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Chap. 4 Plane Wave Functions


The Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates is

By separation of variables, assume . We have

The only possible solution of the above is


,

where , and are constants of , and satisfying


.
The solutions of the above second order differential equations are
harmonic functions of the form

Therefore, the final solution for a give set of , and can be


expressed as

The exact values of , , and the form of the harmonic functions


are determined by the boundary conditions.

General solutions
1. Discrete eigenvalues (bounded regions)

2. Continuous eigenvalues (unbounded regions)


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Plane Waves

Consider the elementary wave function of the form

Let

then

Note in general, can be a complex vector expressed as following:

where and are real vectors. must satisfy

1. is complex ( )
a. Uniform plane wave only when and are in the same
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direction.
b. In general, and
2. is real ( ).
a. : Uniform plane wave.
b. : (ex: evanescent field in total reflection)

Let (TM to z), then

1. real: TM to z, , TEM to , the propagation


direction.
2. complex: TM to z, , TEM to but not the
propagation direction unless .
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Rectangular Waveguides

TM to z:
Boundary conditions:
,
,
,
therefore

Similarly,
TE to z:
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Note that excluded.

Also, the following equation must be satisfied.

Cut-off frequency: the minimum possible frequency for propagation


mode (m,n).

The complex propagation constant is


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Wave impedance

1. TE:

a. For propagating modes ( ), .


b. For nonpropagating modes, is inductive.

2. TM:

a. For propagating modes ( ),


b. For nonpropagating modes, is capacitive.
3. .

4. It is always true that .


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Alternative Mode Sets


TM to x:

TE to x:

Solutions are

Note:
1. Modes are .
2. Modes are
3. All others are hybrid of and .

Characteristic impedance
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Partially Filled Waveguides


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TM to x
Let , where is as follow

for , and

Note that at , the tangential and must continue.

We can derive

Continuity of and at requires that

Similarly,
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Continuity of and at requires that


.
From the two boundary conditions, we have
, a function of , solved

numerically.
Similarly, for TE to x,
, a function of , solved

numerically.
Note:
1. Mode patterns are the distorted versions of , .
Concentrate in the material of higher and .
2. Cutoff frequencies lie between those of waveguides filled by the
two materials.
3. Cutoff frequencies of the corresponding and modes
are different.
4. Knowledge of the
cutoff frequencies is
not sufficient to
determine at other
frequencies.
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Dielectric-slab Waveguides

Assume no variation in y direction and z-traveling waves.

TM to z
Consider separately two cases: (1) an odd function of , denoted
by , and (2) an even function of , denoted by . For case (1),
we have

where

satisfying

Evaluating the field components tangential to the air-dielectric


interface, we have
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Continuity of and at requires that

The ratio of the two equation to the second gives the characteristic
equation

Similarly for even mode,

Homework #5, prove the even mode characteristic equation.

For TE to z case, we have


odd mode:

even mode:
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The phase constant of an unattenuated mode lies between the intrinsic


phase constant of the dielectric and that of air; that is,

Cut-off occurs when the wave in the air is unattenuated, that is


and . Thus for both TE and TM

Solving for the cut-off frequencies

Note that the lowest-order of TE and TM modes are odd modes


and have zero cut-off frequency.
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Surface-Guided Waves

Equivalent to slab waveguide modes with zero tangential electric


field at , that is, and

For thick coatings, tightly bound,

For thin coatings, loosely bound,


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Corrugated Waveguides

Assume the teeth are infinitely thin and that there are many slots per
wavelength such that at the surface.

Choosing TM modes of slab waveguides, we have for

The wave impedance looking into the corrugated surface is


(Inductive)

In the slot ( ), parallel-plate transmission-line mode.


(Inductive for )

Equating both, we have

1. Only approximate solution.


2. Loosely bound for small .
3. Tightly bound for large .
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Discontinuities and Modal Analysis (Pozar, 4.6)

Let the modes existing in a waveguide be

Assuming two waveguides and are connected by an


aperture located at . Let the remaining areas at
waveguide a and b be and respectively. Assume only
the first mode incident from waveguide , we have the total
tangential fields in

Likewise in waveguide

At the aperture , the fields at both sides must be the same,


that is

(178)

(179)
And the electric fields at and must equal zero.
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Integrate the above electric field equation with the mode patten
of mode in waveguide over surface , we have

Due to the orthogonal properties between the modes in a


waveguide, the above equations lead to
(186)

where

Note that is the normalization constant of mode in


waveguide . Rewriting the above Eq. (186) in matrix form, we
have

(191)
where
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(192)

Likewise, integrate the magnetic field equation (Eq. 179) with


the mode pattern of mode of waveguide only over
aperture , we have

which leads to

(197)

where
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Rewriting the above Eq. (197) in matrix form, we have


(199)
where

(200)

From Eq. (191) and Eq. (199), we have

(201)

Thus is solved. Using Eq. (191), we have

(203)

Thus is solved.
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Excitation of Waveguides (Pozar, 4.7)

Assume sources and exist in a waveguide between


and . The fields outside this region can be expressed as

where and only have x and y components. Assume ,


from reciprocity theorem, we have

Let , then and are the fields generated by , which


are , , and .

Let and , we have


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Likewise, let and , we have


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Probe-Fed Rectangular Waveguide

for
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Modal Expansions of Fields

Assume and at . Use to expand the field for .


We have

Then,

(Double Fourier series)

Therefore,

where

For and , use . Also, the complex power

Example: waveguide step junction. Assume only the fundamental


mode propagates.
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Note: the first term is positive real, the second is positive imaginary.
Let the total admittance be
.

Choose the voltage at the center. Then we have , capacitive.

Example: An inductive waveguide junction

, for

and ,

, inductive.
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Properties of Cylindrical Waveguides

Suppose a cylindrical waveguide extending in z direction. The vector


potential can be expressed as

and satisfies

where

For TE mode, , then

The tangential component of electric field at the boundary is

where is the tangential unit vector at the boundary.


Similarly, for TM mode, , then

The tangential component of electric field at the boundary is

If the boundary is PEC, the required boundary condition is


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for TE modes

for TM modes.

Obviously, the transverse electric and magnetic fields are


perpendicular to each other.

In a microwave network, define mode functions and ,


mode voltages and mode currents according to the
transverse components of the electric and magnetic fields

Furthermore, we normalize the mode vectors according to

The integration is over the cross section of the waveguide.

Prove that all the eigenvalues are real. Consider two-dimensional


divergence theorem

Let , then
.
The divergence theorem becomes

Since or over the boundary, therefore


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Orthogonality for TE and TM modes

For TE mode, let and be the mode patterns of mode and .


From

also

We have

Similarly, for TM.


Homework #6, For one TE one TM, prove the above equation holds.
Hint: use .

Currents in Waveguides

Assume in a rectangular waveguide, at .


Due to symmetry and B. C., . Therefore, use
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modes.
Then,

Continuity of and leads to . The boundary


condition of leads to

By Fourier Series,

All the supplied power is

Example: coaxial-fed waveguides.


Assume . Then,

Input impedance
, where .

If only the first mode propagates, then

Note:
1. diverges because of the delta function . Can be
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avoided if the current is models according to the real size


of the conductor.
2. For small a, capacitive.
3. Near , . Again, must model the

current correctly to avoid.

Apertures in Ground Planes (plane wave expansion)

Assume the field at the aperture is only x-directed, no z component


Use TE to z.

Then,
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At ,

where

Note: to satisfy out-going wave condition

Example: Parallel-plate waveguide TEM mode incident.

Assume

Then,

Also, the aperture admittance can be computed as

where the power can be computed by Parsevals theorem


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Plane Current Sheets

Assume at . Then use ,


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From boundary conditions at ,

where

Example: . Show that

where
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Rectangular Cavities

For , the first mode is .


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The Solutions of Wave Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates


The Helmholtz equation in cylindrical coordinates is

By separation of variables, assume . We have

The only possible solution of the above is

where , and are constants of , and . and satisfy


.
The final solution for a give set of , and can be expressed as
,
where is the Bessel function of the form
.
The exact values of , , and the forms of the harmonic
functions and the Bessel function are determined by the boundary
conditions.

In general,
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Note:
1. Choose , if included.
2. Choose , if included.
3. Choose integer , if the space contain all range of , that is,
.

Likewise, the corresponding solutions for and are as


follow.
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The Circular Waveguide

1.

a. B. C. where

is the roots of .

b. Cutoff frequency:

c. Wave impedance:

2.

a. B. C. where is the roots of

b. Cutoff frequency:

c. Wave impedance:
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3. Always degenerate( ).
4. First mode:
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Higher Order Modes of Coaxial Lines

mode B. C.:

mode B. C.:

Dominant: .
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Homework #7 Problem 5.7


Circular wave:
Radial Waveguide

Radial wave:

Parallel-plate radial waveguide


B. C.: at and

TM to z mode:

TE to z mode:

Phase constant:
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Note:

Wave impedance:

Note:
5.
6. For real , are complex function of .
7. For , is imaginary, is also imaginary, not
propagation, evanescent.
8. First modes: .
a. : predominantly resistive
b. : predominantly reactive
c. Dominate mode: . Only and exist. TEM,
transmission-line mode.

Inward wave:
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Outward wave:

Wedge Radial Waveguides


Assume no variation in z.
B. C.: at and

TM to z mode:

TE to z mode:

Dominant mode: , only and , TEM, transmission-line


mode.

Inward: , Outward:
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The Circular Cavity

TM to z mode ( ):

TE to z mode ( ):

Dominant mode:
1. : . Shorted radial waveguide mode .
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2. : . Shorted circular waveguide mode .

3. If , the second resonance is 1.59 times the first

resonant frequency. For rectangular cavity of small height,


1.58.
4. Q of mode:

For the same height-to-diameter ratio, the circular cavity has an 8.3%
higher Q than the rectangular cavity. This is to be expected, since the
volume-to-area ratio is higher for a circular cylinder than for a square
cylinder.
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Other Guided Waves

Two dielectric Circular Waveguides

Assume z-directed propagation waves. Hybrid modes exist.


In dielectric 1:
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In dielectric 2:

B. Cs.: continues at .

A linear equation of unknowns A, B, C, and D. For not trivial


solution, the determinant must be zero, thus solving and .

Partially filled circular waveguides


Must satisfy: finite at , at , at .

Dielectric-rod waveguides (optical fibers)


Must satisfy: finite at , decay for .
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where .
Dominant mode: the lowest mode. Zero cut-off frequency.

Coated conductor waveguides


Must satisfy: at , at , decay for .

where .
Dominant mode: the lowest TM mode. Zero cut-off frequency.
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Source of Cylindrical Waves

Assume a infinitely long constant current described by

Than, .
Since no variation in and ,

where is a constant to be determined by


.

Since , .

Therefore, , and

Not in phase. However,


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TEM, .

Outward-directed complex power:

Radiated power:

Cylindrical Current Sheet


Assume at , then where

B. Cs. at :

Impedance per unit length:

For small argument,


,

where .
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Comparing to planar current sheet( ):

1. Resistance is identical to planar current sheet of width .


2. Reactance is identical to planar current sheet of width .
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Wave Transformation

Plane wave expansion by Bessel functions of the first kind


In general, a plane wave can be expanded by cylindrical wave
functions as following:

Using Fourier series to find , we have

Since the following is the general definition of Bessel functions of the


first kind,

, (Homework #8, prove this equation

satisfies the differential equation of Bessel functions)

we have and

Hankel wave expansion by Bessel functions

The wave function of a z-directed current source located at


is in the following form:
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which can be expanded by Bessel functions as follows:

Let and , then

At the same time,

Comparing the two result, we have

which is the plane wave expansion, therefore, . Thus,

Similarly, the expansion of can be derived by . By


adding or subtracting and , we can obtain
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Scattering by Cylinders

Assume a z-directed plane wave traveling in direction incident on


a cylinder with radius located at the origin. Then,

Assume the total field can be expressed as


.
To represent outward-going waves, must be expressed as

hence the total field is

At , , therefore,

At far field,

For small , dominates. Agree with the circular radiation


pattern of a thin wire.
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90
5 ka=10
120 60 ka=2
4 ka=1
ka=0.1
3
150 30
2

180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Radiation Pattern
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90
1 ka=10
120 60 ka=2
0.8 ka=1
ka=0.1
0.6
150 30
0.4

0.2

180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Normalized Current

A Current Filament Parallel to a Conducting Cylinder


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Symmetrical to (reciprocity).

90
1 0.25
120 60 0.5
0.8
1
0.6
150 30
0.4

0.2

180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Normalized Radiation Pattern


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Scattering by Wedges

Current source located at

The boundary condition:

Multiply both side with and integrate from to ,

we have
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Chap 6. Spherical Wave Functions


Spherical Wave Functions satisfying Helmholtz equation ( ).

: spherical Bessel function.

1. Zero-th order:

2. Higher order: polynomials of times or .

3. Only is finite at .
4. For out-going waves and , use .

Alternatively, for , and can be chosen as


two independently solutions. All solutions have singularity at
except with integer. Also, for .
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For TM or TE to z analysis, we have

Alternatively, consider TM or TE to analysis.

Note: does not satisfy Helmholtz equation.


Then,

where

The electric and magnetic fields can be computed by


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The Spherical Cavity

For TE to r, choose

B.C.: at . We have

where are the p-th zero of .


Similarly, for TM to r, choose
.
Then,

where are the p-th zero of .

Resonant frequencies:

Note: .
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The first mode:

Degeneracies:
example:

Orthogonality Relationships

From Greens Identity


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Let
,
then,

For

Legendre Polynomial Expansion(Fourier-Legendre Series)


Let (assume )

then,

Define tesseral harmonics as

then the spherical wave function and can be written as


.
We have
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Since

When ,

A two-dimensional Fourier-Legendre series can be obtained for a


function on a spherical surface as

Then,
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Space as a Waveguide
TM to r:

Then,

TE to r:

Then,

Note:
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Other Radial Waveguides


Conical Waveguide
B. C.:
Solution space:
TM to r:

To satisfy the B. C.,

TE to r:

To satisfy the B. C.,


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Biconical Waveguide
B. C.:
Solution space:
Since is not included, use for .
TM to r:

To satisfy the B. C.,

TE to r:

To satisfy the B. C.,


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Dominant (transmission line) Mode: TEM ( )

Note: gives zero fields and is not chosen.


Then,

Wedge Waveguides

B. C.:
Solution space:
TM ro r:

TE ro r:

No spherical TEM mode, but has cylindrical TEM mode.


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Horn Waveguide
TM ro r:

TE ro r:

Biconical Cavity

(Shorted transmission line)

Resonant frequencies:
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Source of Spherical Waves

For a z-directed current source

and

Wave Transformation

Consider a plane wave propagating in z-direction:

Solution space:
1. Independent of : m=0.
2. included: .
3. included: , n integer.
Then,

Differentiate both sides n times at , we have

Also we establish the identity:

Scattering by Spheres
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Assume an x-polarized z-
traveling plane wave incident
on a PEC sphere with radius a.
Then,

and
.

Using wave transformation, we have

From , be expressed as

Derive from and use the following identity,

We have
.

Similarly,

In order to match the boundary condition at , that is,


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The form of the scattered field must be the same as the incident field
except the Bessel functions must represent out-going waves.
Therefore,

By applying the B. C., we have

At far field, and only retain , we have

Back-scattered field
Consider

Calculate effective area by

1. Small : term dominant and


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(Good

approximation for )
This is Rayleigh scattering law.
2. Large :

Physical optics approximation.


3. Others: resonance region.

Consider the fields scattered by small sphere.


Use small argument approximation of Bessel
functions, we have

Therefore, dominates. At far field from small sphere,

Comparing above to the field radiated by electric and magnetic


dipoles, the scattered field is the field of an x-directed electric dipole
and a y-directed magnetic dipole as formulated below:

In general, the scattered field of any small body can be expressed in


terms of an electric dipole and a magnetic dipole. For a conducting
body, the magnetic dipole may vanish, but the electric dipole always
exist.
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Dielectric Sphere

For small dielectric sphere, at far field, the equivalent x-directed


electric dipole and y-directed magnetic dipole are

Also, the field inside the sphere is uniform. This results are the same
as D. C. case. This is called quasi-static approximation.
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Appendix: Legendre Functions

Legendre equation:

where is the Legendre function of order n.


Associated Legendre equation:

where is the Legendre function of order n and m and

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