HVAC Systems Understanding

the basis
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to HVAC Systems

2. HVAC System Types
3. HVAC Piping System
4. HVAC Air Distribution Equipments
5. Fans and Pumps
6. HVAC Instrumentation and Control
7. HVAC System Commissioning
 Introduction to HVAC Systems
This article introduces the heating, ventilating and air-conditioning
(HVAC) systems. The primary function of HVAC systems is to provide
healthy and comfortable interior conditions for occupants; well-
designed, efficient systems do this with minimal non-renewable
energy and air, and water pollutant emissions.
 Introduction to HVAC Systems
The purpose of HVAC design is both high indoor air quality and energy
efficiency. These dual considerations require an integrated design
approach. Rigs heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning
system (HVAC) creates a climate
that allows for maximum comfort by
compensating for changing climatic
conditions.

Though more costly to install and more complicated to operate, a chiller plant
offers a number of benefits over a large number of individual packaged
cooling units, including greater energy efficiency, better controllability,
cheaper overall maintenance, and longer life. Using a comprehensive
approach to building design, designers around the world have succeeded at
creating highly efficient air-conditioning systems that provide excellent
comfort at significant savings.
 Introduction to HVAC Systems
Heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning (HVAC) systems
reduce the environmental
impact of rigs/buildings in several
key ways. The most important
function of a HVAC systems is
to provide the rig/buildings occupants
with healthy and comfortable interior
conditions. A carefully designed, efficient
system can do this with minimal non-
renewable energy and air and water pollutant emissions to minimize the
environmental impact.
Cooling equipment that avoids chlorofluorocarbons and hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs and HCFCs) eliminates a major cause of
damage to the ozone layer.
 Introduction to HVAC Systems
Even the best HVAC equipment and systems cannot compensate for a
faulty rig design. Problems of this type cause inherently high cooling and
heating needs and consume unnecessary resources and should be
corrected if possible. Conservation of non-renewable energy through an
intelligent architectural design offers the greatest opportunity for savings.
The most important factors in these designs are careful control of solar gain,
while taking advantage of passive heating, daylighting, natural ventilation
and cooling. The critical factors in mechanical systems' energy consumption
- and capital cost - are reducing the cooling and heating loads they must
handle.
 HVAC System Types
Types of System Designs - There are several major heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning system types in wide spread use today. These are air systems, hydronic
and steam systems, and unitary type systems. Most systems in use today fall into one of
these categories, or are a combination or variation of them. Each type of system has
advantages and disadvantages.

Air cooled
- Air cooled Chillers
 Air Cooled Chiller Advantages
Lower installed cost
Quicker availability
No cooling tower or condenser pump required
Less maintenance
No mechanical room required
 Water Cooled
- Sea Water cooled Chillers
- Fresh Water cooled Chillers
 Water-Cooled Chiller advantages

Higher efficiency
Custom selection in larger sizes
Large tonnage capabilities
Indoor Chiller location
Longer life
 Air Handling Systems

Purpose of an air handling system

Air Handling
System

Room
Supply With Outlet
Air Defined Air
Requirements
 Objectives

In the following slides, we will study the components of

air handling systems in order to:

1. Become familiar with the components

2. Know their functions

3. Become aware of possible problems

 Main subsystems

Exhaust air treatment

Fresh air treatment

(make-up air) Terminal air treatment
+
at production room level

Room/Cabin
Central air handling unit
 Overview components
Exhaust Air Grille Flow rate controller
Silence Fan Filter
r

Weather louvre Control damper

Heater
+
Humidifier
Prefilter Terminal filter

Cooling Secondary Filter Production Room

coil
with
Heating droplet
coil separator Re-circulated
air
Components (1)

Weather To prevent insects, leaves,

louvre dirt and rain from entering

Silencer To reduce noise caused by air

circulation
Flow rate Automated adjustment of
controller volume of air (night and day,
pressure control)
Control Fixed adjustment of volume
damper of air
 Components (2)
Heating unit To heat the air to the proper
temperature

Cooling unit To cool the air to the required

/dehumidifier temperature or to remove moisture
from the air

Humidifier To bring the air to the proper

humidity, if too low

Filters To eliminate particles of pre-

determined dimensions and/or
micro-organisms

Ducts To transport the air

 Air types

+ Exhaust
Fresh air Supply air
(make-up air) air

Production Room
Return air
(re-circulated)
 Filter classes

Dust filters

Standard Aerosol

Coarse Fine HEPA ULPA

Dp > 10 m 10 m > Dp > 1 m Dp < 1 m

G1 - G4 F5 - F9 H 11 - 13 U 14- 17

EN 779 Standard EN 1822 Standard

 HEPA or tertiaary filter

Primary panel
filter

Secondary
filter
Duct heaters Room Heters

Silensers
 Volume control damper
Fire Dampers

Adsorber wheel Dry air

Humid room air AHU with fan
Variable Speed
Controller

Regeneration air Humid room air

Filter Pressure
Gauges
Air heater

De-humidification
 Regulation of room pressure pressure
differentials concept

Room pressure
gauges

Room pressure indication panel

Annex 1, 17.26
 Pressure cascade injectables
Protection from micro-organisms and
particles

Room 1 Room 2 Room 3

30 Pa 60 Pa A 45 Pa

LF
D

A ir L o c k A ir L o c k
45 Pa B C

15 Pa

A ir
30 Pa D Passage 0 Pa
Lock

N o te : D ir e c tio n o f d o o r o p e n in g r e la tiv e to r o o m p r e s s u r e
 Pressure cascade solids
Protection from cross-contamination

Room 1 Room 2 Room 3

15 Pa 15 Pa Rom215Pa Rom315PaaE
AirLock30PasgeNote:Dircnfdpglavmsu 0PaAirLock15
15 Pa

A ir L o c k A ir L o c k

A ir
Lock
30 Pa E 0 Pa
Passage
15 Pa

N o te : D ir e c tio n o f d o o r o p e n in g r e la tiv e to r o o m p r e ss u r e
Fan Coil Unit
Self Contain Unit
 HVAC Air Distribution Equipments
Diffusers

4 Way Diffusers Two Way Diffusers One Way Diffuser

Round Diffusers
Cabin Units
 Return / Exhaust Grilles
 Fans and Pumps
Contents
Fan Design
Fan Performance
Fan-duct Systems
Duct Construction
Air Duct Design
 Fan Design

Common types of fans

Centrifugal fans: radial, forward curved, air
foil (backward curved), backward inclined,
tubular, roof ventilator
Axial fans: propeller, tube-axial, vane-axial
Fan arrangements
Motor location, air discharge orientation, drive
train type (direct drive or pulley drive)
Centrifugal: single width single inlet (SWSI),
double width double inlet (DWDI)
CENTRIFUGAL FANS AXIAL FANS

Centrifugal and axial fan components

 AXIAL FANS

Propeller Tube-axial

Tube-vane
 CENTRIFUGAL FANS

Tubular centrifugal fan Centrifugal roof ventilator

(* Note the airflow paths and impeller design.)

Drive arrangements and motor positions
Single- and double-width centrifugal fans
 Fan Performance
Major parameters
Fan volume flow rate (m3/s or l/s), Vf
Fan total pressure ptf, fan velocity pressure
pvf & fan static pressure psf (Pa)

Fan power & efficiency
Fan power or air power (W) = ptf x Vf
Fan power input on the fan shaft (brake
horsepower), Pf
Fan total efficiency: t = ptf x Vf / Pf
Combined aerodynamic, volumetric & mechanical
efficiencies
Fan static efficiency: s = psf x Vf / Pf
Air temp. increase through fan, T = p /(c )
Fan performance curves

Total pressure

Static pressure

Fan total efficiency

Fan static efficiency

Fan power input

Velocity pressure

Volume flow rate

Typical fan performance curve
 Fan Performance
Fan Laws
Speed (n)
Volume flow (V)
Total pressure loss
( p )

Air density ()

For air systems that
are geometrically &
dynamically similar:
(D = impeller
diameter)
c.f.: pump laws
CENTRIFUGAL FANS

Velocity triangle at the blade inlet and outlet of a centrifugal fan

 Fan Performance

Major issues causing energy losses to a

centrifugal fan:
Circulatory flow between the blades

Air leakage at the inlet
Friction between fluid particles and the blade
Energy loss at the entrance

Partially filled passage
Operating characteristics for a backward-curved centrifugal fan
Total efficiency
curves for
centrifugal fans
Fan power curves for centrifugal fans with same impeller diameter
Fan pressure curves for centrifugal fans with same impeller diameter
AXIAL FANS

Velocity triangles for a vane-axial fan

Fan pressure curves for axial fans with same impeller diameter
Fan efficiency curves for axial fans with same impeller diameter
Fan power curves for axial fans with same impeller diameter
 Performance
curves for
controllable-
pitch vane-axial
fans
 Fan-duct Systems
Duct pressure changes (c.f. atm
pressure)

Static pressure (SP)

Velocity pressure (VP) = V2 / 2 g

Total pressure (TP) = SP + VP
Fan: a pumping device

Fan (total) pressure = pressure difference
between fan inlet and fan discharge

At fan suction/inlet, SP = negative (c.f.
atmospheric); at discharge, SP = positive
 Fan-duct Systems
Pressure characteristics
SP and VP are mutually convertible (or)
TP always decreases in the direction of
airflow
For constant-area straight duct sections
Velocity and VP are constant
TP change = SP change

When duct cross-sectional areas are reduced
Velocity and VP increase
Absolute value of both TP and SP decrease
Dynamic losses from elbow, dampers, etc.
 Fan-duct Systems

Fan-duct systems
Flow resistance
o
R, pressure drop p and
volume flow rate V
p = R V 2

Duct sections in series: Rs = R1 + R2 + + Rn

Duct sections in parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + ++
Rp R1 R2 Rn
 Fan-duct Systems

Fan-duct systems
Terminology
Primary air (conditioned air or makeup air)
Secondary air (induced space air, plenum air, or
recirculating air)
Transfer air (indoor air that moves from an
adjacent area)
System curve: volume flow vs pressure loss
System operating point
 Fan-duct Systems
System effect pts

Its additional total pressure loss caused by
uneven or non-uniform velocity profile at the
fan inlet, or at duct fittings after fan outlet
Due to the actual inlet and outlet connections
as compared with the total pressure loss of the
fan test unit during laboratory ratings

Inlet Outlet
Fan system operating point & system effect
 Fan-duct Systems

Modulation of air systems

Constant volume system
Volume flow rate remains constant
Supply temperature is raised during part load

Variable-air-volume (VAV) system
Volume flow rate is reduced to match part load
operation
Modulation curve
Fan modulation curve
 Fan-duct Systems
Fan modulation methods
Damper (vary the opening of the air flow
passage)
Waste energy
Inlet vanes (opening & angle of inlet vanes)
Low cost; less efficient than following types
Inlet cone (peripheral area of fan impeller)
Inexpensive; for backward curved centrifugal fan
Blade pitch (blade angle of axial fan)

Fan speed (using adjustable frequency
drives)
Most energy-efficient; but usually cost more
Damper, inlet vanes & fan speed modulation
Inlet vane
modulation
 Fan speed
modulation using
AC inverter
 Fan-duct Systems
Fan surge (in centrifugal fan)

Occurs when air volume flow is not sufficient to
sustain the static pressure difference between
discharge & suction
Discharge pressure is reduced momentarily
Volume flow & pressure fluctuations
Create noise & vibration
Surge region: shall avoid operation in it
Fan stall (in axial fans)
When smooth air flow suddenly breaks & pressure
difference across the blades decreases
The fan loses pressure capability drastically
Stall and stall region of an axial fan
 Fan-duct Systems
Fan selection
Select fan type + determine fan size
Important factors:
Pressure-volume flow operating characteristics
Fan capacity modulation
Fan efficiency
Sound power level
Airflow direction
Initial cost
 Duct Construction

Types of air duct

Supply air duct
Return air duct
Outdoor air duct
Exhaust air
Duct sections
Header or main duct (trunk)
Branch duct or runout
 Duct Construction
Duct systems
Max. pressure difference (between air inside
the duct and the ambient air)
125, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2500 Pa

Commercial buildings
Low-pressure duct system: 500 Pa, max 12 m/s
Medium-pressure system: 500-1500 Pa, max 17.5
m/s
Residential buildings: 125 Pa or 250 Pa

Industrial duct system: P can be higher
 Duct Construction
Duct material: e.g. UL (Underwriters
Laboratory) standard
Class 0: zero flame spread, zero smoke
developed
Iron, galvanized steel, aluminum, concrete,
masonry, clay tile
Class 1: flame spread 25, smoke
developed 50
Fiberglass, many flexible ducts

Class 2: flame spread 50, smoke
developed 100
 Duct Construction
Shapes of air duct
Rectangular
More easily fabricated on site, air leakage

Round
Less fluid resistance, better rigidity/strength
Flat oval
Flexible
Multiple-ply polyester film w/ metal wire or strips
SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air
Conditioning Contractors National
Association) standards
Rectangular duct Round duct w/ spiral seam

Flat oval duct Flexible duct

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
 Transverse joint reinforcement
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
 Duct Construction

Duct specification

Sheet gauge and thickness of duct material
Traverse joints & longitudinal seam
reinforcements

Duct hangers & their spacing
Tapes & adhesive closures
Fire spread and smoke developed

Site-fabricated or factory-/pre-fabricated
 Duct Construction

Duct heat gain or loss

Temperature rise or drop
Duct insulation (mounted or inner-lined)
Reduce heat gain/loss, prevent condensation,
sound attentuation
Minimum & recommended thickness

See ASHRAE standard or local codes
Temperature rise curves
Depends on air velocity, duct dimensions &
insulation
 Temperature rise from duct heat gain
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
 Duct Construction

Frictional losses

Darcey-Weisbach Equation
Hf = friction head loss, or pf = pressure loss

f = friction factor (dimensionless)

L = length of duct or pipe (m)
D = diameter of duct or pipe (m)
v = mean air velocity in duct (m/s)
 >

<

Mode of airflow when air passes over and around

surface protuberances of the duct wall
 Duct Construction

Duct friction chart

Colebrook formula

Roughness & temperature corrections

pf = Ksr KT Kelpf,c
Ksr = correction factor for surface roughness
KT = correction factor for air temperature
Kel = correction factor for elevation
Friction chart for round duct
 Duct Construction

Circular equivalent
Hydraulic diameter, Dh = 4 A / P
A = area (mm2); P = perimeter (mm)
Rectangular duct:

Flat oval duct:

 Duct Construction

Dynamic losses

Result from flow disturbances caused by duct-
mounted equipment and fittings
Change airflow paths direction and/or area
Flow separation & eddies/disturbances

In dynamic similarity (same Reynolds number
& geometrically similar duct fittings), dynamic
loss is proportional to their velocity pressure
 Duct Construction

Local or dynamic loss coefficient

Ratio of total pressure loss to velocity
pressure
 Duct Construction
Duct fittings
Elbows
Converging or diverging tees and wyes

Entrances and exits
Enlargements and contractions
Means to reduce dynamic losses

Turning angle, splitter vanes
ASHRAE duct fitting database
Fitting loss coefficients
 Region of eddies and
turbulences in a round elbow 5-piece 90o round elbow
Rectangular elbow, smooth radius, 2 splitter vanes

Mitered elbow and its secondary flow

 Airflow through a
rectangular converging
or diverging wye
Entrance Exit
Abrupt enlargement Sudden contraction
 Duct Construction

Flow resistance, R
Total pressure loss pt at a specific volume flow
pt = R V
rate V 2

Rs = R1 + R2 + + Rn
Flow resistance in series:

1 in parallel:
Flow resistance 1 1 1
= + ++
Rp R1 R2 Rn
Total pressure loss and flow resistance of a round duct section
Flow resistance in series

Flow resistance in parallel

Flow resistance for a Y connection
 Air Duct Design
Optimal air duct design
Optimal duct system layout, space available
Satisfactory system balance
Acceptable sound level
Optimum energy loss and initial cost

Install only necessary balancing devices
(dampers)
Fire codes, duct construction & insulation
Require comprehensive analysis & care for
different transport functions
Flow characteristics of a supply duct system
 Air Duct Design
Design velocity
Constraints: space available, beam depth
Typical guidelines:
Main ducts: air flow usually 15 m/s; air flow noise
must be checked
With more demanding noise criteria (e.g. hotels),
max. air velocity: main duct 10-12.5 m/s, return
main duct 8 m/s, branch ducts 6 m/s
Face velocities for air-handling system
components
 Air Duct Design
Reduce dynamic losses of the critical path
Maintain optimum air velocity through duct
fittings
Emphasize reduction of dynamic losses
nearer to the fan outlet or inlet (high air
velocity)

Proper use of splitter vanes

Set 2 duct fittings as far apart as possible
Air duct leakage

Duct leakage classification
AISI, SMACNA, ASHRAE standards
 Air Duct Design
Fire protection

Duct material selection
Vertical ducts (using masonry, concrete or
clay)

When ducts pass through floors & walls
Use of fire dampers
Filling the gaps between ducts & bldg
structure

Duct systems for industrial applications
Any other fire precautions?
 Air Duct Design
Design procedure (computer-aided or manual)

Verify local codes & material availability

Preliminary duct layout
Divide into consecutive duct sections
Minimise local loss coefficients of duct fittings
Select duct sizing methods
Critical total pressure loss of tentative critical path
Size branch ducts & balance total pressure at
junctions
Adjust supply flow rates according to duct heat gain
Resize duct sections, recalculate & balance parallel
paths
Check sound level & add necessary attenuation
 Air Duct Design
Duct layout

Symmetric layout is easier to balance
Smaller main duct & shorter design path
For VAV systems, duct looping allows feed
from opposite direction
Optimise transporting capacity (balance points
often follow the suns position)
Result in smaller main duct
Compare alternative layouts & reduce fittings
For exposed ducts, appearance & integration
with the structure is important
Typical supply duct system with symmetric layout & looping
 Air Duct Design
Duct liner
Lined internally on inner surface of duct wall
Mainly used for noise attenuation & insulation

Fiberglass blanket or boards
Duct cleaning
Prevent accumulation of dirt & debris

Agitation device to loosen the dirt & debris
Duct vacuum to extract loosened debris
Sealing of access openings
Duct breakout noise
HVAC Piping System
HVAC Instrumentation and Control
 HVAC System Commissioning
The key elements of commissioning include:

Installation checks. Check installed equipment to ensure that all associated

components and accessories are in place.

Operational checks. Verify and document that systems are performing as expected,
and that all sensors and other system control devices are properly calibrated.

Documentation. Confirm that all required documentation has been provided, such as
a statement of the design intent and operating protocols for all building systems.

O&M manuals and training. Prepare comprehensive operation and maintenance

(O&M) manuals, and provide training for rig operations staff.

Ongoing monitoring. Conduct periodic monitoring after the school is occupied to

ensure that equipment and systems continue to perform according to design intent.

Correctly implemented, commissioning is extremely cost-effective, and should

improve the delivery process, increase systems reliability, improve energy
performance, ensure good indoor environmental quality, and improve operation and
maintenance of the facility.