4.

9 Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing has gained significant acceptance in petrochemical

plants over the last 10 years. This is primarily due to the introduction of
affordable eddy current instruments that have made eddy current testing
cost effective in the petrochemical industry. The eddy current technology
used in petrochemical plant heat exchanger tests is primarily a scaled down
version of eddy current testing for steam generator tubing but at a
significantly lower cost.

There are two major types of eddy current tests performed in petrochemical
plants. These can be broadly categorized as surface testing and tubing
testing. Surface testing techniques use portable and battery powered eddy
current systems. The major applications are the detection of surface cracks,
clad overlay measurement and wear measurements. Tube testing is done
with multifrequency eddy current equipment and is used for testing heat
exchanger tubes.

EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Principle
The eddy current method is based on the principle of measuring changes in
the impedance of an electromagnetic coil as it is scanned over a surface of
conductive material (Cecco, 1992). The test is performed by an
electromagnetic coil that is placed over a conductive material (Figure 1). An
alternating current in the coil produces a magnetic field that is induced in the
material. To counter the coil's primary magnetic field, eddy currents are
produced in the material. Eddy currents produce a secondary magnetic field
H'B to oppose the coil's primary magnetic field HB. When the coil is scanned
over a discontinuity, the secondary magnetic field is distorted, thereby
changing the loading on the coil. Changes in coil loading directly affect the
coil impedance. These changes in coil impedance may be related to the
discontinuity.

The testing of heat exchangers is

the number one application of
eddy current testing in
petrochemical plants.

Depth of Penetration
Discontinuity detection is limited to the penetration depth of eddy currents.
Penetration depth is inversely proportional to the square root of conductivity,
frequency and permeability. For most applications, the penetration depth in
nonferromagnetic material is limited to approximately 5 mm (0.2 in.). In the
case of ferromagnetic materials, such as carbon steel, the penetration depth
is extremely shallow because of high permeability. Testing of ferromagnetic
material is therefore limited to surface discontinuities only.

Instruments
Surface eddy current testing is normally performed with portable eddy
current systems. These systems are usually single or dual frequency.
Surface eddy current instruments normally cost between $6,000 and
$10,000.

Eddy current testing of tubing is done using advanced computer controlled

equipment. These systems are multifrequency, with the ability to store data
that are acquired at high test speeds. Tubing eddy current instruments
normally cost between $30,000 and $50,000.

Surface eddy current testing is performed using probes that include pencil
probes, spot probes and cross axis probes. Eddy current testing of tubing is
done using bobbin probes.

EDDY CURRENT TECHNIQUES

The following are the eddy current testing techniques that are used for
petrochemical plant tests.

Tube Testing
There are three basic eddy current test techniques for testing tubes.
Selection of the techniques depends on the tube material. Birring (2001)
provides detailed information on eddy current testing techniques for tube
testing.

Conventional eddy current testing is applied when testing nonferromagnetic

heat exchanger tubes (ASME, 2001). The test is performed with a bobbin
coil that produces an electromagnetic field in the tube. When the probe is
pulled across a discontinuity, the electromagnetic field is distorted. This
distortion in magnetic field changes the coil impedance that is related to the
discontinuity. The eddy current testing method detects pits, wall loss and
cracks.

Full saturation eddy current testing is applied in the testing of partially

ferromagnetic and thin ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes. The bobbin
probes include a strong magnet that saturates the material magnetically.
Once magnetic saturation occurs, testing is done in a manner similar to
conventional eddy current testing.

Remote field eddy current testing is applied in the testing of ferromagnetic

heat exchanger tubes such as those made of carbon steel. The test is
performed with a bobbin coil that transmits an electromagnetic field in the
tube. Remote field eddy current testing is limited to detection of large
discontinuities and wall loss.

Surface Testing
Surface eddy current testing is used for the detection of surface cracks in
both nonferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. The method is very
sensitive in detecting tight cracks. Calibration is performed on electrical
discharge machined notches as shown in Figure 2. In addition to detection,
the method can accurately measure crack depth in nonferromagnetic
materials. These materials include stainless steels and high temperature
nickel chromium alloys. When sizing cracks, the eddy current test frequency
is selected so that the depth of penetration is greater than the expected
crack depth. Some common probes used for surface eddy current testing
are spot probes, X-point probes and pencil probes.

Both surface eddy current testing and liquid penetrant testing are surface
test techniques used for the detection of surface breaking cracks. Eddy
current testing has advantages over liquid penetrant testing in certain
applications:

eddy current testing is significantly more sensitive than liquid

penetrant testing in the detection of tight cracks (for example, stress
corrosion cracks in stainless steels)
eddy current testing can measure crack depth in nonferromagnetic
materials, whereas liquid penetrant testing does not have this
capability
eddy current testing can test through paint coatings
for testing in small areas, eddy current testing is much faster; liquid
penetrant testing is slow because of the long dwell times.

Clad Overlay Measurement

This method is applied for measurement of nonferromagnetic material clad
over a ferromagnetic base (for example, stainless steel clad over carbon
steel) as shown in Figure 3. A change in clad thickness changes the
impedance of the eddy current coil. This change in impedance is related to
the clad thickness. Eddy current testing is a fast and reliable method for this
application. Testing is done with spot probes.

Coating Thickness Measurement

The method is based on the principle of measuring the liftoff of the eddy
current test probe over the surface. Portable eddy current machines are
available for this application. Testing is done with spot probes.

Wall Loss Measurement

The eddy current test method can measure wear or wall loss in
nonferromagnetic materials. The method is applicable if the depth of
penetration is greater than the material thickness. Varying the frequency
can control eddy current depth of penetration. Lowering the frequency can
increase depth of penetration.

PETROCHEMICAL PLANT APPLICATION

Heat Exchangers: Pitting, Cracks, Wall Loss

The testing of heat exchangers is the number one application of eddy
current testing in petrochemical plants. Heat exchangers include
condensers, general petrochemical plant exchangers, feedwater heaters, air
coolers and lube oil coolers. Both conventional and remote field eddy
current testing are used . Conventional eddy current testing is
used for testing nonferromagnetic tubing, such as stainless steel, copper
nickel alloys and titanium. Remote field eddy current testing is applicable for
testing ferromagnetic tubing, such as carbon steel and nickel. Conventional
eddy current testing is a fast, reliable and accurate method for detecting
discontinuities in tubing. Tests can be done at pulling speeds of up to 1.8
m/s (6 ft/s). Remote field eddy current testing is limited to the detection of
larger discontinuities and test speed is limited to approximately 0.3 m/s (1
ft/s). A specialized version of conventional eddy current testing is full
saturation. This technique is applicable for thin ferromagnetic tubes such as
SA-268 steel in condenser tubes and partially ferromagnetic tubing
materials such as nickel copper alloy, SA-789 steel and SA-790.

A heat exchanger test report is compiled by making a tube map and

superimposing the eddy current test results for each tube. The colors
represent the discontinuity depth range.

Heat Exchangers: Cracks under Tubesheet

A unique problem in heat exchangers can be leaks in the tubesheet roll.
This can occur when overrolling of the tubes under the tubesheet causes
circumferential cracking. In addition, there can be circumferential cracks just
behind the tubesheet. Such cracks can easily be missed by bobbin probes
and require a special technique. Cracks under the tubesheet are detected
using surface probes. These probes can be simple handheld surface probes
or motorized probes similar to the ones used for bolt hole testing in the
aircraft industry.

Vessels
Two major applications of eddy current testing in vessels are crack
detection and clad thickness measurement.

Surface crack detection and measurement is performed on the inner

diameter surface of stainless steel vessels . The technique is used
as an alternate to liquid penetrant testing as it can detect tight cracks and is
significantly faster. Surface testing can include both the base metal and the
weld. Base metal testing can be done using spot probes or pencil probes.
These probes, however, cannot be used in the weld areas because of
signals produced from liftoff. In such a case, special probes such as
crosspoint send/receive probes are used.

Clad thickness measurement is performed on carbon steel vessels with

stainless steel or high temperature nickel chromium alloy clad. Cladding can
wear from erosion, thereby exposing carbon steel to direct chemical attack.
Eddy current testing is a rapid and accurate technique for measuring loss of
stainless steel clad over the carbon steel shell. Several hundred
measurements can be taken per hour. Portable eddy current equipment is
used for such tests.

Piping Systems: Surface Crack Detection and Measurement

Stainless steel is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when exposed to
chlorides and moisture. One source of chlorides is insulation with more than
an acceptable level of chlorides. Eddy current testing is a highly effective
technique for the detection of stress corrosion cracking on the outer surface
of stainless steel piping. The technique detects tight cracks that can be
missed by liquid penetrant testing. Eddy current testing will also detect
cracks that are just below the surface and within the eddy current skin
depth. Rapid scanning of pipe surface is done manually using eddy current
spot probes.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1 - The eddy current principle: (a) eddy current coil in air
- the coil produces a magnetic field HA and the coil impedance is
Zair ; (b) eddy current coil over a conductive material - eddy
currents are produces in the material that opposes the magnetic
field of the coil, the coil's magnetic field changes from H A to HB
and the impedance of the coil changes from Zair to ZB along the
liftoff line; (c) eddy current coil over a crack - eddy currents are
distorted by the crack, which changes the magnetic field of the
eddy currents from H'B to H'C , thereby changing the loading on
the coil; (d) the coil impedance changes to Zcrack.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2 - Eddy current calibration: (a) surface eddy

current calibration on electrical discharge machined
notches with a surface probe; (b) the phase and
amplitude of the signal depends on the notch depth.

Figure 3 - Measuring stainless clad over

carbon steel.