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CODE G
AM2540

SPRING STIFFNESS TEST

STRESS MEASURMENT ON A BENDING BAR

Submitted By:
ME16B152
ME16B153
ME16B154
ME16B155
 Spring Stiffness Test
AM 2540: Strength of Materials Laboratory

Objective:-

The objective of this experiment is to find the spring constants for some sample springs and to
compare the estimated spring constant with those obtained from theoretical calculations.

Modelling springs:-

The use of springs are quite common in our everyday life; their use is varied and ranges from
being used in ball-point pens, mechanical toys to heavy trucks, automobiles and railway
carriages. The general notion of a spring is of a coil, usually made of a metal, rolled as a helix;
see Figure 1. However, this is just one of many forms of springs.

Figure 1: A helical spring.

In general, springs can be used to model any elastic member which deforms under the
application of forces, and recovers the original configuration on its removal. For example, a
tall chimney when exposed to wind loadings, undergoes deformations. For a simplified
analysis of the stresses developed in the chimney (a necessary step for design), one can
model the structural system as a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. The ability of
the chimney to deform under lateral wind loads and to regain its original configuration in
their absence can be modelled through a spring in the analysis; see Figure 2. The underlying
principle in this model is that the stiffness of the chimney against lateral loads should be
identical to the spring used in the SDOF model.
Figure 2: (a) A tall chimney under wind loading; (b) Idealized simplified single degree of
freedom model.

Usually, only those elastic members are modelled as springs that deform considerably under the
action of forces without exceeding the yield stress. The stress developed in the springs could be
tensile or compressive depending on the type of deformation. The deformation could be axial,
torsional, bending or a combination of all. In general, the springs are used to

Store mechanical energy and to release it according to the desired function; such as
winding up a mechanical toy.
Absorb shocks and limit the deformation in other parts of the structural system; such
as in vehicles.
Deflect under external forces to provide the desired motion to a machine component.

Apparatus

The apparatus setup consists of a suspension system for the spring to be loaded in
compression; see Figure 3. A platform is attached to the spring on which the loads are placed.
The springs used in the experiment are helical linear springs. A rod is attached to the top of
the spring to the platform to ensure that the weights impart axial load to the top of spring.
A vernier calliper is attached to the spring system so that the deflections can be measured
accurately.
 Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the setup.

Theory:-

On the application of force if the deformations in a spring are such that the stresses
generated within it are less than the yield stress of the material, the system regains its
original configuration when the force is removed. This usually implies a linear behaviour and
the spring can be modelled as a linear spring. In such situations, the force-deformation
relationship is linearly proportional and is expressed by the equation

F = kL, (1)

where, F is the force, is the deformation, and kL is the constant or proportionality and is
termed as the linear spring stiffness. The units of stiffness is defined in terms of the units of
F and . For axial springs, where F is applied in the axial direction resulting in axial
deformations, the units of kL is usually expressed in N/m. An estimate of the spring stiffness
kL can be calculated from Eq. (1) if a set of data of the measurement of the deflection under
the application of measured loads F is available.

In the absence of any experimental measurements, a theoretical estimate of the spring

stiffness can be calculated analytically from the knowledge of the geometrical dimensions
and the material elastic constants. For linear helical springs as shown in Figure 4, the spring
as a whole undergoes elongation or compression depending on the direction of the
application of the loads. However, it is to be noted that this overall deformation comes about
due to torsional/bending deformation of the spring wire. When the diameter of the wire is
small in comparison to the radius of the coil (see Figure 4) and when the load is applied in
the direction shown, an element of the spring between two closely adjoining
 Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the geometry and
the loading details of a sample spring.

sections through the wire can be considered as a straight circular bar, subjected to torsion.
It can be shown that the spring stiffness is given by

. (2)
Here,
G: the shear modulus of the spring material, n is the number
of active coils in the helical linear spring,
r: the spring wire radius, and
R: the mean radius of the helical spring. Details of the derivation of Eq. (2) are available in
any standard text book on strength of materials.

Procedure:-
1. Three different samples of the helical springs are provided. Measure the dimensions R
and r using the Vernier callipers at 5 different locations for each sample. Calculate the
corresponding mean values for R and r and the standard deviations.

2. Place a sample spring in the loading setup and then clamp it by tightening the clamping
screw.

3. Note down the vernier scale reading for lo load condition.

4. Load the spring in steps of 0.5 kg of weight up to 2.5 kg, and note down the readings
from the Vernier scale.
 5. Remove the loads one by one when the loading is over. Note down the deflections
when each increment of the load is removed.
6. Take the spring out of the setup and repeat the experiment on the two other spring
samples.
7. Perform the necessary calculations to determine the spring stiffness.

Tabulations:-
S. No Load(1) Load(2) Loading(3) Loading(4) Unloading(5) Unloading(6) Mean
kg N Vernier reading deflection Vernier reading deflection deflection
1 0 0 11 0 11.5 0 0
2 0.5 4.905 11.5 0.5 11.8 0.3 0.4
3 1 9.81 11.7 0.7 12 0.5 0.6
4 1.5 14.715 12 1 12.2 0.7 0.85
5 2 19.62 12.3 1.3 12.4 0.9 1.1
6 2.5 24.525 12.5 1.5 12.5 1 1.25
Spring Sample 1: Conical Spring

S. No Load(1) Load(2) Loading(3) Loading(4) Unloading(5) Unloading(6) Mean

kg N Vernier reading deflection Vernier reading deflection deflection
1 0 0 12.6 0 12.7 0 0
2 0.5 4.905 13 0.4 13 0.3 0.35
3 1 9.81 13.3 0.7 13.4 0.7 0.7
4 1.5 14.715 13.7 1.1 13.7 1 1.05
5 2 19.62 14 1.4 14 1.3 1.35
6 2.5 24.525 14.3 1.7 14.3 1.6 1.65
Spring Sample 2: Cylindrical Spring 1

S. No Load(1) Load(2) Loading(3) Loading(4) Unloading(5) Unloading(6) Mean

kg N Vernier reading deflection Vernier reading deflection deflection
1 0 0 42.2 0 42.2 0 0
2 0.5 4.905 42.5 0.3 42.6 0.4 0.35
3 1 9.81 42.6 0.4 42.6 0.4 0.4
4 1.5 14.715 42.6 0.4 42.6 0.4 0.4
5 2 19.62 42.6 0.4 42.6 0.4 0.4
6 2.4 23.544 42.7 0.5 42.7 0.5 0.5
Spring Sample 3: Cylindrical Spring 2
Spring Sample 1:
G = 77 Gpa
r = 1.60 mm
R = 13.485 mm
n = 33
kL = (Gr4)/(4nR3) = 1558.99 N/m

Spring Sample 2:
G = 77 Gpa
r = 1.40 mm
R = 19.32 mm
n = 11
kL = (Gr4)/(4nR3) = 932.24 N/m

Spring Sample 3:
G = 77 Gpa
r = 1.55 mm
R = 15.95 mm
n = 40
kL = (Gr4)/(4nR3) = 684.56 N/m

Spring Mean Reading

Sample 1: n = 33 R 26.97 mm
r 1.60 mm
kL 194.87 N/m
Sample 2: n = 11 R 19.32 mm
r 1.40 mm
kL 932.24 N/m
Sample 3: n = 40 R 15.95 mm
r 1.55 mm
kL 11290.11 N/m
Theoretical calculations of Spring Stiffness
Graphs
Graph of deflection v/s force for conical tensile spring:

GRAPH FOR DEF. VS. FORCE CONICAL TENSILE

SPRING
1.4

1.2
Deflection (in cm) --->

0.8

0.6 Total

0.4

0.2

0
0 4.905 9.81 14.715 19.62 24.525
Force (in N) --->

Graph of deflection v/s force for tensile cylindrical spring:

GRAPH FOR DEF. VS. FORCE

CYLINDRICAL TENSILE SPRING
1.65

1.35
Deflection (in cm) --->

1.05

0.7 Total

0.35

0
0 4.905 9.81 14.715 19.62 24.525
Force (in N) --->
 Graph of deflection v/s force for tensile cylindrical spring:

GRAPH FOR DEF. VS. FORCE

CYLINDRICAL COMPRESSIVE SPRING

0.5
Deflection (in cm) --->

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.35

Total

0
0 4.905 9.81 14.715 19.62 23.544
Force (in N) --->

Calculations:-
Calculation of K for uniform cross-section spring from graph:

Slope on linear part = (1.04- 0.24) / (34.335- 19.62) x 10-2 = 0.00054366 m/N
K = 1 / slope = 1839.385 N/m
Calculation of K for tapering cross-section spring from graph:

Slope = (4.89- 0.725) / (11.77- 1.96) x 10-2 = 0.00424566 m/N

K = 1 / slope = 235.53 N/m

Observations:-

We observe that deflection in the tapered spring is much more than the non-tapered
spring.
This indicates that the stiffness value is much more for a non-tapered one which is in
accordance with the formula k = (Gr4) / (4nR3)
The graph for non-tapered spring is fairly linear whereas for the tapered one it loses
linearity after a certain load.

Result:-
The experimental Measure of Stiffnesss:
Linear spring is: 1839.385 N/m
 Tapered spring is: 235.53 N/m

Sources of Error:-

Human errors: Errors in measurement and zero error etc.

Spring is assumed to be ideal in the given region i.e. displacement is proportional to
force.
Also the friction between the walls of apparatus and loading plate were considerable.
 Measurement of Bending Stress using
a Strain Gauge
AM 2540: Strength of Materials Laboratory

Objective

The objective of this experiment is to measure the tensile bending stress at the root of a
cantilever beam subjected to tip transverse loading using a strain gauge.

Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a strain gauge, a strain gauge indicator (model P 3500), an
alluminium specimen bar, a bar holder with a provision for loading and a multimeter.

Experimental Setup

Figure 1: General setup of the apparatus.

The general setup is shown in Figure 1. An alluminium beam specimen is attached to the bar
holder by clamping it tightly at one end. A strain gauge is attached to the beam specimen on the
top surface, near the clamped end of the beam. The wires from the strain gauge are connected
to the strain gage indicator P-3500, which displays the bending strain measured by the strain
gauge. A micrometer is attached towards the free end of the cantilever beam. By rotating the
micro-meter, a deflection is induced on the free end of the cantilever beam.
Theory

A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain in any component. The most common
example of a strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic
foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the component by a suitable adhesive.

Figure 2: Visualization of the working concept behind the strain gauge on a beam under
exaggerated bending; courtesy Wikipedia.

A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its
dependence on not only on the electrical conductivity which is a property of the material,
but also on the conductors geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the
limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become
narrower and longer. This causes a change in its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely,
on compression, the conductor becomes broader and shorter, and once again brings about
a change in its electrical resistance properties. This can be explained by the fact that the
electrical resistance in a piece of wire is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the area of the cross section. A schematic diagram of this phenomenon is
shown in Figure 2.
Experimental Estimate

As the object undergoes deformation, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance
to change. This resistance change is related to the strain by a quantity known as the gauge
factor. By measuring the changes in resistance, and from a knowledge of the gauge factor,
one can estimate the strain in a deformed body. This is mathematically expressed as

, (1)
where,
R: the resistance of the gauge in the un-deformed state,
R: the change in the resistance in the gauge due to deformation,
SG : the strain gauge factor, and xx is
the strain.

Once the strain is measured experimentally, the stress can be calculated using the well
known stress-strain relations. For linear systems (i.e., when the deformations are small
compared to the geometrical dimensions of the specimen), this can be given by the relation

, (2)

where, xx is the
stress, and
E is Youngs modulus of elasticity.

Analytical Estimate

An analytical estimate of the bending stress developed can be determined from the well
known flexure relations, given by

. (3)
Here,
Mb is the bending moment developed at the location of the strain gauge due to the induced
deformation,
Izz is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section due to flexure,
xx is the normal bending stress acting on the plane x and in the direction x, y is the distance of
the fibre from the centroid axis, and is the radius of curvature of the beam under flexure.
By measuring the deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam, an estimate of the tip
load can be obtained from the well-known load-deflection relation of a cantilever beam
given by

, (4)
and the bending moment at the gauge location is given by

Mb =PL1. (5)

Here, the dimensions L0 and L1 are shown in the schematic diagram Figure 3.

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

Test Procedure
1. Fix the beam specimen onto the bar holder so that the specimen acts as a cantilever
beam. Measure the important dimensions L0, L1, and breadth b and thickness t.

2. Measure the resistance of the strain gauge using the multimeter.

3. Connect the two ends of the strain gauge as a QUARTER bridge as shown on the inner
side of the strain indicators lid (see Figure 3).

4. Depress the Gauge Factor button and set the initial gauge factor to 2.05 or 2.06. This
value is supplied by the strain gauge manufacturer. Please refer the gauge specification
sheet for this value. Use the small four position range selector knob first and then the
bigger potentiometer. Lock the potentiometer.
 5. Depress the AMP ZERO button (amplifier) - the display should be +/ 0000.
Alternatively, use the fingertip control knob to bring to +/ 0000.

6. Balance the circuit (still beam is not loaded). Depress the RUN button (with all other
buttons set to OFF) and set the display. The present strain gauge actual output will be
shown. Using the BALANCE knob, set the display to a convenient value (zero or any
other value). Since the readings are going to be relative with respect to a point, it does
not make any difference if the initial setting is zero or not as long as it is taken into
account. If the initial setting is not zero, the initial value should be subtracted from the
reading value. (You may have to use both the smaller and the bigger knobs). Lock the
potentiometer.

7. With no load on cantilever, take the first set of readings. Note down the indicated
strain.

8. For the next step, make a deflection of 0.5 mm with the micrometer handle. Add
deflection in 0.5 mm steps, to a maximum of 5 mm. Repeat the measurements.

Tabulations:
Deflection Display Strain Stress Stress % difference
Value
(mm) (experimental) (experimental)(Pa) (beam theory)(Pa)
0.0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 65 0.000065 4550000 5997600 24.13
1.0 127 0.000127 8890000 11995200 25.88
1.5 175 0.000175 12250000 17992800 31.91
2.0 229 0.000229 16030000 23990400 33.18
2.5 285 0.000285 19950000 29988000 33.47
3.0 342 0.000342 24150000 35985600 32.88
3.5 403 0.000403 28210000 41983200 32.80
4.0 464 0.000464 32480000 47980800 32.30
4.5 522 0.000522 36540000 53978400 32.30
5 584 0.000584 40880000 59976000 31.83

Observations:
Observations for strain test:

o Strain gauge is attached to the beam. The top surface of the beam undergoes
tension while the bottom surface experiences compression.
 As the object is deformed, it causes its electrical resistance to change.
o The resistance change is measured using Wheatstone bridge which is related
to strain by a quantity called gauge factor.
The display shows the value of strain in micrometers.
o When the load is increased, the deflection in beam increases which increases
the display strain value.
Strain gauge can measure strain in only 1 direction.
o So we need 3 strain gauges to measure the three components of strain
arranged in rosette configuration.
Rosette configuration:

A single strain gauge can measure strain in only one direction. To determine the three
independent components of plane strain, three independent strain measurements
are required.
This can be achieved by using a Rosette configuration.
The principal strains and stresses can then be determined.

Rectangular Rosette Delta Rosette

Stress V/S Strain Graph:
Stress v/s Strain curve for experimental and theoretical values:

Strain vs. Stress

70000000

60000000

50000000
Stress --->

40000000

30000000
Stress (Exp.)

20000000 Stress (Th.)

10000000

Strain --->

Sources of Error:

Since the strain gauge is fixed along the length of the bar, there is a possibility of
disorientation.
Human errors, measuring length from scale.
Since resistance is temperature variant, it also contributes to some voltage change,
thus affecting readings.
External strains like touching, holding the hand near the base will also lead to errors.

Result

There is a good experimental agreement of experimentally observed stress to the

theoretical stress for a given bending strain.
This confirms the validity of the formula used in the experiment.