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Experiments
Term Definition
Hypothesis suggested explanation for observed facts, experimental hypothesis used to
make predictions that can be experimentally tested
Control Verifies or regulates an experiment by conducting parallel experiment where
nothing is changed or affected
Variable Single factor that changes in a series of identical experiments to eliminate
possibility of random factors affecting results
Experimental variable variables that may affect outcome of series of experiments (e.g., temperature,
season, time of day, noise level, light, etc)
Responding variable variable which has a response that is being tested/observed
Scientific method
Careful observation and consult prior knowledge
Making a hypothesis
Design an experiment including appropriate controls
Collect analysis data
Consider results in light of prior knowledge
This may either support the hypothesis or not support it
Draw conclusions
Peer review
Controls are important in experiments as they show what happens in the experiment when nothing is changed or
affected and prove that the observations and results from an experiment were caused by a variable and werent
the natural progression of events
Cell Structure
Adaptation
Adaptation:
- fundamental principle of biology
- inherited structures, functions and behaviours of organisms make them well suited to environment and
lifestyle
- process by which a species becomes well-suited to its life style and environment
Natural selection:
- result of species becoming structurally, physiologically and behaviourally adapted to particular
environment
- therefore more likely to survive than organisms who arent = natural selection
Inorganic compounds:
- simple in chemical structure that are energy-poor
- found in both living and non-living things
Eukaryotes
Cells with membrane-bound nucleus
Cytoplasm includes specialized membrane-bound organelles
Complex multi-cellular organisms
Classified in kingdoms Protista, Animalia, Plantae and Fungi
Microscopic techniques
Type of microscopy Values Limitations
Light microscopy Can observe live specimens Cannot see organelles
Autoradiography
Fluorescence microscopy
Confocal microscopy High resolution, very clear Software is very expensive
Can view thick slices of specimens
3D viewing of living structures
Electron microscopy High resolution Software is very expensive
Energy transformations in cells
Enzymes
Enzymes:
- biological catalysts that increase rate at which chemical reactions occur
- are globular proteins
- are not used up in chemical reactions (i.e. can be re-used)
- work fastest in optimum conditions (optimum pH, optimum temperature)
- chemical reactions regulated by hundreds of enzymes working in chains- so product from one reaction
become substrate for next
- can catalyze synthesis reactions or decomposition reaction
- located at particular sites within cells
- are specific and catalyze one given reaction only
Energy in cells
Cells need energy to:
- obtain nutrients
- synthesise materials
- eliminate wastes
- produce a varity of biological molecules
- divide
Cellular respiration
Aerobic respiration
When oxygen available, respiration occurs along aerobic pathway
The formula for the complete aerobic breakdown of glucose is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP
(glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy)
Two parts of aerobic respiration:
- glycolysis (cytosol)
- Krebs cycle (mitochondrion)
Anaerobic respiration
When oxygen isnt available, respiration occurs along anaerobic pathway (or fermentation)
The formula for the complete anaerobic breakdown of glucose is:
(in plant cells) glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy
(in animal cells) glucose lactic acid + energy
Glycolysis occurs in cytosol and pyruvate produced undergoes fermentation
Glycolysis
Initial stage in breakdown of glucose
Glucose molecule is split into two pyruvate molecules
Occurs in cytosol and is anaerobic
For each glucose molecule, 2 ATP molecules are produced
Photosynthesis
Released into environment
6O 2
12H 2O light +
+ ATP (18)
+ C 6H 12O 6
light energy 24H +
+ 6H 2O
6CO 2
Chloroplasts = contain chlorophyll which trap light when excited electrons return to ground state
Mitochondria = site of aerobic respiration where Krebs cycle occurs in cristae and oxygen is used to produce 36
ATP molecules
In unicellular organisms:
- the external environment is the watery environment in which it lives that is in contact with outside
- the internal environment is the cells cytosol
In multicellular organisms:
- the external environment is the medium they live in
- the internal environment is the extracellular fluid that surrounds their cells
Extracellular fluid = watery environment of living cells that is in contact with the plasma membrane
Intracellular fluid = fluid contained within the plasma membrane (cytosol)
Plants dont have a clear distinction between the external environment and the extracellular fluid of the internal
environment and do not regulate the composition of their internal environment to the same extent as animals
Animals regulate the conditions of their internal environment so that their cells can function more efficiently
including, concentrations of particular salts, temperature, acidity/alkalinity or concentrations of nutrients, water
and wasts.
Rate which materials exchanged between organism and environment depends on TSA and volume of living
tissue TSA is supplying
SA:Vol = indication of what share of surface available to supply exchange needs of each part of organism
- larger SA:Vol = faster exchange
- smaller SA:Vol = slower exchange
- increase in size = decrease in SA:Vol
- decrease in size = increase in SA:Vol
Diffusion:
- Movement of molecules from where they in high concentration to where they in low concentration
- Once evenly distributed net movement of molecules stops
- Molecules in liquids and gases in constant random motion
- When different concentrations in contact, molecules move so equal concentration throughout
Facilitated diffusion:
- Special form of diffusion where protein carrier molecules involved
- Faster than regular diffusion because of carrier molecules
- Each carrier bind only with specific molecule
- Binding changes shape of carrier which then deposits molecule into cytoplasm
- No energy used = passive process
Osmosis:
- Movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from:
o lower concentrated solution to higher concentrated solution
o where water molecules at higher concentration to where at lower concentration
o hyperosmotic solution to hyposmotic solution
Active transport:
- Molecules move from where in lower concentration to higher concentration = against concentration gradient
- Protein carrier molecule is used
- Energy always required = active process
Cell replication
Cell replication in eukaryotes allows growth, maintenance and repair of a multicellular organism to occur properly
Interphase:
- before cell divides, chromosomes appear as network of fibres
- DNA of chromosomes replicates so chromosomes consists of two chromatids
- cell prepares to divide
Prophase:
- chromosomes condense and become tightly coiled and attach to spindle
- nuclear membrane begins to break down
- centrosomes move away from each other and spindle fibres form between them
Metaphase:
- nuclear membrane completely breaks down
- chromosomes line up along centre of cell
- centrosomes now at poles of cell and spindle fibres extend across cell from pole to pole
Anaphase:
- centromeres of each chromosome separate and chromatids pull apart
- spindle contracts and chromosomes move towards poles of cell
Telophase:
- two groups of chromosomes now at poles of cells
- chromosomes become tightly less coiled
- new nuclear membranes form around chromosomes to create separate nuclei
- division of one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei is completed
Cytokinesis:
- in plant cells = occurs by cells laying down a new plasma membrane and cell wall between the two daughter
nuclei to separate the new cells. Components of the new cell wall, called the cell plate, are initially deposited
into the centre of the cell and grow outwards until the two daughter cells are completely separated
- in animal cells = occurs by plasma membrane moving inwards and pinching the two daughter cells apart
Cell replication in early embryo
The role of cell replication in the early embryo
- regulatory signals in the egg cytoplasm control the cell cycle from within
- cells begin to produce and release substances (growth factors) that affect the development of nearby cells
Stem cells
- can turn into any other cells that are needed in the body
- e.g., embryonic stem cells = gut cells, skin cells, blood cells, nerve cells, gut lining, skin
Tumors
- release growth factors that direct the development of its own blood supply
Prokaryotes replicate as a simple form of reproduction and replicate by binary fission, where a new cell wall and
membrane material are laid down between a cell which separates the chromosomes and divides the cell in two.
Autotroph = organism that can make its own organic molecules from inorganic molecules
Heterotroph = organism that must obtain organic compounds by eating other organisms or their products
Cells release chemical energy to make ATP by breaking apart glucose molecules
In plants, cellular respiration occurs continuously, while photosynthesis occurs only during daylight
When photosynthesis and cellular respiration are occurring, usually a net production of oxygen and utilization of
carbon dioxide
Light compensation point = level of light at which the rates of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are equal
and there is no net exchange of oxygen
Leaves = primary photosynthetic structures of plants, provide vast SA for trapping light
Structures of leaves related to balancing three requirements for photosynthesis trapping sunlight, obtaining
carbon dioxide and transpiring water
Environment in which plant grows affects plants leaf shape and size
Cells containing chloroplasts (mesophyll cells) localized under dorsal surface to receive most sunlight
Mineral salts and water are obtained through the soil by the roots of plants
Mineral ions actively transported through specific channels in root cell plasma membranes
Root hair cells = greatly increases SA of roots to increase rate of exchange of materials
Plants store carbohydrates mainly in the form of starch, then sucrose, glucose and others
Nutrition in heterotrophs
Heterotroph = consume other organisms or their products to obtain organic materials as they cannot make their
own
Essential amino acids = 9 amino acids that cannot be synthesized by animals and must be obtained through diet
Vitamins = diverse group of organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for particular cell processes
Minerals = needed in small amounts for structural components of animals as well as molecules in enzymes and
vitamins
Digestion
Digestion = the rapid breaking down of organic food into molecules small enough to pass through membranes
and into cells
Chemical digestion = breaking apart complex molecules into simple molecules carried out by action of digestive
enzymes
Physical breakdown = physically breaking down complex molecules to allow better absorption and increase SA
for enzyme action
Intracellular digestion = cells engulf small pieces of food, then enzymes released
Oesophagus:
- passage in which bolus travels from the mouth to the stomach
Stomach:
- acts as a food storage organ
- food becomes chyme via mechanical churning and chemical breakdown
- glands in stomach wall secrete gastric juice
- gastric juice contains HCl, pepsinogen and gastric lipase
- pepsinogen begins digestion of proteins into peptides
- gastric lipase begins digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerols
Pancreas:
- produces enzymes and neutralizes acid
Liver:
- produces bile, which emulsifies fats
- plays important role in metabolism of glucose, amino acids and alcohol
Gall bladder:
- stores bile between meals
Small intestine:
- duodenum receives bile and pancreatic and intestinal juices with enzymes to digest food
- absorption of digested food into blood occurs in duodenum and ileum
- nutrients and water are absorbed
- amino acids, monosaccharides, vitamins and minerals absorbed via active transport
Ileum:
- long tube, therefore more time for soluble end-products of digestion to be absorbed
- villi/microvilli provide large SA to increase rate of absorption
- microvilli contain blood and lymph vessels, which transport absorbed food around body and return proteins
and fluid lost in capillary beds to vena cava respectively
Large intestine:
- minerals salts actively absorbed from colon and water follows passively
- remainder of colon and rectum store faeces = undigested food, dead cells, mucus and dead bacteria
Anus:
- expels or egests faeces
Symbiotic partnership = where microorganisms that produce cellulase live in intestine of host and, in return for
converting cellulose into simpler molecules, receive shelter and free food (mutualism)
Herbivorous mammals are either hindgut or foregut fermenters, where bacteria break down cellulose in the
caecum (enlarged intestinal pouch at junction of small and large intestine) either before the stomach (foregut) or
in the first part of the colon (hindgut)
Gaseous Exchange
Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve and diffuse directly through plasma membranes along their concentration
gradient
Organisms must exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with environments to maintain important energy-
transforming processes cellular respiration and photosynthesis:
- oxygen is needed for cellular respiration
- carbon dioxide must be removed as an accumulation of it because of cellular respiration can slow down the
rate of cellular respiration
-
Advantages of gas exchange with air Advantages of gas exchange with water
- water isnt a good source of oxygen as amount of - can use countercurrent flows to exchange
oxygen dissolved in water is very low optimum amount of gas
- less oxygen dissolved in warm/salty water - water doesnt evaporate from gas exchange
- water is viscous and requires more energy to surface
move it
- more oxygen available in air
- less energy required than breathing water
Structure and complexity of gas exchange organs related to level of activity, body temperature and size and
availability of oxygen
Mammalian respiratory system provides gas exchange between erythrocytes and inhaled air in the lungs
Haemoglobin = respiratory pigment carried in erythrocytes that has an affinity for oxygen
The rate of photosynthesis usually greater than rate of respiration in green plants during the day which means
that the total gas exchange would differ between day and night because of an increase/decrease in
oxygen/carbon dioxide production
Stomata closed = exchange of gases between plant and environment virtually stops
Transport systems = needed to transport substances from the external environment of a multicellular organism
to the all the individual cells inside the organism
Open circulatory systems = systems for fluid circulation in which there is no specialized transporting fluid, such
as blood, and interstitial fluids flow more or less freely between the cells of tissues
Closed circulatory systems = systems in which specialized fluid carrying nutrients, such as blood, is circulated
through the body in a closed system of vessels
The heart:
- has four chambers, two on either side
- pumps blood to lungs and around body so cells can exchange materials with blood
- has a muscular left ventricle as blood has to be pumped a further distance
- has valves between atria and ventricles so blood flow is in one direction
- has a rich blood supply and thick muscle to provide strength and energy for continuous beating
Blood pressure:
- caused by the contraction of ventricles
- changes throughout the circulatory system as pulmonary arteries have less pressure than aorta
Systolic pressure = when the ventricle contracts and blood is forced through arteries
Capillaries = tiny blood vessels with wall only one cell thick where exchange between blood and tissues occurs
Blood is composed of plasma (water, dissolved chemicals, plasma proteins) and cells (erythrocytes, leucocytes,
platelets, phagocytes)
The lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid, containing proteins, that leak out of the capillaries back into the
circulatory system in the vena cava
- fine, blind-ending lymphatic capillaries in the tissues join to form increasingly larger vessels
- structures are similar to capillaries and veins of the vascular system
Phloem:
- made from living cells with sieve plates, sieve tubes and companion cells
- conduct dissolved nutrients around plant
- sieve plate has holes in it which allow sugar through and sieve tubes carry sugars
- companion cells regulate function of sieve tubes and help carry sugar around
Cambium (meristems):
- forms extra xylem and phloem cells
- provides additional strength and thickness for stems of plants
- increases transport capacity of vessels in plants
Transpiration = evaporation of water from leaves and is responsible for movement in xylem
- energy comes from sun so plant spends no energy in moving materials from xylem
Excreting wastes
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction = reproduction involving the fusion of two gametes which are the haploid products of
meiosis- can be external or internal
Asexual reproduction = one parent giving rise to a new individual from its body cells (offspring are genetically
identical to their parent)