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The great 1787 Mexican tsunami

Article in Natural Hazards December 2008

DOI: 10.1007/s11069-008-9239-1

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Nat Hazards (2008) 47:569576
DOI 10.1007/s11069-008-9239-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

The great 1787 Mexican tsunami

Francisco J. Nunez-Cornu Modesto Ortiz John J. Sanchez

Received: 18 February 2008 / Accepted: 10 April 2008 / Published online: 30 April 2008

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract Tsunamis have proven to represent a significant hazard around the globe and
there is increased awareness about their occurrence. The Pacific coast in southern Mexico
is no exception, because there is firm evidence of the effects of past large tsunamis. Here
we present results from computer-aided modeling of the March 28, 1787-San Sixto
earthquake and tsunami, and focus on the regions of Acapulco, Corralero, Jamiltepec, and
Tehuantepec, located along the Guerrero-Oaxaca coast. The theoretical waveforms suggest
wave heights in excess of 4 m and 18 m at specific locations in Acapulco and Corralero,
respectively, and wave heights of at least 2 m at locations in Jamiltepec and Tehuantepec.
From our modeling results and based on historical documents and the topography of the
area, we conclude that these wave heights would have been sufficient to cause inundations
that in the case of Acapulco were restricted to several meters inland, but in other areas like
Corralero reached at least 6 km inland. Our results are consistent with published and
unpublished damage reports that attest to the hazards associated with great earthquakes and
tsunamis along the subduction zone in Mexico

Keywords Tsunami hazards
Historical tsunami
Tsunami wave height

Tsunami modeling
Southern Mexico

F. J. Nunez-Cornu (&)
J. J. Sanchez

Centro de Sismologa y Volcanologa de Occidente, Centro Universitario de la Costa,
Universidad de Guadalajara, Avenida Universidad 203, C.P. 48280,
Puerto Vallarta, JA, Mexico
e-mail: pacornu77@gmail.com; pacornu77@yahoo.com.mx
J. J. Sanchez
e-mail: jjsanchez@pv.udg.mx

M. Ortiz
Dpto. de Oceanografa Fsica, Centro de Investigacion Cientfica y Educacion
Superior de Ensenada, Km 107, Cta. Tijuana Ensenada, Ensenada, BC 22860, Mexico
e-mail: ortizf@cicese.mx

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1 Introduction

Following the devastating tsunami triggered by the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake

tsunami hazards have been reevaluated around the world, (Bilek et al. 2007; Bilham 2005)
including the Pacific coast in southwestern Mexico where the largest reported tsunami
associated with a great earthquake took place in 1787 (Nunez-Cornu and Ponce 1989). Our
motivation for conducting the modeling of tsunami waveforms from this event was the
finding of impressive descriptions from survivors that suggested worrisome scenarios of
tsunami heights and inland penetration at various sites along the southern coast of Mexico,
including the large city of Acapulco which has become an important tourist destination. To
make some sense on the descriptions, results, and discussion presented in this article, it is
important to clarify that at the time of the 1787-San Sixto earthquake, there were in use
both the Mexican league and the Spanish league, old distance measurement units
equivalent to 4.19 km and 5.572 km, respectively.
Some of the oldest historical documents and accounts of the effects from the 1787-San
Sixto earthquake depict the sea drawing back for more than a league in some regions
along the Guerrero-Oaxaca coast, and then returning rapidly on more than one occasion
leaving a number of fishermen suspended from trees on a high hill reportedly located one-
and-a-half leagues inland (Valdez 1787). The 1787-San Sixto earthquake is also the
only shock that generated a tsunami with reported severe damage and localized seiches
along a NW-SE-oriented 278-km strip of coastline from Acapulco to Salina Cruz, in
southern Mexico (Fig. 1). More recent published data (Cruz and Wyss 1983) suggest that
in Acapulco Bay, tsunami heights were in excess of 4 m. The historical and published data
thus imply that the tsunami may have reached heights of several meters and the inundation
penetrated more than 6 km inland (Fig. 2). The 1787-San Sixto earthquake and tsunami
were indeed remarkable events.

2 Method

The effects of the 1787-San Sixto earthquake and tsunami are consistent with slip
along a shallowly dipping large submarine fault. The length of the seismogenic interface
between the Cocos and North American plates in the Oaxaca region has been estimated
(Nava et al. 1988) to be of more than 100 km, and the subduction velocity of the Cocos
plate under the North American plate is 6.7 cm/year (DeMets and Wilson 1997). To
model the vertical deformation of the sea floor during the 1787-San Sixto earthquake
we used a dislocation model that involves a simple rupture geometry and uniform slip
distribution on the fault plane (Mansinha and Smylie 1971). We thus model the causative
source of the earthquake as a reverse fault with dimensions of 120 km 9 90 km with
uniform slip distribution over the fault area. The values of uniform slip used were in the
range 59 m. The fault plane is aligned with the trench axis and dipping 12 NE at the
depth of 5 km. These parameters approximately fit the area and seismic moment of an
Mw8.3 to 8.4 earthquake (Utsu and Seki 1954; Wyss 1979; Singh et al. 1980; Hanks
and Kanamori 1997).
Additionally, our modeling of sea-floor deformation and tsunami generation involves
the simplified initial condition that the sea-level change is equivalent to sea-floor uplift
calculated from the fault dislocation model. The propagation of the tsunami is simulated by
the following linearized shallow-water equations (Pedlosky1979):

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Nat Hazards (2008) 47:569576 571

Fig. 1 Relief map of South-Central Mexico that includes most of the state of Oaxaca and eastern Guerrero.
Thick and faint solid black lines represent coast lines and state lines, respectively. The black polygon
encloses the modeled fault surface used to compute the theoretical tsunami waveforms during the 1787-San
Sixto earthquake. Cyan rectangle: area of Fig. 2. Yellow squares: Geographical locations mentioned in the
text. Hollow black symbols mark epicenters of earthquakes in the region. Pentagons: Deep earthquakes with
normal faulting mechanism. Triangles: Shallow earthquakes with reverse mechanism (subduction
earthquakes). Inverted triangles: Shallow earthquakes with normal faulting mechanism. Circles: earthquakes
with unknown depths and mechanisms. All epicenters are labeled with dates (YYYYMMDD)

og
r
M 0; 1
ot

oM
ghrg 0;
ot
where t is time, g is the vertical displacement of the water surface above the still water
level (the equipotential surface), h is the ocean depth, M is the horizontal depth-averaged
volume flux vector, and g is the gravitational acceleration.
Equation 1 is solved in a set of spherical coordinates using the finite difference method
with a staggered leap-frog scheme (Goto et al. 1997). In the computations the time step
was set to 1 s. The near shore bathymetry, from a water depth of 1,000 m to the coast line,
was taken from local navigational charts, and the offshore bathymetry was taken from the
ETOPO-2 data-set (Smith and Sandwell 1997). The digital bathymetric model for the
entire region was interpolated from both data sets and a grid spacing of 81 arc-seconds was
used to specify bathymetry for the whole region of tsunami propagation. Our analysis
results in expected wave heights and periods on specific locations along the coast. Syn-
thetic tsunami waveforms were computed along the coast at depths of *10 m (Figs. 3 and

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572 Nat Hazards (2008) 47:569576

Fig. 2 Digital elevation model of region inside red rectangle in Fig. 1. Data supplied by Instituto Nacional
de Estadstica, Geografa e Informatica. Colors highlight areas enclosed within different contour levels (see
color key inside map), computed using an Spline interpolation of topographic data. Brown polygons mark
locations and extents of various towns and cities, some mentioned in the text

4). The tsunami amplification factor because of shoaling from 10 m depth up to the coast is
practically negligible, and ranges from 1 to 2%.

3 Results and discussion

Using varying amounts of simultaneous slip in the range 59 m over the causative fault, we
computed expected tsunami heights at regularly spaced points along the coast (Fig. 3) and
consistently obtained waveforms that are relatively similar and only varied in maximum
wave heights (Table 1). In particular we look at the waveforms predicted for locations
where historic reports of tsunami effects are available: Acapulco, Corralero, Jamiltepec,
and Tehuantepec (Fig. 4). For 8 m of slip along the fault (Figs. 3 and 4), the tsunami
waveforms predicted for the regions of Acapulco, Corralero (Alotengo), Jamiltepec, and
Tehuantepec (Fig. 1) exhibit features that are quite consistent with reports of tsunami
effects found in the extensive historical record of natural events in Mexico (Valdez 1787;
Acosta and Suarez 1996; Martnez 1885). The following interesting excerpts translated
from the old descriptions following the 1787-San Sixto earthquake and tsunami drew
special attention:

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Nat Hazards (2008) 47:569576 573

Fig. 3 Map of Mexico (perspective view from the northeast, elevation 40) showing the computed heights
(m) of tsunami waves along the Pacific coast. See text and Fig. 1 for fault extent and model parameters.
Some topographic/bathymetric contours added for clarity. Red lines: Coast lines. Our model predicts a
maximum wave height of 18.3 m

because of this earthquake, the sea had been seen to withdraw, grow and overcome
the pier in Acapulco, over and again for 24 h; The Albufera de Alotengos
fishermen saw withdraw of the sea so much they could see colorful seabottom,
large rocks, and submarine trees for more than a league, and afterwards the sea
covered palm trees with its waves for a league as well, leaving many and diverse fish
in the trees; In the Jamiltepec coast, some inhabitants saved their lives by
climbing trees until the water receded; In Tehuantepec,frightening sea roars
were heard, when it threw fish and shells of strange shape onto the beach. The same
debris was found on Pochutla and Juquila beaches. An additional report from the
region of Corralero (Valdes 1787) states: It injured and left eleven fishermen
hanging from trees on a high hill, which was 1.5 leagues from the coastline. Only
some of those fishermen survived, but were injured and hurt; they described this
event; they were inhabitants of this zone.
To interpret these documents more accurately we take into consideration that: (a) A
Mexican league equals 4.19 km; (b) average height of palm trees along the coast is roughly
6 m; and (c) trees in the zone have average height of 5 m. For the zone of Acapulco Bay,
the description suggests the arrival of an initial large wave that covered the pier and the
subsequent generation of a stationary process known as seiche, in which confined waves
with heights in excess of 4 m would travel back and forth inside the bay during hours until
the energy is dissipated. The reports from Corralero (Alotengo) indicate that fish and
fishermen were left on trees located roughly 6 km inland and that the water covered palm
trees growing more than 4 km inland. The digital elevation model (Fig. 2) shows that a
large region surrounding the lagoon extends to a distance of approximately 4.5 km from
the coast line and elevations there are less than 5 m.a.s.l. Because the 10 m.a.s.l contour

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Fig. 4 Synthetic tsunami waveforms computed at four locations along the Guerrero-Oaxaca coast:
Acapulco, Corralero (formerly known as Alotengo), Jamiltepec, and Tahuantepec. These cities and towns
are referred to explicitly in various historical accounts of the effects during the 1787-San Sixto
earthquake and tsunami

Table 1 Wave heights esti-

Slip (m) Wave height (m) Earthquake
mated for varying amounts of
magnitude (Mw)
fault slip
5.0 11.4 8.3
6.0 13.7 8.3
7.0 16.0 8.4
8.0 18.3 8.4
9.0 20.6 8.4

line in the lagoon region locates to distances between 1.5 and 5 km from the coast, a
tsunami wave would require a height of 67 m to be able to cover palm trees in the areas
near the lagoon. The NW entrance to the narrow valley that runs between the town of El
Ciruelo and the lagoon is located at 6 km from the lagoon and 12 km inland, in the
direction of the lagoon, and the contour lines in the area show elevations that range

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Nat Hazards (2008) 47:569576 575

between 5 m.a.s.l. and 15 m.a.s.l.; thus it would require a 18 m-high wave inside this
valley to leave fish and fishermen hanging from trees. Such a wave would also be
channeled through the valley increasing its damage potential. There is also a lagoon in the
Jamiltepec area, with low elevations and flat terrain; thus if inhabitants were to be forced to
stay up in the trees until the water receded, we infer that the water during the inundation
must have had sustained depths of more than 2 m. Lastly, for the water to be heard in
Tehuantepec, and debris and fish to be left stranded on the beach we think that the wave
heights must have been higher than 2 m.
For the region of Acapulco (Figs. 1, 3, and 4), the predictions indicate initial tsunami
waves of more than 6 m in height and some later arrivals with amplitudes above 4 m,
coincident with the reports of effects at that locality following the 1787-San Sixto
earthquake. At Corralero (Figs. 1 through 4) we predict an initial large wave with
amplitude of 18.3 m, after which waves with amplitudes larger than 5 m would be
expected to arrive, a result that matches with the historical reports found for that area. In
the coast of Jamiltepec (Figs. 1, 3, and 4), the theoretical tsunami waveform shows a
maximum amplitude in excess of 3 m that would be enough to sustain inundation and keep
survivors on trees for several hours. Similarly, the 2 m-high waveforms computed for the
Tehuantepec area (Figs. 1, 3, and 4) represent tsunami waves large enough to transport and
deposit marine debris.
As a comparison, we note that during the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and
tsunami, the most severe effects were documented to the west of Banda Aceh, along the
coast that faces the Indian Ocean and the epicenter of the main shock. For example, at
Lhoknga a maximum run up (Borrero, et al. 2006) of 31 m was determined approximately
5 km inland, where land elevations are above 23 m.
Previous studies along the Guerrero-Oaxaca region have revealed intriguing features of
the seismicity there. A seismogenic zoning (Nunez-Cornu 1996) including data between
1507 and 1982 highlighted that southern Oaxaca (roughly between 97 W and 95.5 W and
16 N and 16.3 N) shows seismic activity that is more regular in temporal behavior, in
contrast with southwestern Oaxaca (between 99W and 97W and 15.7 N and 17.1 N)
where only three large earthquakes took place during 15421787 (1655, Ms B 7.5; 1740,
Ms B 8; and 1787 Ms C 8.4the San Sixto earthquake). This was followed by a quiet
period of 141 years, until the region generated seismicity again between 1928 and 2007
(earthquakes with magnitudes in the 77.4 range). We observe that the epicenters of
earthquakes in southwestern Oaxaca appear distributed and their rupture areas for recently
studied earthquakes do not overlap (Chael and Stewart 1982; Jimenez et al. 1983), indi-
cating the presence of various asperities where large earthquakes could generate,
suggesting that the proposed fault may have ruptured this zone. This temporal-spatial
variability in earthquake occurrence along the Guerrero-Oaxaca coast may reflect complex
geologic configuration and unknown features of the seismogenic zones. This area of the
Mexican coast could again be a scenario for a large tsunamigenic shock.

4 Conclusions

There is close agreement between historical reports from the 1787-San Sixto earthquake
and the predictions from our model, suggesting that at least 8 m of uniform slip on a
shallowly dipping submarine thrust fault could have produced this great earthquake. For a
similar large earthquake in the area, expected maximum tsunami wave heights at specific
localities are 6 and 18 m (near Acapulco and Corralero, respectively), and 3 and 2 m (near

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576 Nat Hazards (2008) 47:569576

Jamiltepec and Tehuantepec, respectively). Given that more than 200 years have elapsed
since the occurrence of the San Sixto earthquake and tsunami, with the consequent
growth in population and infrastructure, these results should have implications for earth-
quake and tsunami hazards and risks along the southern coast of Mexico and neighboring
areas; for example, our model could be used to plan expansion of cities or settlements
along the coast. However, more detailed studies will be required for Acapulco due to the
local effects inside the Bay.

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