45.20
i L R
di dvC d dvC d vC
2
vL D L and i D C , hence vL D L C D LC
vL vR dt dt dt dt dt2
V
vC dvC dvC
C vR D iR D C R D RC
dt dt
d2 vC dvC
V D LC C RC C vC 45.21
dt2 dt
This is a linear, constant coefficient, second order differential
equation.(For the solution of second order differential equations, see
Higher Engineering Mathematics).
To determine the transient response, the supply p.d., V, is made equal
to zero,
d2 vC dvC
i.e., LC C RC C vC D 0 45.22
dt2 dt
A solution can be found by letting vC D Aemt , from which,
dvC dvC
D Amemt and D Am2 emt
dt dt2
Transients and Laplace transforms 911
m2 LC C mRC C 1 D 0 45.23
(i) two different real roots, when R/2L2 > 1/LC, when the circuit
is said to be overdamped since the transient voltage decays very
slowly with time, or
(ii) two real equal roots, when R/2L2 D 1/LC, when the circuit is
said to be critically damped since the transient voltage decays in
the minimum amount of time without oscillations occurring, or
(iii) two complex roots, when R/2L2 < 1/LC, when the circuit is
said to be underdamped since the transient voltage oscillates about
the final steady state value, the oscillations eventually dying away
to give the steady state value, or
(iv) if R = 0 in equation (45.24), the oscillations would continue
indefinitely without any reduction in amplitude this is the
undamped condition.
Damping in discussed again in Section 45.8 with typical current responses
sketched in Figure 45.28 on page 947.
2 2
R 103 1012
(a) D D D 6.25 1010
2L 22 103 16
1 1 109
D D D 108
LC 2 10 5 10
3 6 10
2
R 1
Since > the circuit is overdamped.
2L LC
1 1
(b) When C D 5 nF, D D 1011
LC 2 103 5 109
2
R 1
Since < the circuit is underdamped.
2L LC
2
R 1
For critical damping: D
2L LC
from which, capacitance ,
1 1 4L 2 4L
C D 2 D 2
D 2
D 2
R R LR R
L L 2
2L 4L
42 103
D D 8 109 F or 8 nF
103 2
(i) when the roots are real and different, say m D and m D , the
general solution is
vC = Ae at Y Be bt 45.25
2
R R 1
where D C and
2L 2L LC
2
R R 1
D
2L 2L LC
Transients and Laplace transforms 913
(ii) when the roots are real and equal, say m D twice, the general
solution is
vC = .At Y B /e at 45.26
R
where D
2L
(iii) when the roots are complex, say m D j, the general solu-
tion is
To determine the actual expression for the voltage under any given initial
condition, it is necessary to evaluate constants A and B in terms of vC
and current i. The procedure is the same for each of the above three
cases. Assuming in, say, case (iii) that at time t D 0, vC D v0 and iD
CdvC /dt D i0 then substituting in equation (45.27):
v0 D e0 fA cos 0 C B sin 0g
i.e., v0 D A 45.29
i0 C av0
from which, B = 45.31
Cb
2
2
R 90 1 1
D D 900 and D D 1.333 105
2L 21.5 LC 1.55 106
2
R 1
Since < the circuit is underdamped.
2L LC
From equation (45.28),
R 90
D D D 30
2L 21.5
2
1 R
and D D [1.333 105 900] D 363.9
LC 2L
dvC
Current, i D C , and from equation (45.30),
dt
i D Cfe30t [10363.9 sin t C 0.8244363.9 cos t]
C 10 cos t C 0.8244 sin t30e30t g
D Cfe30t [3639 sin t C 300 cos t 300 cos t
24.732 sin t]g
D Ce30t [3663.732 sin t]
D 5 106 3663.732e30t sin t
45.5 Introduction to The solution of most electrical problems can be reduced ultimately to
Laplace transforms the solution of differential equations and the use of Laplace transforms
provides an alternative method to those used previously. Laplace trans-
forms provide a convenient method for the calculation of the complete
response of a circuit. In this section and in Section 45.6 the technique
of Laplace transforms is developed and then used to solve differential
equations. In Section 45.7 Laplace transforms are used to analyse transient
responses directly from circuit diagrams.
Transients and Laplace transforms 915
There are various commonly used notations for the Laplace transform of
ft and these include L fftg or Lfftg or L f or Lf or fs
Also the letter p is sometimes used instead of s as the parameter. The
notation used in this chapter will be ft for the original function and
L fftg for its Laplace transform,
1
i.e., L fftg D est ftdt 45.32
0
1
(v) when f .t/ = cos !t, L fcos tg D 0 est cos t dt
1
est
D sin t s cos t
s2 C 2 0
by integration by parts twice
s
D 2 provided s > 0
s Y !2
A list of standard Laplace transforms is summarized in Table 45.1 on
page 917. It will not usually be necessary to derive the transforms as
above but merely to use them.
The following worked problems only require using the standard list of
Table 45.1.
1 1
(a) L f1 C 2t t4 g D L f1g C 2L ftg L ft4 g
3 3
1 1 1 4!
D C2 2
s s 3 s4C1
from 2, 7 and 9 of Table 45.1
1 2 1 4321
D C 2
s s 3 s5
1 2 8
D C 2 5
s s s
(b) L f5e2t 3et g D 5L fe2t g 3L fet g
1 1
D5 3 from 3 of Table 45.1
s2 s 1
5 3 5s C 1 3s 2
D D
s2 sC1 s 2s C 1
2s C 11
D 2
s s 2
1. (unit impulse) 1
1
2. 1 (unit step function)
s
1
3. eat (exponential function)
sa
esT
4. unit step delayed by T
s
5. sin t (sine wave)
s2 C 2
s
6. cos t (cosine wave)
s2 C 2
1
7. t (unit ramp function)
s2
2!
8. t2
s3
n!
9. tn n D 1, 2, 3..
snC1
s
10. cosh t
s2 2
11. sinh t
s2 2
n!
12. eat tn
s anC1
13. eat sin t (damped sine wave)
s C a2 C 2
sCa
14. eat cos t (damped cosine wave)
s C a2 C 2
15. eat sinh t
s C a2 2
sCa
16. eat cosh t
s C a2 2
918 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
V
1 10
10 (a) From 2 of Table 45.1, L f10g D 10L f1g D 10 D
s s
The waveform is shown in Figure 45.10 (a).
0 t (b) From 4 of Table 45.1, a step function of 10 V which is delayed by
(a) t D 5 s is given by:
V esT e5s 10 5s
10 D 10 D e
10 s s s
This is, in fact, the function starting at t D 0 given in part (a), i.e.,
0 5 t
10/s multiplied by esT , where T is the delay in seconds.
Figure 45.10
fProblem
8 V which
11. starts at timethe Laplace transforms of the following
Determine
waveforms:
(a) an impulse voltage o tD0
(b) an impulse voltage o tD2s
(c) a sinusoidal current of 4 A and angular frequency 5 rad/s
which starts at time t D 0
Transients and Laplace transforms 919
t
Thus, for example, if ft D v D Ve CR and if, say,
V D 10 and CR D 0.5, then
ft D v D 10e2t
1
L fftg D 10
sC2
from 3 of Table 45.1
s
sL fftg D 10
sC2
From the initial value theorem, the initial value of ft is given by:
1
10 D 101 D 10
1C2
Transients and Laplace transforms 921
The initial and final value theorems are used in pulse circuit applica-
tions where the response of the circuit for small periods of time, or the
behaviour immediately the switch is closed, are of interest. The final value
theorem is particularly useful in investigating the stability of systems
(such as in automatic aircraft-landing systems) and is concerned with the
steady state response for large values of time t, i.e., after all transient
effects have died away.
45.6 Inverse Laplace 1 1
Since from 2 of Table 45.1, L f1g D then L 1 =1
transforms and the s s
solution of differential where L 1 means the inverse Laplace transform.
equations
Similarly, since from 5 of Table 45.1,
!
L fsin tg D then L 1 2 = sin !t
s2 C 2 s Y !2
1 1 1 1 1 3
(a) L DL D L 1
s2 C 9 s 2 C 32 3 s 2 C 32
1 1 3 1
and from 5 of Table 45.1, L D sin 3t
3 s C 32
2 3
5 5 5 1 5 1
(b) L 1 D L 1 D L 1 D e 3t
3s 1
1 3 1 3
3s
s
3 3
from 3 of Table 45.1
922 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
1 2
(a) From 8 of Table 45.1, L D t2
s3
1 6 1 2
Hence L D 3L D 3t 2
s3 s3
(b) From 9 of Table 45.1, if s is to have a power of 4 then n D 3.
3! 6
Thus L 1 4
D t3 , i.e., L 1 4 D t 3
s s
3 1 6 1
Hence L 1 4 D L 1 4 D t 3
s 2 s 2
7s 4s
Problem 16. Determine (a) L 1 (b) L 1
s2 C 4 s2 16
7s s
(a) L 1 D 7L 1
s C4
2 s C 22
2
2
Problem 17. Find L 1
s 35
n!
From 12 of Table 45.1, L 1 D eat tn
s anC1
1 1 at n
Thus L 1 D e t
s anC1 n!
2
and comparing with L 1 shows that n D 4 and a D 3.
s 35
1 2 1 1 1 3t 4
Hence L D 2L D2 e t
s 35 s 35 4!
D 1 3t 4
12
e t
Transients and Laplace transforms 923
3 3
(a) L 1 D L 1
s2 4s C 13 s 22 C 32
D e 2t sin 3t from 13 of Table 45.1
2s C 1 2s C 1
(b) L 1 D L 1
s2 C 2s C 10 s C 12 C 32
D 2e t cos 3t from 14 of Table 45.1
Note that in solving these examples the denominator in each case has
been made into a perfect square.
4s 5
Problem 19. Determine L 1
s s2
2
924 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
4s 5 4s 5 A B
C
s2 s 2 s 2s C 1 s 2 s C 1
As C 1 C Bs 2
D
s 2s C 1
Hence 4s 5 D As C 1 C Bs 2
When s D 2, 3 D 3A from which, A D 1
When s D 1, 9 D 3B from which, B D 3
4s 5 1 3
Hence L 1 L 1 C
s s2
2 s2 sC1
1 3
D L 1 C L 1
s2 sC1
D e 2t Y 3e t from 3 of Table 45.1
1 3s3 C s2 C 12s C 2
Problem 20. Find L
s 3s C 13
3s3 C s2 C 12s C 2 A B C D
C C C
s 3s C 13 s 3 s C 1 s C 12 s C 13
5s2 C 8s 1
Problem 21. Determine L 1
s C 3s2 C 1
D 2e 3t Y 3 cos t sin t
from 3, 6 and 5 of Table 45.1
d 2y dy dy
2 C5 3y D 0, given that when x D 0, y D 4 and D9
d x2 dx dx
926 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
d 2y dy
(i) 2L C 5L 3L fyg D L f0g
d x2 dx
8s C 38 8s C 38 A B
Let D D C
2s2 C 5s 3 2s 1s C 3 2s 1 s C 3
As C 3 C B2s 1
D
2s 1s C 3
Hence 8s C 38 D As C 3 C B2s 1
When s D 12 , 42 D 3 21 A from which, A D 12
When s D 3, 14 D 7B from which, B D 2
8s C 38 12 2
Hence y D L 1 L 1
2s2 C 5s 3 2s 1 s C 3
1 12 2
DL L 1
2s 12 sC3
Hence y = 6e .1=2/x 2e 3x from 3 of Table 45.1.
d2 y dy dy
2
C6 C 13y D 0, given that when x D 0, y D 3 and D 7
dx dx dx
3s C 25 3s C 3 C 16
D L 1 D L 1
s C 32 C 22 s C 32 C 22
1 3s C 3 1 82
DL CL
s C 32 C 22 s C 32 C 22
D 3e3t cos 2t C 8e3t sin 2t
i.e., iR C vc D 0
d vc
i.e., C R C vc D 0
dt
d vc
i.e., CR C vc D 0
dt
Using the procedure:
d vc
(i) L CR C L fvc g D L f0g
dt
i.e., CR[sL fvc g v0 ] C L fvc g D 0
(ii) v0 D V, hence CR[sL fvc g V] C L fvc g D 0
(iii) Rearranging gives: CRsL fvc g CRV C L fvc g D 0
i.e., CRs C 1L fvc g D CRV
CRV
hence L fvc g D
CRs C 1
928 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
CRV
(iv) Capacitor voltage, vc D L 1
CRs C 1
1
D CRVL 1
1
CR s C
CR
CRV 1 1
D L
CR
1
sC
CR
i.e., vc = Ve .t=CR/ as previously obtained in equation (45.8) on
page 905.
di
vR C vL D V becomes iR C L DV
dt
V A B AR C Ls C Bs
Let C D
sR C Ls s R C Ls sR C Ls
V V/R VL/R
Hence L 1 D L 1 C
sR C Ls s R C Ls
V VL
D L 1
Rs RR C Ls
V 1 V 1
DL 1
R R
R s Cs
L
V 1 1 1
D L
R
R
s sC
L
V
Hence current, i = .1 e Rt=L / as previously obtained in equa-
R
tion (45.13), page 907.
Vs D RIs
Time i R Vs
domain Hence, in the s-domain Rs D DR
+ Is
v
(Note that Vs merely means that it is the Laplace transform of v and
I (s) R Is is the Laplace transform of i. Whenever the Laplace transform of
s-domain
+ functions is taken it is referred to as the s-domain as opposed to the
V(s) time domain)
The resistor is shown in Figure 45.12 in both the time domain and the
Figure 45.12 s-domain.
Inductor
If an inductor has no initial current, i.e., i D 0 at time t D 0, the normal
equation is v D Ldi/dt where L is the inductance
The Laplace transform of the equation is:
Vs D L[sIs i0] from equation 45.33
i L
Time
domain + and as i0 D 0 then Vs D sLIs
v Thus the impedance of the inductor in the s-domain is given by:
I (s) sL Vs
s-domain Zs D D sL
+ Is
V(s)
The inductor is shown in Figure 45.13 in both the time domain and the
Figure 45.13 s-domain.
Capacitor
If a capacitor has no initial voltage, i.e., v D 0 at time t D 0, the normal
equation is i D Cdv/dt
Transients and Laplace transforms 931
i C The capacitor is shown in Figure 45.14 in both the time domain and the
Time
domain + s-domain.
v Summarising, in the time domain, the circuit elements are R, L and C
1 and in the s-domain, the circuit elements are R, sL and .1=sC /
s-domain
I (s) sC Note that the impedance of L is XL D jL and the impedance of C is
+
Xc D j/C D 1/jC
V(s) Thus, just replacing j with s gives the s-domain expressions for L
and C. (Because of this apparent association with j, s is sometimes called
Figure 45.14 the complex frequency and the s-domain called the complex frequency
domain).
1
In the s-domain the impedance of a capacitor is hence
sC
1 1 2 105
Zs D Z or Z or Z
s.5 106 / 5 106 s s
Figure 45.16 V
D RIs C vc s 45.35
s
1
D RIs C Is
sC
V 1
i.e., D Is R C
s sC
V/s V/s
Is D D
1 1
RC R 1C
sC RsC
V V
D i.e., Is D 45.36
1 1
sR 1 C R sC
RsC RC
V
(iv) Hence current, i D L 1 fIsg D L 1 1
R sC
RC
1
V 1
D L 1
R sC
RC
1 1
since L 1 D eat then L 1 D eat from 3
sa sCa
of Table 45.1. Hence
V .1=RC /t V
current, i = e = e t=RC
R R
as previously obtained in equation (45.6), page 903.
V
(b) From equation (45.35), vc s D RIs and from equation (45.36),
s
V
V
vc s D R 1
s R sC
RC
1 1
V V
D DV s 1
s 1 sC
sC RC
RC
934 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
1 1
1
Hence vc D L fvc sg D L 1
V
s
1
sC
RC
t=RC
i.e., vc = V .1 e / from 2 and 3 of Table 45.1,
as previously obtained in equation (45.4), page 903.
dvc
Alternatively, current, i D C , hence
dt
t
V t/RC
e t/RC
t i t V e
vc D dt D R dt D
0 C 0 C RC 1
RC 0
D V[et/RC ]t0 D V[et/RC e0 ] D V[et/RC 1]
i.e., Vc = V .1 e t=RC /
i R
V
V vC
C 1 t C
Figure 45.17
V V VC
(iii) Hence Is D D D
1 s2
s1 C sRC
s2 R C RsC C 1
sC sC
Transients and Laplace transforms 935
VC A B
Using partial fractions: D C
s1 C sRC s 1 C sRC
A1 C sRC C Bs
D
s1 C sRC
VC VC
1s
1 sC
(b) Capacitor voltage, vc s D Is D RC
sC sC
from equation (45.37)
V V
D 2
s 1
s sC
RC
V A B
Using partial fractions: D C
1 s 1
s sC sC
RC RC
1
A sC C Bs
RC
D
1
s sC
RC
936 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
1
hence V D A s C C Bs
RC
When s D 0
1
VDA C 0 from which, A D VCR
RC
1
When s D
RC
1
VD0CB from which, B D VCR
RC
Thus
V V
vc s D
s2 1
s sC
RC
VCR VCR
V
D 2 s 1
s sC
RC
V VCR VCR
D C
s2 s 1
sC
RC
Figure 45.19 Problem 32. Determine for the RL series circuit shown in
Figure 45.19 expressions for current i, inductor voltage vL and
resistor voltage vR when a step voltage V is applied to the input
I(s) SL
terminals.
vL(s)
V R vR(s) Using the procedure:
s
(i) The s-domain circuit is shown in Figure 45.20.
V
(ii) Using Kirchhoffs voltage law: D IssL C IsR
Figure 45.20 s
Transients and Laplace transforms 937
V/s V
(iii) Current I(s) D D
R C sL sR C sL
V V/L
D D
R R
sL s C s sC
L L
Using partial fractions:
R
A sC C Bs
V/L A B
D C D L
R s R R
s sC sC s sC
L L L
V R
Hence DA sC C Bs
L L
V R V
When s D 0 DA C 0 from which, A D
L L R
R V R V
When s D D0CB from which, B D
L L L R
V/L V/R V/R
Hence Is D D 45.38
R s R
s sC sC
L L
V/R V/R V V Rt
(iv) Current i D L 1 D e L
R
s sC R R
L
vL s D IssL
V/R V/R
D sL
from equation (45.38)
s R
sC
L
VL VL
s
D
R R R
sC
L
938 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
1
R
sC s
s L R
needs to be divided out: sC
R
sC L
L R
L
s R/L
Thus 1
R R
sC sC
L L
VL VL
Hence vL s D 1 R/L
R R R
sC
L
VL VL VL
R/L
D C
R R R R
sC
L
VL R
1 D V 1
D
R L R R
sC sC
L L
1 1
Thus inductor current vL D L 1
V
D VL
1
R
R
sC s C
L L
i.e., vL = Ve Rt=L
SL
Problem 33. For the circuit of Figure 45.19 of Problem 32, a
vL(s) ramp of V volts/s is applied to the input terminals, instead of a
V R v R ( s) step voltage. Determine expressions for current i, inductor vL and
s2 resistor voltage vR
Figure 45.21 (i) The circuit for the s-domain is shown in Figure 45.21.
Transients and Laplace transforms 939
V
(ii) From Kirchhoffs voltage law: D IsR C sL
s2
V V V/L
(iii) Current Is D 2 D D
s R C sL R R
s L sC
2 s sC
2
L L
Using partial fractions:
V/L A B C
D C 2 C
R s s R
s2 sC sC
L L
R R
As s C CB sC C Cs2
L L
D
R
s2 s C
L
V R R
from which, D As s C CB sC C Cs2
L L L
V R V
when s D 0, D0CB C 0 from which, B D
L L R
2
R V R
when s D , D0C0CC from which,
L L L
V L2 VL
CD D
L R2 R2
VL
Equating s2 coefficients: 0 D A C C from which, A D C D
R2
V/L A B C
Thus Is D D C 2C
R s s R
s2 sC sC
L L
VL/R2 V/R VL/R2
D C 2 C 45.39
s s R
sC
L
VL 1 1 V 1 1
(iv) Current, i D L 1 fIsg D L C L
R2 s R s2
VL 1 1
C L
R2
R
sC
L
VL V VL
D 2
1 C t C 2 eRt/L
R R R
from 2, 7 and 3 of Table 45.1
940 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
V VL
i.e., i= t 2 .1 e .Rt=L/ /
R R
Inductor voltage,
VL/R 2
V/R VL/R 2
vL s D IssL D sL
C C
s s2 R
sC
L
from equation (45.39) above
VL 2 VL/R VL2 /R2 s
D C C
R2 s R
sC
L
VL 2 VL VL 2 s
D C C 2
R 2 sR R R
sC
L
s
The division was shown on page 938,
R
sC
L
R/L
and is equivalent to 1
R
sC
L
VL2
VL VL R/L 2
Hence vL s D C C 2
1
R 2 sR R R
sC
L
VL VL R
2
1
D VL VL 1
D 2
sR R L R sR R R
sC sC
L L
VL 1 1 VL 1 1
Thus vL D L 1 fvL sg D L L
R s R
R
sC
L
VL VL Rt/L VL
i.e., inductor voltage, vL D e D 1 e .Rt=L/
R R R
VL/R 2
V/R VL/R 2
Resistor voltage, vR s D IsR D R
C C
s s 2 R
sC
L
from equation (45.39)
Transients and Laplace transforms 941
VL V VL
D C 2 C
sR s R
R sC
L
VL V VL
hence vR D L 1 C 2C
sR s R
R sC
L
VL VL Rt/L
D C Vt C e
R R
from 2, 7 and 3 Table 45.1
VL
i.e., vR D Vt .1 e .Rt =L/ /
R
i L
(i) The circuit is shown in Figure 45.22 and the s-domain circuit
V is
shown inFigure 45.23, the 10 sin t input voltage becoming
10
0 R 10 2 in the s-domain from 5 of Table 45.1
10 t
s C 2
10
(ii) From Kirchhoffs voltage law: D IssL C IsR
Figure 45.22 s2 C 2
10 10
(iii) Hence current, Is D D
s2 C 2 R C sL R
I(s) sL s2 C 2 L s C
L
10/L
D
w R
10 2
s + w2
R s2 C 2 s C
L
Using partial fractions:
Figure 45.23
10/L As C B C
D C
R s2 C 2 R
s2 C 2 s C sC
L L
R
As C B s C C C s2 C 2
L
D R
s C
2 2 sC
L
942 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
10 R
hence D As C B s C C Cs2 C 2
L L
2
R 10 R
When s D D0CC C 2
L L L
10 10
from which, C D D
R2 L 2
L C 2 R C L 2
L2 L2
10L
D
R2 C 2 L 2
Equating s2 coefficients,
10L
0 D A C C, from which, A D C D
R2 C 2 L 2
10 R
Equating constant terms, DB C C2
L L
10 R
C2 D B
L L
L 10
from which, B D C2
R L
10 L2 10L
D
R R R2 C 2 L 2
10R2 C 2 L 2 L2 10L
D
RR2 C 2 L 2
Hence
10/L As C B C
Is D D C
R s2 C 2 R
s2 C 2 s C sC
L L
10L 10R 10L
sC
R2 C 2 L 2 R2 C 2 L 2 R2 C 2 L2
D C
s2 C 2 R
sC
L
Transients and Laplace transforms 943
10
D L sL
C 2
R
R2 C L
2 2 R s C s C
2 2 2
sC
L
4 100 mH
Problem 35. In the series-parallel network shown in Figure 45.24,
a 5 V step voltage is applied at the input terminals. Determine an
expression to show how current i varies with time.
10
104 C 0.1s 40 C s
15 In the sdomain, Zs D 15 C D 15 C
10 C 4 C 0.1s 14 C 0.1s
28 A B
Using partial fractions: D C
ss C 100 s s C 100
As C 100 C Bs
D
ss C 100
45.8 LR C series An L RC series circuit is shown in Figure 45.25 with a step input
circuit using Laplace voltage V. In the s-domain, the circuit components are as shown in
transforms Figure 45.26 and if the step is applied at time t D 0, the s-domain supply
voltage is V/s.
V 1
Hence D Is R C sL C
s sC
from which, current,
V/s V/s
Is D D
R C sL C 1/sC 1/s sR C s2 L C 1/C
V V
D D 2
sR C s2 LC 1/C L s C sR/L C 1/LC
V/L
D 2
s C R/Ls C 1/LC
V/L
Hence Is D 2 2
R R 1 R
s2 C s C C
L 2L LC 2L
L R C
R 1
I(s) sL sC
i
V V
s
V/L
D 45.40
2
1 2 2
R R
sC C
2L LC 2L
2
1 R
V/L LC 2L
or Is D
2 2 2 2
1 R R 1 R
sC C
LC 2L 2L LC 2L
45.41
5 0.1 H 20 F
2V
Figure 45.27
2 2
and current Is D D
5 10 4 5s C 0.1s2 C 5 104
s 5 C 0.1s C
s
946 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
2 20
D D
5 5 10 4 s2 C 50s C 5 105
0.1 s2 C sC
0.1 0.1
20
D 02 1 0 1
s C 50s C 25 C 5 105 252
2
20
D
s C 252 C 499 3752
p
20 499 375
Dp
499 375 s C 252 C 4993752
20 706.7
D
706.7 s C 252 C 706.72
Damping
The expression for current Is in equation (45.40) has four possible solu-
tions, each dependant on the values of R, L and C.
Solution 1. When R D 0, the circuit is undamped and, from equa-
tion (45.40),
V/L
Is D
1
s2 C
LC
1
From Chapter 28, at resonance, r D hence
LC
V/L V r
Is D D
s2 C r2 r L s2 C r2
V
Hence current, i D L 1 fIsg D sin !r t from 5 of Table 45.1
!r L
V
which is a sine wave of amplitude and angular velocity r rad/s.
r L
This is shown by curve A in Figure 45.28.
Transients and Laplace transforms 947
i A
B
C
+
D
0 t
Figure 45.28
R 2 1
Solution 2. When < , the circuit is underdamped and the
2L LC
current i is as in equation (45.41). The current is oscillatory which is
decaying exponentially. This is shown by curve B in Figure 45.28.
2
R 1
Solution 3. When D , the circuit is critically damped and
2L LC
from equation (45.40),
V/L 1 V/L
Is D 2 and current, i D L
R
R 2
sC sC
2L 2L
V .Rt=2L/
D te 45.42
L
from 12 of Table 45.1
The current is non-oscillatory and is as shown in curve C in Figure 45.28.
2
R 1
Solution 4. When > , the circuit is overdamped and from
2L LC
equation (45.40),
V/L
Is D
2 2
2
R R 1
sC
2L 2L LC
948 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
2
R 1
V/L 2L LC
D
2
2 2 R 2
R 1 R 1
sC
2L LC 2L 2L LC
2 2
R 8 1 1
(a) D D 16 and D D 20000
2L 21 LC 150 106
2
R 1
Since < the circuit is underdamped
2L LC
2
R 1
(b) When < , equation (45.41) applies,
2L LC
2
V/L 1 R
i.e., i D 2 e
Rt/2L
sin t
1 R LC 2L
LC 2L
10/1 p
D p e4t sin 20000 16t
20000 16
i.e., i D 0.0707e 4t sin 141.4t A
2
2
R 100
(a) D D 13972
2L 20.423
1 1
and D D 13972
LC 0.423169.2 106
R 2 1
Since D the circuit is critically damped.
2L LC
(b) From equation (45.42), current
V 2
i D teRt/2L D te100/20.423t
L 0.423
t e 118.2t
i.e., i D 4.73 ircuit it isApossible, at time
B
The L R circuit with a step voltage applied to the input is shown in
Figure 45.31 Figure 45.31.
950 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
A
L Using Kirchhoffs voltage law:
di
V D iR C L 45.44
R dt
If the step voltage is removed the circuit of Figure 45.32 results.
B The s-domain circuit is shown in Figure 45.33 where the inductor is
considered as an impedance sL in series with a voltage source LI0 with
Figure 45.32 its direction as shown.
di
If V D 0 in equation (45.44) then 0 D iR C L
dt
sL i.e., 0 D IsR C L[sIs I0 ]
I(s)
D IsR C sLIs LI0 which verifies Figure 45.33
LI0
R In this case I0 D V/R, the steady state current before the step voltage
was removed.
V
Hence 0 D IsR C sLIs L
Figure 45.33 R
LV
i.e., D IsR C sL
R
VL/R
and Is D
R C sL
VL/R V/R
D D
L s C R/L s C R/L
1 V/R V
Hence current i D L D e .Rt=L/
s C R/L R
dv
(b) For a capacitor: iDC
dt
The Laplace transform of this equation is:
I(s) The 2 F capacitor will have become fully charged to 50 V after a period
1
6 of time. When the switch is changed from x to y the charged capacitor can
2 10 s
be considered to be a voltage generator of voltage 50/s. The s-domain
1 k
circuit is shown in Figure 45.39.
50 Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law in the s-domain gives:
s
50 1
D Is 103 C
Figure 45.39 s 2 106 s
952 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
50/s 50
from which, Is D D
5 10 5 103 s C 5 105
103 C
s
50/103 0.05 1
D D D 0.05
103 s 5 10 5 s C 500 s C 500
C
103 103
S 2A
E 0.5 H
Figure 45.41