11 Aug 2017

Brain and Behaviour: Overview

Chapter 7: Biological and neuropsychology
The nervous system
Neurons and neural transmission
Presented by Sebenzile Mnguni
Intern Psychologist at the Child and Family Centre The endocrine system
Source of information: Swartz, L., de la Rey, C., Duncan, N., & Townsend, L. (with O'Neill, V.).
(2011). Psychology: An introduction (3rd ed.). Cape Town: Oxford Neuropsychology
University Press

Introduction
Neuropsychology links knowledge from neurology and
psychology.
A neurologist is a medical doctor who specialises in brain and
nervous system disorders, while a neuropsychologist looks for
the relationships between the mind and the brain.
1. Central Nervous System
Neuropsychology can be divided into two major divisions: 2. Peripheral Nervous System
1. Research neuropsychology-interested in how mental functions
are organised in the brain, and what the study of the brain (both
healthy and diseased) can reveal about the organisation of the
mind.

2. clinical neuropsychology concerned about the practical

application of this knowledge: the diagnosis and management of
the mental aspects of neurological disease.

The Nervous system The major structure of the brain

The nervous system is made up of over 100 billion cells
called neurons.
The nervous system is responsible for collecting
information from the environment, sending this
information to the right places in the body and
then enabling the body to respond to this
information.
The nervous system is divided into the :
1. Central Nervous System
2. Peripheral Nervous System

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The Nervous system The Central Nervous System (CNS)

Central Nervous System: Peripheral Nervous The central nervous system
This consists of the spinal cord and the brain.
spinal cord & brain System:
The spinal cord
afferent & efferent is in the spinal column that runs down the middle of the back.
nerves It communicates with all the muscles and sense organs below the
head.
consists of grey matter surrounded by white matter (which provides
insulation/protection).
Pairs of spinal nerves pass signals from the environment to the
spinal cord and from the spinal cord to the body.
The medulla oblongata is the start of the brain.
The brain is protected by cerebrospinal fluid, the meninges
and the skull.

The structure of the brain The Hindbrain

Hindbrain: earliest to Pons:
relay station, sending signals
evolve, for most important between spine
survival functions e.g. & brain; also plays a role
in sleeping and waking;
breathing, heartbeat unusual neural activity
may result in narcolepsy
Midbrain: arousal,
sleep/wakefulness, Medulla
consciousness oblongata:
Cerebellum: 1st structure in transition
Forebrain: last to evolve, co-ordinated from spinal cord to brain;
movement, breathing, circulation,
complex thinking e.g. balance and functioning of heart and
posture, other involuntary behaviours
planning & organizing affected when drunk e.g. sneezing, blinking,
vomiting

The Midbrain Cerebrum:

four lobes;
The Forebrain Thalamus:
(info desk)
processes
Reticular formation: primary areas process
incoming
raw sensory info;
begins in hindbrain association areas Information,
involved in complex relays it to
and continues through mental functions appropriate area
of brain
to midbrain;
made up of many Limbic System
It is involved in the Hypothalamus:
neurons connecting to emotion, memory, It controls pituitary
gland (main gland);
all areas of the brain; learning, motivation
involved in
a) amygdala:
involved in arousal Involved in emotions,
experiencing regulating body
and sleep/wake emotions, learning, b) hippocampus: Basal ganglia: rhythms for sleep,
emotional memory, Responsible for certain Involved in movement, sexual activity,
consciousness; damage may recognising & posture temperature
kinds of memory. long-
result in coma feeling fear term memory; muscle tone; regulation,
also mood & memory hunger & thirst
spatial navigation

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The Amygdala
Seat of fear, panic, anxiety and rage
Triggered by stress (cortisol and
adrenalin/noradrenalin)
Amygdala rage or fear can overwhelm
the cerebral cortex (the thinking you)
The Hypothalamus
The Hippocampus
Consolidates information from short-term memory to
long-term memory
Spatial navigation, i.e. the ability to find ones way in a
given environment
One of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage in
Alzheimer's disease
Memory loss and disorientation are among the early
symptoms of Alzheimer's disease
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The Hypothalamus
Controls the pituitary gland
Link between nervous system & endocrine system
(glands & hormones)
Regulates body rhythms for sleep, sexual activity,
temperature regulation, hunger & thirst
Involved in emotions
Emotions affect brain chemistry
The Pineal Gland
last of the endocrine glands to be
discovered
once dubbed the third eye (deep in the
centre of the brain; connection to light)
produces melatonin
helps maintain circadian rhythm, sleep-
wake pattern & regulates reproductive
hormones (biological clock)
the secretion of melatonin is dictated by
light
The Cerebral Cortex
The thinking you
Most highly-developed part of the brain
Folded greater surface area in confined space of skull
Grey matter & underlying white matter myelinated sheaths of
neuronal axons
Connected to subcortical structures e.g. thalamus, basal ganglia
Divided into sensory, motor & association areas
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Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex Optical Illusions

Frontal lobe: comprised of the motor cortex (movement),

the association areas (higher-order thinking such as Optical illusions harness the shift between what your
organisation) and Brocas area (speech formation)

Temporal lobe: (hearing and language), including

eyes see and what your brain perceives
Wernickes area (understanding speech). Primary areas

receive the frequency, amplitude and pitch of the sound and They reveal the way your visual system edits images
the association combine these into words that we recognise.
Also involved in the visual association. before you're even made aware of them, deciding what
Parietal lobe: (position of objects, touch, detection of

movement and spatial orientation) containing the is and isn't worthy of your attention
somatosensory cortex (receives sensory information)

Occipital lobe: responsible for vision. Your brain interprets the info it receives & fills in the
Lobes have primary area (process primary or raw sensory

information received by the sensory receptors through the

gaps to produce a likely picture
thalamus and direct it to primary areas) & association area

(involved in more complex mental functions)

Optical Illusions Breaking the code

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The consequences of damage in

the lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
Lobes Of The Cerebral Function:
Cortex:
1. Frontal lobe Movement, higher-order
thinking such as organisation
and speech
2. Parietal lobe position of objects, touch,
detection of movement and
spatial orientation. Receives
sensory information from the
body.
3. Temporal lobe Hearing, language and visual
association.
4. Occipital lobe Responsible for vision
The Hemispheres of the brain
Damage Lead To: Left hemisphere: Right hemisphere:
Losing the ability to think Speech & language Spatial functions
abstractly, to plan and
organise behaviour activities, Linear calculation Big picture
to adjust socially or to behave
appropriately. Strategic planning Subtlety/delicacey
Syndrome called unilateral
neglect, where Patients do not
Engineer of the brain Innovative Architect of
pay attention to one side of the brain
their bodies.
Wernickes aphasia, you would
still be able to speak but not
make sense and also not
understand what others are
saying.
Damage to the primary visual
area can result in partial or
complete blindness.

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Hemispheres of the brain Hemispheres of the brain

The right hemisphere gets a hunch (architect), the left
hemisphere brings the hunch to fulfillment (engineer)
Linked by corpus callosum which allows communication
between hemispheres
Corpus collosum is thicker in women than in men
Functions are vital on both sides
Division of tasks = lateralization
Lateralisation means that certain functions are dominant in
one or other hemisphere. Generally the left hemisphere is
associated with speech and language, and the right with
spatial functions.
The information from the visual fields crosses over to the
opposite hemisphere at the optic chiasma

The Peripheral Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system Afferent nerves receive info from environment through
This consists of all the nerve structures that lie outside the brain sensory receptors & send info to CNS
and spinal cord. It has two main parts:
1. the somatic Efferent nerves relay instructions from CNS
2. the autonomic nervous systems. to muscles & glands
The somatic nervous system carries messages from the sensory
receptors to the brain and spinal cord, and from there to the
muscles attached to the bones in the body.
The autonomic nervous system controls all the other muscles
attached to internal organs and glands. It consists of two systems
which work together to maintain homeostasis:
1. Sympathetic nervous system (prepares the body for action)
2. Parasympathetic nervous system (inhibits and relaxes the body).

The Efferent Nerve Pathway Autonomic System

SOMATIC SYSTEM
Voluntary movement and
they allow you, to for
instance, jump, walk, bend-or
scratch your head.
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM
Controls involuntary muscles
attached to internal organs &
glands in the body.
it is involved in involuntary
actions such as the secretion of
hormones or the beating of the
heart.
The autonomic nervous system is
divided into:
1. Sympathetic (activates)
2. Parasympathetic (inhibits)
Both involved in the bodys reaction to
stress.
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
fight or flight: gets body ready for action by
creating a state of glandular and neural
arousal:
increase in heart rate to pump more
oxygen through the body
dilation (widening) of pupils to take in
more light
relaxes bronchi of the lungs for greater
intake of air
constriction of heart arteries to increase
blood pressure
slows down digestive system
activation of certain endocrine glands

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The organisation of the nervous

Autonomic System cont... system
PARASYMPATHETIC
SYSTEM
inhibits action and brings
the body back to rest:
slows heart rate
contracts pupils
contracts bronchi
reactivates digestive
system
dilates blood vessels
conserves resources

The structure of a neuron

Neurons and Neural Transmission Structure of a neuron cont...

A neuron is a type of cell specialised to receive and
transmit electrochemical signals in the body.
Neurons can vary widely in shape and size, and are
found in both the central and peripheral nervous
systems.
Dendrites receive messages from other neurons
Messages travel through the cell body (soma) where
information is integrated
The cell body sends out nerve impulses
(electrochemical signals) along the axon to the axon
terminals
Synapses are the paths or
avenues that allow individual nerve cells to connect
with each other

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Structure of a Neuron cont...
The myelin sheath insulates the axon and makes the
message stronger & faster
Axons are like electrical wires: without insulation
(myelin), signals go astray (short out)
Multiple sclerosis breaks down the myelin sheath and
leaves the axon unprotected, affecting transmission of
messages
The Transmission of Nerve
Impulse
Transmission of nerve impulses
In a resting state, the charge inside neuron is ve and
the charge outside neuron is +ve
This state of tension between the ions is called the
resting potential
When in this resting state, the neuron is said to be
polarised
The neurons cell membrane is like a sieve, allows some
ions to pass through & limits other ions
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Why practice make perfect
Increased neural
activity causes the
growth of myelin
Myelinated axons
transmit messages faster
& more efficiently
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
Neurons are electrically charged & specialized to
receive & transmit electrochemical signals
The neural message is electrical (waves) and the
ions in the surrounding fluid are chemical
Ions = positively or negatively charged atoms
Ions in these fluids include:
chloride (-ve charge)
sodium (+ve charge)
potassium (+ve charge)
Transmission of IONS
Potassium (+) & sodium (+) are attracted to the inside
of cell because the inside is (vely) charged
Chloride (-) stays outside the neuron (repelled)
The neurons membrane is generally not permeable to
sodium, therefore although sodium is attracted to the
inside of the cell, it cannot cross the membrane
A nerve impulse comes along, causing an action
potential
An action potential is an electrochemical process
When the threshold of excitation is reached,
permeability of the membrane changes, causing sodium
ions to rush into the cell
This stage is called depolarisation
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Transmission of Ions
When the permeability of the cell changes and
sodium ions rush in, the cell becomes positively
charged
Potassium ions (+) start to leave the cell
Refractory period = sodium channels close, cell
in a recovery state, cant pass another message
Cell returns to its resting potential
Electrical impulse follows an all-or-none law
Synaptic gap and the process of
transmission
Cont...
Excitatory neurotransmitters start an action
potential in the next neuron
Inhibitory neurotransmitters stop the next action
potential
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Transmission of Nerve Impulse
Synaptic Transmission
Synapse = region where two neurons meet
Electrical impulses have to cross the synaptic gap in
order to pass a message on
Vesicles in the terminal buttons contain
neurotransmitters which are released into the
synaptic gap
Specialised receptor sites in the dendrites accept
only the neurotransmitters for which they are
designed(lock-and-key mechanism)
Extra neurotransmitters are broken down by
enzymes or taken back into terminal buttons
Types of Neurotransmitters
Dopamine:
Location: the brain, especially in the limbic system, the
cerebellum and the basal ganglia
Function: movement, mood, learning and memory
Dysfunction: muscle disorders, mental disorders,
Parkinsons disease
Norepinephrine:
Location: the brain, especially the cortex and limbic
system, and the spinal cord
Function: eating, sleep, arousal, emotion
Dysfunction: depression.
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Cont...
Serotonin:
Location: the brain, especially the thalamus and the brain stem
Function: sleep, arousal
Dysfunction: depression
Acetylcholine (ACh):
Location: the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system
Function: muscle movement, cognitive function, including memory
Dysfunction: Alzheimers disease
Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA):
Location: the brain and spinal cord
Function: eating, aggression, arousal, sleep
Dysfunction: anxiety, sleep disturbances, arousal difficulties.

The Endocrine System Cont...

A communication system made up of hormones
secreted by glands
Controls several physiological functions
Hormones travel through the bloodstream
Slower than nerve impulses & longer lasting
Act as messengers to various organs
Pituitary gland (master gland) controls all other glands
Connects with hypothalamus in the brain
Pituitary gland is responsible for growth & regulates
the metabolism of salt & water

Function of different glands: Cont...

Thyroid gland: Pancreas:
Metabolism Regulates levels of insulin & blood sugar
Dysfunction related to apathy weight gain, Involved in digestion
despondency (underactive) or excessive jumpiness Low levels of insulin may result in diabetes
(overactive)
Testes & ovaries:
Adrenal glands: Sexual behaviour
Adrenal cortex - regulates salt & carbohydrate Development of reproductive hormones
metabolism (e.g. oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone)
Adrenal medulla - prepares body for fight or flight
General physical growth

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Neuropsychology

The roles of psychiatrists and neuropsychologists

in understanding brain functions The classification
Neuropsychology (Cognition)
The branch of psychology that tries to understand how brain Brain structure: Brain Function:
structure and function relate to psychological processes and Mental disorders caused by Mental disorders that
behaviour. structural change in the could not be seen in brain
Psychiatry brain were classified as changes were classified as
NEUROLOGICAL PSYCHIATRIC
A medical doctor specialising in the diagnosis and treatment
of mental illness and emotional disorders.
Historically, brain structures (neurological) were viewed
separately from brain functions (psychiatric). NEUROPSYCHIATRY:
Neuropsychiatrists (Affect-emotion) Concerned with neurological disorders, as in attempt to
specialise in the psychiatric or functional aspects of structural describe the mental changes that result from structural
neurological disease. changes in the brain.
Clinical neuropsychology
focuses on cognitive rather than emotional disorders.

The Influence Of Cognitive

Early History of Neuropsychology Psychology on Neuropsychology
In the 1860s, Broca identified a part of the brain where
language production is located. Cognitive psychology provided a way to divide
Wernicke localised the ability to understand speech to cognitive capacities into smaller processing units.
the frontal lobes.
This led to the idea that all mental functions could be However, such computer-based models have not been
located in particular places in the brain. However,
other theorists proposed that the brain functions as a useful for the instinctual and subjective aspects of the
holistic unit.
Luria argued that both are partially right: mental
mind. Molecular-biological, ethological and
abilities are combinations of many low-level or basic psychoanalytical theories are more appropriate here.
functions.

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Research methods in The qualitative and quantitative approach to

neuropsychology clinical neuropsychology
For more than a century, clinico-anatomical correlation provided the The specialist neuropsychologist takes an integrated
methodological backbone for all neuropsychological research.
(quantitative and qualitative) approach in assessment.
After the world wars, brain imaging allowed living soft tissue inside the
skull to be visualised. The aim is to identify a particular pattern of cognitive
Computerised tomographic (CT) scanning became widely available in symptoms and signs that makes clinico-anatomical
the 1970s. By the 1980s, this had been largely replaced by magnetic
sense.
resonance imaging (MRI). The latest advance is functional brain
imaging: positron emission tomography (PET) and functional MRI
(fMRI).

Neuropsychology in South Africa

Neuropsychology is still developing in South Africa.
Michael Saling devised a qualitative, Luria-based
approach to neuropsychological assessment that is
suitable for the countrys diverse population.
The Professional Board for Psychology of the
HSCSA has established a professional category for
neuropsychology. Certification is conducted by the
South African Clinical Neuropsychological Association
(SACNA).

Substance abuse vs. Substance

Introduction dependence
Substance misuse is substance use that results in adverse
consequences that are not recurrent, e.g. a drunk-driving
charge.
Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of substance use
that manifests recurrently and has significant
consequences, e.g. constantly being late for work due to
being hungover.
Substance dependence is a cluster of cognitive,
behavioural and physiological symptoms that indicate that
a person compulsively continues to use a substance despite
significant substance-related problems, e.g. alcohol
dependence (alcoholism).

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Causes of substance use disorders

INTERPERSO
NAL
INTRAPE FACTORS:
RSONAL Peer influence,
FACTORS: social learning
Biological experiences &
or CAUSES disruptions in
psychologi social support
cal

ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS:
Culture of drug use or
high availability of
them

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Conceptual understandings of
substance dependence
Substance use behaviour occurs on a continuum that
ranges from non-problematic (recreational) use,
through misuse, to substance abuse and finally
substance dependence.

Substance dependence can be understood as

addiction. Different degrees of severity require
different types of interventions.

Drug dependence and tolerance

Drug dependence can be physical and/or
psychological:
Physical dependence requires that a person maintain a
certain level of drug in the bloodstream to avoid
withdrawal symptoms.
Psychological dependence leads to a craving for the
feeling a drug produces.
Cross-dependence happens when a person becomes
dependent on a drug initially used to alleviate
withdrawal symptoms caused by not taking another
drug.

Understanding the causes of

CONT... substance use disorder
Drug tolerance is the need to consume increasing The aetiology of substance use disorders has been
amounts of a drug to experience the desired effect.
Two processes are linked to this: identified to include inherited vulnerability and
1. metabolic tolerance, where repeated exposure interpersonal factors.
accelerates the rate at which the drug is decomposed
by the liver The risk-factor approach to understanding substance use
2. pharmacodynamic tolerance, where repeated
exposure leads to cellular adaptation. among adolescents has shown that while risk factors may
Cross-tolerance is a reduced response to a certain increase vulnerability, it may also be mitigated by
drug because of previous exposure to another drug in
the same family. protective factors which decrease vulnerability.

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Cont...
How psychoactive drugs achieve
their effects in ones body
Facilitating or inhibiting
the actions of a
neurotransmitter
receptor site
Regulating
neurotransmitter
availability in the
synaptic gap
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Psychopharmacology
Psychoactive drugs are substances that achieve their
effect by altering mood, thoughts and behaviour. They
are typically used to treat symptoms of psychiatric
illness.
Drug potency, efficacy & dose
The effect of a psychoactive agent depends on:
drug potency (the absolute amount of a drug that is required to achieve a
desired effect)
drug efficacy (the ability of the drug to produce the desired effect)
drug dose (the quantity or volume of the drug that is administered)
method of administration (e.g. oral, injection).
Effective dose (ED) is the dose needed to produce the desired effect in the
majority of people with fewest possible side effects. ED varies among
individuals due to:
genetic makeup
previous experience with drugs
tolerance levels
age
metabolism
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Classes, uses, and effects of Commonly used psychoactive

psychoactive drugs drugs and their effects
There are four main classes of psychoactive drugs:
1. Central nervous system depressants: Diminish
environmental awareness and responsiveness, e.g.
sedatives, tranquilisers, anxiolytics and hypnotics.
2. Psychostimulants: Increase motor activity, reduce
fatigue, relieve boredom and enhance task performance,
e.g. caffeine, nicotine and amphetamines.
3. Anti-depressants and mood stabilisers: Elevate mood,
increase physical activity, and improve appetite and sleep
patterns.
4. Anti-psychotics: Used to treat major psychoses like
schizophrenia. Serious side effects include akathisia,
dystonia, neuroleptic-induced Parkinsonism and tardive
dyskinesia.

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