Measuring Uncertainty and Deviation Using Calipers

PHY05
GENERAL PHYSICS 1
LABORATORY
EXPERIMENT 1
Measurement, Uncertainty &
Deviation
Using Calipers
Graphical Analysis
Adapted from Physics 71.1 Activity Manual 2007 Edition National Institute of Physics UP Diliman
PHY05 GENERAL PHYSICS 1 LABORATORY MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 1A
MEASUREMENT, UNCERTAINTY AND DEVIATION
BACKGROUND
In a scientific endeavor, experiments involve collection of information or data through

measurement. Data sets are presented to gain empirical knowledge about a phenomenon,
validate or invalidate an existing theoretical model and demonstrate that a proposed method
works. The measurement of certain variables called observables allows us to achieve this goal.
Observables are also called parameters. It is usually the quantity being controlled during the
experiment.
Since measurement involves unknown quantities, there is always an uncertainty in the

measured values. This uncertainty is not always due to personal mistakes. The degree of
uncertainty is mainly due to the precision of the measuring device used and the quantity that is
measured. These uncertainties determine the significance of the measurement. Hence, proper
handling of uncertainties must be known.
This activity deals with the analysis of uncertainties; that is, proper judgment of their magnitude,
their conventional description and calculation of numerical values based on individual
measurements.
THEORY
Precision and Accuracy
Individual measurements do not yield the same result. Hence, measurements become uncertain
and deviate from true value. The agreement among repeated measurements or the closeness of
these measurements with each other is defined as precision. The measure of precision is called
uncertainty. On the other hand, if an accepted value is present, the closeness of the measured
value to the accepted one is termed as accuracy and is presented in terms of deviation.
Figure 1. Arrows on a bullseye. Four-point

stars mark their landing. Arrows on (a)
shows high precision but low accuracy, (b)
low precision but high accuracy, (c) high
precision and accuracy, (d) low precision
and accuracy.
To understand more clearly the difference between

precision and accuracy let us consider arrows shot into
a bull's eye. Precision and accuracy are two
independent terms. Figure 1 (a) shows that most of the stars are on one location only but far from
1-2 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

the center target. Hence, this case is high precision but, low accuracy. Figure 1 (b) is low in
precision but the average of the location of the stars is close to the bullseye center, hence it has
higher accuracy compared to Figure 1 (a). Figure 1 (c) shows that most of the stars are on one
location only and is at the enter target and is the ideal case. While Figure 1 (d) shows the worst-
case scenario where the marks are both low in accuracy and precision.
Uncertainty is not only due to mistake or sloppiness. It is brought upon by the ambiguity of the
real value of the quantity being measured. The variation in each measurement may be due to the
fluctuations in the quantities measured such as temperature, current or light intensity. It is also
dictated by the quality of the measuring device or the fineness of its scale. For example, one digital
balance may have a reading of 2.13 kg while another reading is 2.134 kg. The latter measurement
has more certainty.
Deviation maybe minimized by properly calibrating the measuring device. For example, a
weighing scale should read zero if there is nothing on it. The limits of the instrument must also be
checked. A body-thermometer cannot be used for measuring the temperature of a boiling water
while a 12-inch ruler cannot be directly used to measure the earth-moon distance.
During the measurement process, deviation may also

occur due to mistakes, improper use of devices, and, most
commonly, due to parallax. Parallax can be removed by
ensuring that the eyesight is perpendicular to the scales.
Figure 2 shows a reading with parallax. In manual time
measurements, the finite human reaction time (in the
order of milliseconds) may greatly affect the accuracy Figure 2. Measurement with
parallax. What do you expect the
of the result. Hence, it is not advisable to have manual
observer will read? What should
timers for highly precise time measurements. the reading be?
Reporting and handling of uncertainty can be categorized into four approximations. The use of
each category depends on the level of uncertainty the experimenter requires.
The first level of handling uncertainty is called wroth order approximation which deals with the
order of magnitude of the value. The next level involves the use of the significant figures (SF)
which is the first approximation. The second approximation deals with the maximum and
minimum range of measured quantities. The third approximation involves the rules of probability
and statistics which will not be discussed here.
Order of Magnitude
The first order of approximation is done by estimating the measurement by powers of 10. Fermi
questions are answered by thinking of reasonable assumptions followed by simple calculations
that narrow down the range of values where the answer lies. Hence, Fermi questions are
answered in terms of order of magnitude. The order of magnitude is the power of ten at which a
quantity is expected to fall in. For example, in calculating for the number of seconds in the year
which is exactly 3 x107 s/yr, order of 106 to 107 is sufficient an approximate.

Significant Figures
The significant figures in an experimental measurement include the numbers that can be directly
read from the instrument scale plus an additional estimated number. Some of the rules in
counting the number of SF are listed below.
1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant.

2. If there is no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant.
3. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit even if it is zero is the least significant.
4. All digits between the least and the most significant digits are considered to be significant.
Problem may arise if the decimal point is

Example 1: Numbers and the number of
omitted and the rightmost digit is zero. This
digits that is significant
may be solved by presenting the data in
1. 1200 2 SF
scientific notation. For example, 3560 has 3 SF
2. 13.20 4 SF
but the zero may be significant. Thus, the
3. 112000. 6 SF
number may be written in the powers of ten,
4. 0.003456 4 SF
that is, 3.560 x 103 which shows that the last
zero digit is significant.
Multiplication and Division Example 2: Multiplying two measurements:

In multiplication and division of two or more 2.34 x 2.2 = 5.148 = 5.1
measurements, the number of SF in the final Since, the least number of SF is two, the
answer is equal to the least number of SF in answer should be reported as 5.1. An
the measurements. experimental data cannot be made more
significant by a mathematical operation.
Addition and Subtraction
In addition or subtraction, the sum or

difference has SF only in the decimal places Example 3: Adding two measurements:
where the digits of the measurement are both 6.56 +3.1 = 9.66 = 9.7
significant. Hence, we report the sum or Since, the least number of decimal place is
difference which corresponds to the least one, the answer should be reported as 9.7.
number of decimal place of the addends.
Rounding off
Nonsignificant digits are removed if they are at the right of the decimal point. The rightmost
significant digit is retained and rounded off. The rules for rounding off are as follows:
1. If the fraction is less than 0.5, the last SF is left unchanged.

2. If the fraction is greater than or equal to 0.5, the last SF is increased by 1.
3. In cases of multi-step mathematical operation, only the final result should be rounded off.

Absolute and Relative Uncertainty
The second approximation to Example 4: Best estimate of repeated

uncertainty analysis is based on measurements.
maximum pessimism. This implies that a A student did a repetitive measurement of length
measurement cannot be expressed as a and obtained the following data: 215 m, 222 m,
single, exact value but is a range of 219 m, 231 m, 224 m
values wherein the true measurement The expectation value, :
lies, called the best estimate of the = 215+ 222+ 219+ 231+ 224 = 222 m
measurement. The best estimate of an 5
experimental data set is usually To obtain the uncertainty, , subtract the
presented as = (1) from the maximum value and the minimum value.
where is termed as the expectation The larger of the two differences is the uncertainty
value or the central value, which can be of the data.
used for further calculations. For 231 m 222 m = 9 m
repeated measurements, the 222 m 215 m = 7 m
expectation value is usually obtained by The difference 9 m is greater than 7 m, hence the
computing the mean value of the best estimate of the data is reported as
measurement trials. = 222 m 9 m
The absolute uncertainty of the measurement is denoted by . The absolute uncertainty gives
us the quality of the measurement process, and its value can be used in continued calculations on
uncertainties. Note that, as the name implies, the absolute uncertainty represents the actual
amount, or range by which the expectations value is uncertain. For single measurements, the
absolute uncertainty is defined as the least count of the measuring device divided by two. The
least count of a measuring device is the smallest division in that device. For example, in Figure 2,
the least count of the device is 1 mm, because that is the smallest division in the device that you
can obtain. To calculate the absolute uncertainty of repeated measurements, refer to Example 4.
For example, in measuring the length of a table, a best estimate of 35 cm 2 cm implies that the
true length lies within the range of 33 cm to 37 cm. Example 4 shows how to obtain the absolute
uncertainty of a data set.
To determine the significance of the uncertainty, we have to extend its definition. For example, if
you obtained an absolute uncertainty of 0.1 cm, how do you explain its significance? When we
measure the length of a book, or perhaps a table, the value of this absolute uncertainty is
significant to some extent. However, if we are to measure the distance between two provinces,
or interplanetary distance, an absolute uncertainty of 0.1 cm is highly insignificant. On the other
hand, an absolute uncertainty of 0.1 cm becomes meaningless if we are to measure the size of
microscopic organisms such as viruses.
Obviously, the significance of an uncertainty value depends on the magnitude of the

measurement itself. Hence, it is desirable to compare an absolute uncertainty with the actual

value of the measurement. For this purpose, we define a quantity called the relative uncertainty,

of the measurement. It is defined by (%) = 100% (2)
The relative uncertainty is often quoted as a percentage so that in Example 4, the relative
uncertainty is 9/222 = 4.05 %. Therefore, the best estimate in terms of relative uncertainty
may be reported in the form 222 m 4%. Note that the number of SF in the absolute
uncertainty is equal to the number of SF in the relative uncertainty.
The relative uncertainty gives us a much better feeling for the quality of the measurement, and
we often refer it the precision of the measurement. The absolute uncertainty has the same
dimensions and units as the expectation value of the measurement, whereas the relative
uncertainty, being a ratio, has neither dimensions nor units and is a pure number.
Uncertainty Propagation
The rules for compounding uncertainty of measurements are still based on maximum pessimism.
For most laboratory work, the following rules are sufficient:
Let = , = , and =
1. Addition and Subtraction. In addition or subtraction, the absolute uncertainty of the sum or
difference is the sum of the absolute uncertainties of the terms.
e.g. = = =
2. Multiplication. If two numbers are being multiplied, the relative uncertainty of the product is
the sum of the relative uncertainties of the factors.
e.g. = = (%) = (%) + (%)
3. Power. If a number is raised to a power, the relative uncertainty of the result is the product of
the relative uncertainty of the number and the absolute value of the power to which the number
is raised.
e.g. = = (%) = || (%)
where a is any number
From rules 2 and 3, it is obvious that for division, the relative uncertainty of the quotient is the
sum of the relative uncertainties of the numbers being divided, as in multiplication. The
assignment of uncertainty bounds depend on the judgment of the experimenter based on many
factors such as the measuring device, the quantity to be measured and the precision needed.
Deviation
If a set of experimental data is compared to an acceptable measurement of the variable being

measured to determine the accuracy of the measurement, it is necessary to define a new quantity
called deviation.
The absolute deviation of a measurement is the absolute difference between the accepted value
and the experimental value of the measurement.
absolute deviation = |accepted value experimental value|
To determine the significance of the absolute deviation, we define the relative deviation of a
measurement as the ratio between the absolute deviation and the accepted value:
relative deviation = absolute deviation x 100%

accepted value
Acceptability of Measurement Results
To determine the acceptability of a measurement result, we follow the following rules:
1. If the accepted value of measurement is given, a measurement is acceptable if the

absolute deviation is less than the absolute uncertainty.
2. If a maximum percent error is given, a measurement is acceptable if the relative
uncertainty is less than the maximum percent error given.
Note that if both the accepted value of the measurement and a maximum percent error are given,
then a measurement is acceptable only if both the above conditions are satisfied.
Reference
D.C. Baird, Experimentation: An Introduction to Measurement Theory and Experiment Design, 3rd
Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., USA, 1995.
EXPERIMENT 1A
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this activity you should be able to:

1. Report the best estimate of observables and quantify it.
2. Determine if a theoretical prediction is acceptable given the precision and deviation of an
experimental data.
3. Report the final data in terms of the proper degree of precision.
4. Appreciate the role of measurements in scientific activity.
MATERIALS
Calculator
PROCEDURE
Answer the following problems and questions. Fill-out the tables. Show your solutions
and box final answers.

PRELIMINARY DATA SHEET EXPERIMENT 1A

Technical Performance: _____ (20)

GROUP NUMBER ___________
DATE PERFORMED ___________ Question & Answer: _____ (20)
GROUP MEMBERS ____________________________________
____________________________________ Accuracy of Results: _____ (20)
____________________________________
____________________________________ TOTAL SCORE: _____ (60)
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
A. Scientific notation and rounding off.

Round off the following numbers up to three significant figures and express them in scientific
notation.
Table 1
0.000 856 400 10.562 3
0.0320 23.370909092
3 26 500 8.595 00
2183980390 2053
56.450 001 96.442 5
1.0252 43353
90 523.5 4 646.56
3145.8888 104500001
146 500 000 001 10.050 000
.0000320099 10.11

B. Rules on significant figures on operation.

Perform the following operations. Write your answers in correct number of siznificant figures.
Table 2
96.895 + 4.65 26.453 12 x 6.500 323343 + 300
265.239 008 + 86 000 958 54.2 / 26.598 200. 54.6
5.610 257 - 2.5 962.581/25 8836 X 5
88. 264 4 -15 26.53 x 12.5 + 6.98 -2.1 / 0.905 443/5
13.265 x 4.1 53.24 + 15 x 2.36/5 -7.625 x 26 5.42
C. Acceptability of measurement results.

Compute for the best estimate of the observables presented in Table 3, given a number of its
corresponding estimates. Write your best estimate in the form . Complete Table 4
based on data from Table 3. Briefly answer the questions that follow. Use proper units. Indicate
if additional sheet/s is/are used.
Table 3. Best estimates of observables

Observable Trial Best Accepted
1 2 3 4 5 estimate value
3.1514 3.1421 3.1416 3.1420 3.1501 3.1416
length (cm) 6.544 6.555 6.523 6.520 6.575 6.61
volume (m )3 1.045 1.203 1.158 1.009 1.001 1.100
mass (g) 5.5 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.2
speed (m/s) 1.507 1.601 1.512 1.514 1.500 1.6
Table 4. Absolute and relative deviation.

Observable Absolute Deviation Relative deviation

length (cm)
volume (m3)
mass (g)
speed (m/s)
1. The following data are the results of measuring an observable using repeated trials:
76.5 .5 75.0 .5 76.22 .01 74.3 .2 75.7 .3
How should the measurement be reported (central value uncertainty)? Write your calculations
below and box your final answer.
2. The following data are the results of measuring an observable using repeated trials:
5.34 .05 5.44 .05 5.3 .5 5.4 .1
A. How should the measurement be reported (central value uncertainty)? Write your
calculations below and box your final answer.
B. If the accepted value of the measurement of the observable in the previous question is 5.5, is
the measurement acceptable? Explain.
3. The following data are the measurements of the dimensions of a box:

l = 5.0 .3 cm h = 52.3 .5 mm w = 1.03 .01 m
A. How should the volume of the box be reported (central value uncertainty)? Write your
calculations below and box your final answer.
B. If the accepted value of the volume of the box in the previous question is 2700. cm3, is the
measurement acceptable? Discuss your answer.

D. Uncertainty of calculated values.

Compute for the minimum possible value for each of the quantities given below. Given are the
best estimates of the variables needed. Observe proper units.
Square of time t2 if t = 50.004 2.0 s.
expectation value <t2 >: _____; minimum t2: _____; maximum value t2: _____

Period of pendulum = 2 if l = 100.00 2.00 cm and g= 9.81 0.10 m/s2
expectation value <T >: _____; minimum T: _____; maximum value T: _____
1. Check if the following measurements are correctly reported. If yes, write C. If not, write the
correct way to report the measurement.
Measurement Answer (C or the corrected form)
5.03 .05
10.5 2.5
110 12
553.5 1
250 10
311.2 5 %
2. Convert the following uncertainties from relative to absolute and vice-versa.
Measurement Answer (with converted uncertainty)
51
45 20 %
223 5
80.1 4 %
33.33 .03
17.111 7 %
APPROVED: __________________
(Laboratory Instructor)
DATE: ________________________

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. How did you estimate the value of the uncertainty for the best estimate? Explain why this is valid.
2. Based on Table 3 and Table 4, which observable has absolute deviation greater than the
uncertainty obtained?
3. Which of the observables can be considered to have an acceptable experimental proof? Why?
4. What is the importance of reporting uncertainties? Why cant measurements be exact without any
doubt?
5. Can a measurement system be precise but not accurate, or be accurate but not precise? Cite a
situation when this can happen.
6. Why do you think the absolute uncertainty is expressed using only one significant figure, and why
must the central value follow it? What difference would it make if more than one significant figure
is used in the uncertainty?
7. What are the examples of errors in measurement that repeated trials can minimize? List down at
least two errors.
8. Some physical constants are irrational, such as the value of . Why is it acceptable to use only a
rounded value of instead of using as many digits as you can when using it in calculations? Discuss
your answer.

Problem 1 ________
LABORATORY EXERCISE 1A Problem 2 ________
Problem 3 ________
MEASUREMENT, UNCERTAINTY AND DEVIATION TOTAL SCORE: ________
NAME OF STUDENT ___________________________________ DATE _____________

STUDENT NUMBER ___________________________________ SECTION _____________
1. In measuring the volume of a metal sample, the volume (V) obtained was 19.6
0.2 m3 and the mass (m) obtained was 2.45 0.15 kg. What is the absolute
uncertainty of the density () calculated using the equation, = m/V
SOLUTION
2. A simple pendulum is used to measure the acceleration due to gravity, using =

2. The period T was measured to be 1.34 .02 s and the length to be 0.581
0.002 m. What is the resulting value for g with its absolute and relative
uncertainty?
SOLUTION

3. An experiment to measure the density, , of a cylindrical object uses the equation

= m / r2l where m is the mass, r is the radius and l is the length of the cylindrical
object. The dimensions of the object is listed below.
m = 0.033 0.005 kg, r = 8.0 0.1 mm, l = 14.60.1
mm.
What is the absolute uncertainty of the calculated value of the density?
SOLUTION

EXPERIMENT 1B
USING CALIPERS
BACKGROUND
Calipers are devices that can measure dimensions of small objects and hard to measure
observables. The main advantage of using one is it allows user to find the very small fractional
measurements (up to micrometer scale).
This activity teaches the use of calipers and the application of uncertainty and precision in
measuring devices.
THEORY
Main and Fractional Scale
A measurement of a specific device consists of two parts (a) main scale reading ( ) and (b)
fractional scale ( ). The main scale reading is determined by reading the largest measurement
the device can provide. On the other hand, the fractional scale is the fraction of the least count
(smallest possible measurement) of the device or may be estimated by the experimenter. In the
end, the final measurement is found by adding the main scale reading and the fractional scale
reading, that is = + (1)
Ruler
Figure 1 shows how the length of an object may

be measured using a ruler with least count of
0.25 cm and an estimated fraction part of
0.13cm. The experiment may report 4.38
0.07cm or 4.4 0.1 cm as his or her best = 4.00 cm = 0.25 cm
estmate as long as the range of the reporting is estimated fraction= 0.25/2 = 0.13 cm
practical and consistent with maximum = + + estimated fraction
pessimism or rounding off principles. Also, the = 4.38 cm
reporting of uncertainty should also be
consistent. In adding the main scale, fractional Figure 1. The length of an object is measured
scale and estimated fraction 0.13 cm is using a ruler. The estimated fraction is
reported instead of 0.125 cm since adding all approximated after visually dividing the ruler's
these make the 0.005 insignificant. least count.
Vernier Caliper
The French mathematician Pierre Vernier (1580-1637) invented the Vernier caliper in 1631, a
device that can measure outer and inner diameters or lengths as well as depths. Figure 2 shows
the parts of a Vernier caliper.
The parts of the Vernier caliper are:

main scale
(4 and 5)
reads the
main scale
reading
obtained by
taking the
last mark of
the main
scale before
the zero of
Figure 2. A picture of a typical Vernier caliper showing the main scale (4 for
Vernier
metric and 5 for English system), Vernier scale (6 for metric and 7 for English
scale (edge
system), clamping mouth (1 for outer diameters and 2 for inner), locking screw
of zero
(8 ) and depth probe (3).
mark).
Vernier scale (6 and 7) estimates the fractional scale reading by taking the order of the Vernier
scale mark that literally aligns with the main scale mark.
clamping mouth (1) used to measure diameters, opposite to this mouth (2) is used to measure
inner diameters of pipes.
depth probe (3) used to measure depths.
locking screw (8) used to lock the caliper after setting it. The caliper is set after applying enough
pressure (avoid squeezing the object) as the clamping mouth spans the diameter of the object.
The zero reading of the Vernier scale is obtained by closing the mouth completely and getting the
reading. If the main scale reading is to the left of zero, the least count of the main scale should be
subtracted from the fractional reading.
Before using measuring devices be sure that they are properly calibrated and are in good working
condition. Calibration of instruments involves ensuring they work well within the range of values
being measured and are properly zeroed. The Vernier caliper is properly zeroed if the zero mark
of the main scale coincides with the Vernier scale when the clamping mouth is closed.
In using a Vernier caliper the clamping mouth is set after applying enough pressure to keep the
object in place but not enough to deform or squeeze it. The lock may be turned to ensure that the
clamping mouth will not move even if the measured object is removed.
How to Use a Vernier Caliper
A Vernier caliper allows better estimation of the fractional part of a length measurement by the
use of its VERNIER SCALE (VS). To read the Vernier scale, the LEAST COUNT (LC) or the precision
of the caliper must be known. This is obtained by counting how many subdivisions the VS will
make on the main scale. The caliper in Figure 2 has the smallest reading on the main scale at 0.1
cm. Meanwhile, the Vernier scale can create 20 subdivisions. Hence LC is obtained using
1
= = 0.05 (2)
20

Figure 3 shows an example of Vernier caliper reading. The caliper has 50 (including the smaller
tick marks) Vernier divisions and its smallest reading on the main scale is 1 mm. Hence the LC of
1
the caliper is = 0.02 .
50
Figure 3. A close up view of the Vernier caliper. What is the least count of the caliper? What is
the reading of the caliper?
In reading a Vernier scale measurement, take the main scale reading at the left of the zero mark
of the VS, not the edge. In Figure 3, the main scale reading is 26 mm. Next, take the VS scale line
which is coincient with the Vernier scale. Note that in Figure 3, the VS mark coincides at the 17 th
line. From these values we can determine the measurement of the Vernier caliper: The
uncertainty in readings is subjective. Its value must be given by the experimenter. As rule of
thumb, the uncertainty should be half of the least count as long as no other technical reason
interferes with the measurement process.
Micrometer Caliper
A micrometer caliper estimates the fractional scale using a screw mechanism. The displacement
of the barrel is proportional to the number of turns of the thimble. For example, if the thimble
moves at a distance of 0.5mm per rotation, then dividing the thimble into 50 equal parts would
make the least count to be 0.01 mm.

Figure 4 shows the parts of a typical

micrometer caliper:
(J) jaw part that actually spans the

diameter/length/width of the sample.
(B) barrel used to read out the main
scale
(M) reading (the last mark the edge of the
thimble has passed), in case of ambiguity,
look at the value of the thimble reading (if Figure 4. Micrometer caliper showing its main
less than half a revolution it means the
(barrel) scale (M), thimble scale (T) for its
thimble has just passed the mark).
(T) thimble rotated to make the jaw fractional scale, lock (L), jaw (J), and rachet (R).
clamp the object , this part is divided
equally along the edges so that the fraction of
revolution can be obtained.
(R) rachet this is a knob that is tightened or loosened
to set the strength of clamping to the object.
(L) lock this is used to keep the setting of the
instrument for reading (used if the sample is hard-to-
reach and the micrometer need to be removed from
site to read the measurement).
Figure 5. Correct way of tightening
The micrometer screw must be turned at the rachet
the jaw of the micrometer caliper
while closing the jaw to prevent the screw mechanism
from wearing off and to avoid excessive clamping of turning the rachet until one or two
the sample to be measured. One or two clicks from the clicks. Make sure that the
rachet should indicate enough tightness of the clamp. micrometer is unlocked.
Each complete rotation is divided and marked into

equal subdivisions which make reading of the
fractional part straightforward. Arbitrary further
division (user dependent) in the thimble reading can be
done. See for example in Figure 6. The main scale
reading is = 13.5mm, since the upper marks
correspond to 1mm and the lower to 0.5mm marks.
This particular micrometer caliper has 50 divisions in
the circular scale. One full turn moves it 0.5 mm.
Therefore, the least count of the fine scale is
0.50mm/50 = 0.01mm. The fine scale has passed the
21st notch therefore = 0.01 mm x 21 = 0.21mm.
However, as can be noticed, we can still make the
Figure 6. An example of micrometer
reading finer by having fractional reading within the
thimble's least count the zero barrel mark is near the reading, The mark shows a reading
22 nd notch, say, it may be around 8/10 of 0.01mm or of 13,718 mm.
0.008mm. The fine scale reading plus estimate will
then be 0.218mm. So the final reading =13.5mm +
0.218mm or = 13.718 mm.

EXPERIMENT 1B
USING CALIPERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Appreciate the role of the available measurement precision to the practical choice of
measuring device.
2. Measure the dimensions of an object using a ruler, a Vernier caliper and a micrometer caliper.
3. Identify a metal sample based on its density.
MATERIALS
Ruler
Vernier Caliper
Micrometer Clamp Caliper
Digital Balance
Sphere and cylindrical samples
PROCEDURE
1. Calibrate the ruler, Vernier caliper,

micrometer caliper and the digital
balance by noting the least count of
these equipment. Input your data in
Table 1 of the worksheet.
2. Measure the mass of the metal samples

using the digital balance. Use Table 2 to
record the masses. Compute for the
relative uncertainty by using the
expression

(%) = 100% (3) Figure 7. To measure the outer width and length of
the metal sample, use the clamping mouth. To
3. Measure the dimensions of the sample measure the inner width and length, use the jaws
and tabulate in Table 3. of the Vernier caliper.
4. Compute for the volume of the samples. Assume a specific shape for each sample. Write out your
computed volumes Table 4.
5. Finally, compute for the density (rho) of the samples using = M/V
6. Compute the relative uncertainty and absolute uncertainty of the density values. Write them
down in Table 5.
7. Identify what type of metal the samples are made of by comparing your computed densities with
densities of different metals.
PRELIMINARY DATA SHEET EXPERIMENT 1B

USING CALIPERS

GROUP MEMBERS ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________ TOTAL SCORE: _____ (60)
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
A. Calibration of measuring devices

Complete the table below to determine the least count and estimated uncertainty of the vernier
caliper and the weighing scale.
Data Table 1. Least count and estimated uncertainty of the measuring devices used.
Weighing Ruler Vernier Micrometer
Scale Caliper Caliper
Main scale
(least count)
Number of fractional
divisions
Least count
Estimated uncertainty
Based on the least count of ruler, Vernier caliper and micrometer caliper, which of the devices
is most precise?
B. Calculation of the density of the sample

1. Mass measurement
Data Table 2. Masses of the metal samples. The relative uncertainties are based on the estimated
uncertainty in Data Table 1.
Metal sample Mass (g) Relative Uncertainty (%)
A

2. Volume measurement
Data Table 3. Measured dimensions of the metal samples using the ruler (R), Vernier caliper (VC) and
micrometer caliper (MC). The relative uncertainties Ax and Bx are based on the absolute uncertainty in
Data Table 1.
A (x+Ax) B (x+Bx)
Ruler
Height VC
MC
Ruler
Outer diameter VC
MC
Data Table 4. Volume of the samples. The uncertainties are calculated from the absolute uncertainties in
Data Table 3. Write out your solution in a separate sheet ofpaper.
Measuring Device Sample V (mm3) V (%) V (mm3)
A
Ruler
B
A
Vernier Caliper
B
A
Micrometer Caliper
B
3. Density measurement
Data Table 5. Sample identification. From the values of the mass and volume found in Data Tables
2 and 4, calculate the best estimate ofthe density ofthe samples. Researchfor the densities of these
samples.
Measuring Device Sample (g/cm3) (%) (g/cm3)
A
Ruler
B
A
Vemier caliper
B
micrometer A
caliper B
Identify what element comprised sample A and B.
A: ___________________ B: ___________________
APPROVED: __________________
DATE: ________________________
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What assumption(s), if any, in the shape of the samples is/are most likely not realized?
2. Would the use of a more precise length measuring device improve the performance of the
method used to determine the density of the sample metals?
3. Can this method accurately identify the major percent composition of an alloy?

EXPERIMENT 1C
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
BACKGROUND
The most convenient way of presenting a dataset is through graphical presentation. A graph is
defined as the pictorial representation of a set of data which could be in 2 or 3 dimensions. It
allows the experimenter to understand the relationship between 2 or more parameters.
THEORY
Graphs may involve shapes, curves and symbols. Some types of graphs are pie, bubble, scatter,
bar and line graphs. Figure 1 shows an example of two dimensional scatter graph which is most
commonly used as a way to present the relationship between the two variables.
Figure 1. The plot shows a linear relationship between the square

of the period of a simple pendulum and the length of the string.
Graphs have basic parts that need some attention before they could express their purpose
well, Shown in Figure 1 is a sample graph with parts described below.
a) Title This part is usually placed at the top of each graph. It tells a specific thought about what
the graph shows. Since a caption is usually included, this part can be omitted due to redundancy.
b) Axes This is the part that shows the values of the variables involved. The x-axis usually contains
the parameter values (independent variable) and y-axis contains the observable in question
(dependent variable). The range of values in the axes should be reasonably enough for the range
of data concerned be shown. Oftentimes, the maximum and the minimum scale should also be
adjusted to give the best display (the numbers are well spaced and readable).
c) Labels Labels are words or phrases that best describe the quantity being represented by an
axis. Thus there are two labels for a 2- dimensional graph since there are two variables (thus two
axes) involved. It should be noted that a label includes the unit used in measurement.
d) Symbols These could be filled circles, squares, triangles, and other shapes that represents a
point or a thought about a data point. These symbols should be clear enough (not too big but not
too small) so that other datasets plotted in the same set of axes can be easily differentiated. Color
and/or shading should be utilized to maximize this effect. Shadows and other "special" or
"aesthetic" effects should be avoided specially for graphs with technical or formal purposes.
e) Legend This describes each of the dataset used in a graph. Using a word or a short phrase, the
legend differentiates different symbols used. This is not necessary for graphs that shows only
one dataset.
f) Caption This is used to briefly describe the idea being presented by a graph by clearly pointing
out salient parts in the presentation (e.g. skewed points, alignment of points, trends, similarities).
Important parameters not in any of the axes should be mentioned and described in this part. It is
a challenge for the presentor to make captions as short as possible. Captions may include titles
which may prove useful for quick glances.
Graphing Procedures
Variables are commonly plotted in a rectangular coordinate system. The dependent variable is
placed on the y-axis and the independent variable is placed on the x-axis. The location of a point
on a graph is defined by its x and y coordinates, written (x,y), with respect to a specific origin.
In plotting a dataset, the axis scales should be chosen such that the plot is easy to understand.
With axis scales that are too small, the points will bunch together, making the plot
incomprehensible.
Error Bars
Collection of data involves measurement; hence, this implies that uncertainties are present. In
plotting a set of data which includes the expectation value and its corresponding uncertainties,
the expectation value is plotted and the corresponding uncertainty is presented as an error bar.
Error bars show the possible range of values of one or more variables in a data point. This is useful
since it allows the experimenter to know the range of possible values under the influence of a
certain variable.
Trendlines and linear fit
Data points in an x-y scatter plot should not be individually connected by lines. In the event that
the experimenter is certain about the relationship of the variables being presented, a smooth line
or curve called the best fit line can be drawn to represent the known relationship. The word
"smooth" does not imply that the line or curve must pass exactly through each point. But the best
fit line should best represent the data set. This type of plotting is called eyeball method. The main
criterion for this method is to minimize the distances of all data points from the line drawn.
Once linearized, the variables can be represented using the equation

= + (1)
where m and b are constants that represent the slope and the y-intercept of the plot respectively.
Slope is an algebraic relationship of the line and is given by the equation

= (2)

Any set of interval may be used to determine the slope of a linear plot. But for best results, points
should be chosen within the bestfit line. If the data point is not included in the best fit line, it
should not be used to calculate the slope of the graph.
Other forms of nonlinear functions may also be represented as a linear plot. For example, the
equation
= 3 + (3)
3
may be reduced to a linear equation if we let = Hence, Equation (3) reduces to the form
= + (4)
which is just equivalent to Equation 1.
Graphing using a spreadsheet
The following is a step by step way to plot data using Microsoft Excel.
1. Input your x and y data in two separate columns. Try this out using the sample data from your
worksheet.
2. Highlight these two columns and click "insert" and then charts icon on your ribbon Tabs and
Commands. Choose x, y scatter chart type. Do not use connecting lines.
3. In the chart tools design, click quick layout and choose layout 1. Enter the chart title, x-axis
label and y-axis label. You may also click on the tabs to modify the axes, gridlines, legend and data
labels. Just continue modifying to have your desired plot.

4. To include error bars on your plot, just type half of the magnitude of your error bar on a column
beside your y-data points. Click Add Chart Elements and then Error Bars and then choose
More Error Bar Options.
In the Error Amount in the Format Error Bars Menu, choose custom and set the positive and
negative error values by highighting the error bars column in the spreadsheet.
5. To add a trendline, click Add Chart Elements and then Trendline. Choose Linear for linear
relationships or choose the corresponding best fit curve for your plot.

To insert the equation of your trendline, click on the Trendline Options in the Format
Trendline Menu and check the box on Display Equation on Chart. Also check the box on
Display R-squared Value on Chart to display the R-squared Value that represents the closeness
of fit of the trendline to the data points. An R-squared value of 1 is desired which means all the
data points fall on the trendline. An R-squared value of zero means the data points are far from
the trendline.

EXPERIMENT 1C
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Create a graphical representation of a given set of data that will best show its purpose.
2. Formulate a theory or a model based on the parameters from a graph of
experimental data using linear fit and trendlines.
3. Learn how to use spreadsheets (Microsoft Excel) and some of its basic functions.
MATERIALS
Calculator
Laptop
PROCEDURE
A. Presenting data set graphically
During an experiment, a physics student obtained the following data:

x 0.10 y0.5
-5 384.5
-4 208
-3 96.5
-2 35
-1 8.5
1 0.5
2 -11
3 47.5
4 -124
5 -255.5
The variables x and y are the independent and dependent variables of the experiment,
respectively.
1. Plot y as a function of x.
2. Plot y as a function of x2 .
3. Plot y as a function of x3 .
4. Label accordingly, show error bars, trendline, equation and R-squared value of the
trendline.
B. Problem solving using graphical analysis
1. The Chronicles of Narnia: The King, the Prince and the Heirloom. On his King-father's
deathbed, Prince Caspian of Narnia was mandated to find the mass (M) of the royal family's
heirloom. After days of sleepless nights, he was reminded of a very important lesson from the
great Professor Digory: The Parallel-Axis Theorem. This states that a body rotating about an
axis parallel to and at a distance d from the center-of-mass axis has a moment of inertia IP
about that axis written as IP = ICM + Md2 where ICM is the moment of inertia about the center
of mass. By the Prince's command, Reepicheep, the commander of the Army, conducted a
series of experiments using Vernier LabPro that could determine d and IP at precisions (least
counts) of 0.10 cm and 0.50 gcm2 respectively. Reepicheep was a great warrior, but so poor
a physicist, that he tabulated his data so horrendously:
A. Re-tabulate Reepicheep's data correctly
by writing the expectation value of the (gcm2) (cm)
moment of inertia and the distance from 1.5 2.51
the center of mass based on the given
precisions. Write your answer in Table 1. 2.52 3.6
2
B. Plot vs. d . Attach printout of the 4.010 7
graph in a separate paper. Calculate the 8.1200 8.667
best estimate of the mass of the
11.010 9.41
mysterious heirloom.
C. Use linear regression to calculate the best estimate of the mass of the mysterious
heirloom.
2. Off to the moon! The accepted value for the acceleration due to gravity of the lunar surface
gmoon, is 1/6 that of the earth, g = 9.8m/s2 . You decided to go to the moon and conduct
experiments to verify this value. However, because of your busy schedule, you have no time
to go to the moon and decided to send your younger brother instead. He conducted free
fall experiments, measuring the time it takes for a freely-falling ball to reach the lunar
surface upon release from an initial height h. He used a timer with 0.001 s precision (least
count) and a meterstick with a least count of 1 mm, His estimated fraction for the meterstick
is 0.5 mm. He obtained the following data below. However, he has no physics training when
it comes to reporting measured data.
A. Retabulate your younger brother's data correctly by writing the t(s) h(m)
expectation value of the time and the initial height based on the 0.34 0.1
given precisions. Write your answer in Table 2.
2 0.58 0.27
B. If t and h are related by h = gt , obtain the best estimate
for the gmoon. 1 0.85
Attach printout of the graph in a separate paper. 1.3410 1.65
C. Use linear regression to calculate the best estimate for the 1.604 2.5
gmoon.

PRELIMINARY DATA SHEET EXPERIMENT 1C

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

GROUP MEMBERS ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________ TOTAL SCORE: _____ (60)
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
A. Presenting data set graphically

Attach printout of your three graphs in a separate paper.
B. Problem solving using graphical analysis

A. Table 1.
(gcm2) (cm)
Attach printout of the graph vs. d2in a separate paper.
B. Calculate the best estimate of the mass of the mysterious heirloom from the equation of the
trendline.
Solution:

Final Answer: M =___________

C. Calculate the best estimate of the mass of the mysterious heirloom using linear regression.
Solution:
Final Answer: M =___________
A. Table 2.
t(s) h(m)
Attach printout of the graph in a separate paper.
B. Obtain the best estimate for the gmoon from the equation of the trendline.
Solution:
Final Answer: gmoon __________________
C. Calculate the best estimate for the gmoon using linear regression.
Solution:
Final Answer: gmoon __________________
APPROVED: __________________
DATE: ________________________
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. In the plot of y as a function of x, can you conclude with certainty that the plot is
linear? Explain your answer. You may try to fit a line using the eyeball method and
argue from there.
2. In the plot of y as a function of x2, can you conclude with certainty that the plot is
argue from there.
3. In the plot of y as a function of x3, can you conclude with certainty that the plot is
argue from there.
4. From your answers in items 1-3, determine the degree (in x) of the equation relating
y and x. (Recall that the equation y=ax2 +bx+c has a degree of 2 in x.)
5. Do the best estimates obtained using equation of the trendline of the graph match
with that obtained from linear regression?

Measuring Uncertainty and Deviation Using Calipers

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PHY05

In a scientific endeavor, experiments involve collection of information or data through

Since measurement involves unknown quantities, there is always an uncertainty in the

Precision and Accuracy

Figure 1. Arrows on a bullseye. Four-point

To understand more clearly the difference between

1-2 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

During the measurement process, deviation may also

1-3 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant.

Problem may arise if the decimal point is

Multiplication and Division Example 2: Multiplying two measurements:

In addition or subtraction, the sum or

1. If the fraction is less than 0.5, the last SF is left unchanged.

1-4 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Absolute and Relative Uncertainty

The second approximation to Example 4: Best estimate of repeated

Obviously, the significance of an uncertainty value depends on the magnitude of the

1-5 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

e.g. = = (%) = (%) + (%)

e.g. = = (%) = || (%)

where a is any number

If a set of experimental data is compared to an acceptable measurement of the variable being

absolute deviation = |accepted value experimental value|

relative deviation = absolute deviation x 100%

To determine the acceptability of a measurement result, we follow the following rules:

1. If the accepted value of measurement is given, a measurement is acceptable if the

At the end of this activity you should be able to:

1-7 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

PRELIMINARY DATA SHEET EXPERIMENT 1A

Technical Performance: _____ (20)

A. Scientific notation and rounding off.

1-8 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

B. Rules on significant figures on operation.

265.239 008 + 86 000 958 54.2 / 26.598 200. 54.6

5.610 257 - 2.5 962.581/25 8836 X 5

88. 264 4 -15 26.53 x 12.5 + 6.98 -2.1 / 0.905 443/5

13.265 x 4.1 53.24 + 15 x 2.36/5 -7.625 x 26 5.42

C. Acceptability of measurement results.

Table 3. Best estimates of observables

Table 4. Absolute and relative deviation.

3. The following data are the measurements of the dimensions of a box:

1-10 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

D. Uncertainty of calculated values.

Square of time t2 if t = 50.004 2.0 s.

1-11 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

1-12 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

NAME OF STUDENT ___________________________________ DATE _____________

2. A simple pendulum is used to measure the acceleration due to gravity, using =

1-13 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

3. An experiment to measure the density, , of a cylindrical object uses the equation

1-14 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Main and Fractional Scale

Figure 1 shows how the length of an object may

The parts of the Vernier caliper are:

1-15 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

depth probe (3) used to measure depths.

How to Use a Vernier Caliper

1-16 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

1-17 MALAYAN COLLEGES LAGUNA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Figure 4 shows the parts of a typical

(J) jaw part that actually spans the

NAME OF STUDENT _______________________ DATE _