Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Addition of chia seed mucilage for reduction of fat content in bread and
cakes
Sibele Santos Fernandes , Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado
Laboratory of Food Technology, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande, Av Italy km 8, Carreiros 96203-900, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, breads and chocolate cakes were prepared with different levels of chia mucilage dried at
Received 19 August 2016 50 C or lyophilized as fat, resulting in healthier products. Results indicated that breads and chocolate
Received in revised form 15 December 2016 cakes made with chia mucilage can replace up to 50% of fat without affecting the technological and phys-
Accepted 15 January 2017
ical characteristics. The replacement of 75% of fat, for both types of mucilage, had a significant reduction
Available online 19 January 2017
in fat content of 56.6% in breads and 51.6% in cakes, producing a slight decrease in the technological char-
acteristics of the products. Sensorial parameters showed good acceptability, with greater purchase intent
Keywords:
for both products when added with chia mucilage dried at 50 C. Therefore, chia mucilage proved to be a
Chia seed
Extraction
new alternative for replacing fat in food products, preserving the quality attributes and making them
Fat replacement healthier foods.
Technological properties 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The amount and type of fat consumed are of importance to the
etiology of many chronic diseases. As a result, many consumers are
sticking to nutritional guidelines on fat consumption, resulting in
pressure on industry to produce foods with a reduced amount of
fat, sugar, cholesterol, salt and certain additives (Liu, Xu, & Guo,
2007). However, there is a considerable challenge to preserve the
qualities and attributes of high-fat products (Worrasinchai,
Suphantharika, Pinjai, & Jamnong, 2006). Thus, to establish a low
fat formulation, the use of ingredients with different functions is
needed to provide the attributes for quality loss when the fat is
removed. In bakery products, such breads and cakes, the ingredi-
ents used as fat substitutes in the preparation of products should
play the same role as the fat, i.e., promote aeration of the dough,
lubrication during the mixing phase, improve the final texture of
the product and increase the volume (Rios, Pessanha, Almeida,
Viana, & Lannes, 2014).
Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is an herbaceous plant, cultivated
annually, and native from southern Mexico and northern Guate-
mala (Capitani, Spotorno, Nolasco, & Toms, 2012). The chia seed
has a high oil content (3040%), is rich in polyunsaturated fatty
acids, mainly omega-3 fatty acids (linolenic acid, 5467%) and
omega-6 (linoleic acid, 1221%) (Ixtaina et al., 2011), and a protein
content of 1525% (Ali et al., 2012), similar to that present in lentil
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sibelecti@hotmail.com (S.S. Fernandes).
(23%), pea (25%) and chickpea (21%) (Olivos-Lugo, Valdivia-Lpez &
Tecante, 2010). Furthermore, the fibers present, (1830%) potenti-
ate the use of chia in the production of functional foods (Muoz,
Cobos, Diaz, & Aguilera, 2012).
When the chia seed is immersed in water, a transparent
mucilaginous gel called of chia mucilage (CM), is exuded. This gel
is composed essentially of soluble fiber and corresponds to about
6% of chia seed (Reyes-Caudillo, Tecante, & Valdivia-Lpez, 2008),
appearing to be contained in the seed coat or the adjacent layer,
not being easily separated from the seed (Segura-Campos,
Acosta-Chi, Rosado-Rubio, Chel-Guerrero, & Betancur-Ancona,
2014).
The gel formed has qualities that allow its application in various
products in the food industry (Ali et al., 2012), such as thickener,
gel former and chelator (Capitani et al., 2012). Moreover, it can
act as a fat replacer because it has the capacity to hydrate, develop
viscosity and maintain freshness, particularly in bakery products
(Vzquez-Ovando, Rosado-Rubio, Chel-Guerrero, & Betancur-
Ancona, 2009). It is this potential property that is employed in
developing products with reduction of fat and that can also
become functional foods due to the quantity of fiber.
Lin and Daniel (1994) proposed the structure of CM as a
tetrasaccharide with a main chain consisting of units of
(1 ? 4)-b-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 ? 4)-a-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 ? 4)-
b-d-xylopyranosyl with 4-O-methyl-a-d-glucuronic acid ramifi-
cations in the O-2 position of b-d-xylopyranosyl in the main
chain. The ratio of b-d-xylose to a-d-glucose monosaccharides
to 4-O-methyl-a-d-glucuronic acid is 2:1:1.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.075
0308-8146/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
238 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244
Recently, some products have been developed with the addition
of CM. Borneo, Aguirre, and Len (2010) and Felisberto et al. (2015)
found that the effect on the nutritional content, basic functional
properties and sensory characteristics of cakes were maintained
when oil was replaced by CM in up to 25%, presenting the CM as a
new ingredient for the replacement of fat in foods. Campos, Ruivo,
Scapim, Madrona, and Bergamasco (2016) evaluated the use of CM
in the total replacement of emulsifiers and stabilizers in ice cream.
The results obtained by the authors indicated that the CM can
replace such components maintaining the product quality, however
the color and global attributes presented significant differences
with the control, probably because of the dark color of CM.
The objective of the present study was to extract chia mucilage,
dry it by two different methods and evaluate the effects of its
incorporation on the technological quality of breads and pound
cakes with a fat substitution of 25, 50, 75 and 100%.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Material
Chia seeds were kindly donated by Dubai Industry and Market
Food Products Ltda (Catupe, Brazil). Dehydrated whole eggs were
kindly donated by NaturOvos (Salvador do Sul, Brazil). Wheat flour
was type 1, with a composition of 0.7 g/100 g lipids, 0.5 g/100 g
ash, 11.2 g/100 g protein, and 87.6 g/100 g of carbohydrates. Addi-
tional ingredients, such as hydrogenated vegetable fat, margarine,
sugar, salt, milk, chocolate powder (50% cocoa), baking powder and
dry yeast were purchased in local shops. Ascorbic acid P.A. (Synth,
Brazil) was also used as additive.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Mucilage extraction
The chia mucilage (CM) was obtained according to Dick et al.
(2015) and Muoz et al. (2012), with modifications. Chia seeds
(packed in hermetic plastic vessels and stored at 5 C until use) were
soaked in distilled water at a seed to water ratio of 1:40, and
mechanically stirred using a shaker (Cientec, model CT-712RNT,
Brazil) for at least 2 h at 150 rpm and 25 C. The mucilage slurry
was separated from the chia seeds by filtration with a vacuum pump
and a sieve (18-mesh) to remove the mucilaginous gel tightly bound
to the chia seed coat, and thereafter, centrifugation for 20 min at
11.600g (Hanil, model Supra 22 K, Korea). Finally, the mucilaginous
gel was dried in two ways: freeze-dried (Liobrs, model L108, Brazil)
and spread on a drying tray and exposed to a temperature of 50 C
(Quimis, model Q314, Brazil) for 10 h. Both dried mucilage were
wrapped in plastic containers and maintained at
18 C for later use.
2.2.2. Proximate composition and caloric value
The proximate compositions of chia seed, CM, flour, breads and
cakes were performed according to AOAC (2005), on dry basis. The
moisture (method number 935.29); ash (method number 923.03);
protein (micro-Kjeldahl method N  6.25, number 920.87) with;
and lipid content (Soxhlet method, number 920.85) were deter-
mined. Total dietary fiber of chia seed was determined according
to method 985.29. The carbohydrate content was obtained by the
difference of 100 to the others components.
The caloric value of the breads was calculated using the coeffi-
cients of Atwater (Watt & Merrill, 1963) based on the caloric coef-
ficients corresponding to the protein, carbohydrate and lipid
contents, according to Eq. (1):
Caloric v alue kcal:100 g
1 g of protein  4 g of lipids  9
g of carbohydrates  4
2.2.3. Bread preparation
The bread formulation showed in Table 1 was based according
to El-Dash (1978), fresh yeast was replaced proportionally by dry
yeast. Vegetable fat (in the reference control formulation) was
replaced by CM at different levels of substitution: 25, 50, 75 and
100%. Before bread elaboration, CM was prepared by hydrating it
with distilled water in a concentration of 6 g of CM/ 100 g distilled
water, according to preliminary tests, followed by mixing and rest-
ing for 30 min.
Using the direct baking method, dry ingredients (flour, sodium
chloride, sugar and ascorbic acid) were initially mixed using a
planetary mixer (KitchenAid, model BEA30A, Brazil) at low speed
for 3 min. Afterward, the hydrogenated vegetable fat and/or chia
mucilage, dry yeast and water were added and mixed for 6 min
until the gluten network had completely developed. The dough
was left to rest for 10 min before being cut into pieces weighing
165 g, which were subsequently molded with the help of a wood
roll. The shaped doughs were taken for fermentation, where they
remained at a temperature of 30 C for 90 min. The doughs were
then baked in an electric oven to 220 C for 20 min. After 1 h of
baking, the breads were sliced (electric knife, Moulinex) for further
analysis.
2.2.4. Cake preparation
The cake formulation showed in Table 1 was based on method
number 10-90 from AACC (1995), with modifications. Margarine
(in the control formulation) was replaced by chia mucilage at dif-
ferent levels of substitution: 25, 50, 75 and 100%. Similar to the
breads, the CM was prepared by hydrating it with distilled water
(3 g of CM/100 g distilled water) (Felisberto et al., 2015), mixing
and resting for 30 min before cake preparation.
To obtain the cakes, all ingredients (flour, chocolate powder and
sieved sugar), except the baking powder, were initially mixed
using a planetary mixer (KitchenAid) used in three stages: the first
stage at minimum speed for 30 s, to promote the initial mixture of
ingredients; second stage at low speed for 30 s to mix the dough;
third stage, at medium speed for 2 min to incorporate air. Later,
the addition of baking powder was done by mixing manually with
movements in order to cover it with the dough followed by a
final homogenization for 30 s at minimum speed. The dough
(176.8 g) thus produced was distributed in aluminum pans greased
with margarine. Baking was performed in a preheated electric oven
(Diplomat Fisher), for a period of 35 min at 220 C. After 1 h of
baking, the loaves were sliced (electric knife, Moulinex) for further
analysis.
2.2.5. Technological and physical characteristics of breads and cakes
The specific volume (SV) was obtained from the ratio of appar-
ent volume to weight, using millet seeds according to AACC (2000)
(10-05.01), and mass (g) after baking. The crumb firmness of the
fresh bread and cake were measured using a TA-XT2 texturometer
(Stable Micro Systems, UK). The tests were conducted according to
the AACC (2000) (74-09.01) method, which consisted of compress-
ing two 25 mm thick slices in the center of the Texture Analyzer
platform using a cylindrical probe of 36 mm in diameter under
the following working conditions: speed of 1.0 mm/s for the pre-
test; speed of 1.7 mm/s for the test; speed of 10.0 mm/s for the
post-test; 40% compression and 5-g trigger force. The firmness
value was expressed in Newton (N).
For the bread, total scores were assigned using the worksheet of
El-Dash (1978) and method 10-90 (AACC, 2000) was used for the
cakes, with a maximum value of 100 points. A central slice of each
bread and cake was subjected to a technological evaluation, involv-
ing aspects of quality, such as structure, symmetry, grain, texture,
color and flavor of the crumb and the crust. The physical property
1
of the masses of the uncooked dough and the bread were deter-
 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244 239

Table 1
Formulation (g) control bread and bread with replacement of hydrogenated vegetable fat by chia mucilage, and control chocolate cake and cakes with margarine replacement for
chia mucilage.

Ingredients (g/100 g) Bread Cake

Control BCM-25 BCM-50 BCM-75 BCM-100 Control CCM-25 CCM-50 CCM-75 CCM-100
Wheat Flour 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0
Fat 3.0 2.25 1.5 0.75 0.0 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0
Milk 46.7 46.7 46.7 46.7 46.7
Water 5760 5760 5760 5760 5760
Sugar 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 38.4 38.4 38.4 38.4 38.4
Dehydrated whole egg 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0
Chocolate powder 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Sodium Chloride 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Dry yeast 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Baking powder 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7
Ascorbic Acid 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009
Suspension of chia mucilage 0.0 0.75 1.5 2.25 3.0 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0

BCM-25, BCM-50, BCM-75 and BCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of vegetable fat by chia mucilage gel, respectively.
CCM-25, CCM-50, CCM-75 and CCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of margarine by chia mucilage gel, respectively.

mined. The loss of mass upon baking was calculated according to
Eq. (2), as follows, where Mdough corresponds to the mass of the
dough and Mbread corresponds to the mass of the bread.
Mdough
Mbread
Losses on cooking %
Mdough
Cake symmetry and uniformity indices were calculated accord-
ing to AACC method 10-91 (AACC, 2000). The symmetry evaluation
method is based on measuring cake height at three specific points.
The symmetry value is calculated as twice the central zone height
minus the lateral zone heights. High symmetry values indicate
cakes that mainly rise in the central part.
(65.0%) and aged between 18 and 35 years (81.0%), from a total of
100 panelists.
2.2.9. Statistical analysis
2 All determinations were done at least in triplicate. The data
were compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the aver-
age values obtained were compared using Tukeys test, with statis-
tical significance (a) set at p < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Proximate composition of chia seeds and dried mucilage

2.2.6. Color The proximate compositions of the chia seeds, lyophilized chia
Crust and crumb color of breads, cakes and color of CM were mucilage (LCM) and dried at 50 C chia mucilage (DCM) are shown
determined using a Colorimeter (Minolta, model CR400, Japan). on Table 2. Chia seeds presented a high content of proteins and
The instrument was calibrated before each analysis with white lipids, similar to that found by other authors (Coelho & Salas-
and black standard tiles. The analysis were based on the CIE Lab Mellado, 2015; Porras-Loaiza, Jimenez-Mungu, Sosa-Morales,
system for breads that were defined by the CIE (International Com- Palou, & Lopez-Malo, 2014). However, the fiber content of this chia
mission on Illumination) in 1976 for determining the L (lightness), is lower than that reported by Timilsena, Adhikarib, Barrow, and
a and b (chromaticity coordinates) values. The value of hue angle Adhikari (2016), who found 25.3 g/100 g. The difference in compo-
or h was calculated using Eq. (3). sition of chia seeds can be attributed to the difference in geograph-

b ical origins, genotype, plant developmental stage, as well as
h tan
1 3 various production factors such as temperature, light and soil
a
(Porras-Loaiza et al., 2014).
2.2.7. Water activity (aw) In relation to chia mucilage, the yield was 5.81 g of lyophilized
Water activity of crumbs (aw) was determined in a LabTouch chia mucilage/100 g of chia seeds and 4.69 g of the chia mucilage
Novasina water activity analyzer (Novasina, Model LabTouch, dried at 50 C/100 g of chia seeds. With the exception of the pro-
Switzerland) at room temperature. tein content, the proximal composition of the mucilage differed
significantly from each other, presenting the DCM higher values.
2.2.8. Sensory evaluation
Bread and cake samples, with a thickness of 1 cm, were evalu- Table 2
ated on the basis of acceptance of their appearance, flavor, color, Proximal composition (g/100 g) and caloric value (kcal/100 g).
texture, aroma, and overall acceptability on a nine-point hedonic
Components Chia seed DCM LCM
scale, according to NBR 12994 (ABNT, 1993). The scale of values a
Moisture 5.74 0.17 13.69 0.04 10.74 0.29b
ranged from a high score of 9, like extremely, to a low score of
Protein1,* 19.55 0.25 10.63 0.12a 10.76 0.51a
1, dislike extremely. All breads were analyzed in the same ses- Lipids* 35.68 0.61 2.05 0.29a 0.91 0.05b
sion. Water was available for rinsing. The purchase intent was also Ash* 4.93 0.03 8.79 0.06a 8.17 0.10b
assessed using a five-point hedonic scale anchored from 1 = cer- Crude fiber 17.18 0.04 ND ND
tainly wouldnt buy and 5 = certainly would buy. The index of Carbohydrates* 22.66 78.53 80.16
Energy value* 558.68 367.73 361.51
acceptability (IA) was calculated using Eq. (4):
The yield was 5.81 g of lyophilized chia mucilage/100 g of chia seeds and 4.69 g of
Score  100 the chia mucilage dried at 50 C/100 g of chia seeds.
IA % 4
9 Values followed by different letters differ at p < 0.05, according to Tukey test.
Results are expressed as (x d), being x the average and d, the standard deviation
In sensory evaluation of the breads, most of the panelists were (n = 3). LCM: lyophilized chia mucilage; DCM: dried at 50 C chia mucilage.
female (73.6%) and aged between 18 and 35 years (86.8%), from a 1
Factor: 6.25.
*
total of 106 panelists. For cakes, most of the panelists were female Dry basis. ND: not determined.
240 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244

The low lipid content was expected, since according to Coorey,
Tjoe, and Jayasena (2014), oil remains retained in the cellular
structure and is not extracted with the gel. The lipid content of
gums can play an important role in stabilizing oil/water emulsions.
Julio et al. (2016) working with oil-in-water emulsions verified
that the chia mucilage contributed through the increase of viscos-
ity and formation of a network that reduces the movement of oil
droplets, their collision and coalescence. In bakery products, when
fat replacement is carried out, it is necessary that the ingredients
present functions that attach the air during the mixing of dough,
emulsify the liquid formulation and promote smoothness and soft-
ness (Brooker, 1993).
3.2. Color of mucilage
In relation to brightness (L), the lyophilized chia mucilage pre-
sented a value of 54.72 with a tendency to white, color lighter than
the chia mucilage dried at 50 C that presented a value of 81.97.
The values of a and b chromes were statistically equal for both
types of mucilage, presenting a tendency to red and to yellow col-
ors, corresponding to a values of 0.71 and b value of 7.98 for LCM
and a value of 0.78 and b value of 7.41 for DCM. For both muci-
lage types the hue angle value (h) was similar, being near to yellow
tonality with 84.92 value for LCM and 83.99 value for DCM. The
color presented by the mucilage could be produced for pigments
and seed residues originated during the rupture of the seed.
3.3. Breads
3.3.1. Proximal composition
Table 3 presents the proximal composition of control bread and
breads with vegetable fat replaced by chia mucilage (CM) at differ-
ent levels of substitution. Moisture content in food is an indicator
of quality, in addition, it is one of the desirable sensory character-
istics in bakery products, being usually related to a mild product
(Dadkhah, Hashemiravan, & Seyedain-Ardebili, 2012). The mois-
ture content was low in breads added with CM, except these with
BCM-100 formulation with dried mucilage at 50 C and BCM-25
formulation with lyophilized mucilage, that did not differed from
the control sample.
High moisture content in bread was expected by the addition
of the mucilage due to the fact that it has high fiber content that
possesses the ability to absorb water. However, the added amount
of chia mucilage was very small compared to the total bread
dough, not resulting of increased moisture content. For example,
in the formulation with 100% replacement of vegetable fat, only
0.105% of CM was added. As for ash content, this was not signif-
icantly different in the formulations in which the fat replacement
was done.
The protein content decreases slightly with the addition of
mucilage in bread, this is probably due to the amount of CM added.
The lowest protein content was obtained in BCM-100 bread (total
replacement of fat by CM) with dried at 50 C mucilage, although it
was the formulation with the highest amount of CM added.
For the lipid content, BCM-100 formulation, with total replace-
ment of fat by CM, resulted in a significant reduction of 80.7% of
lipids in breads added with lyophilized mucilage and 60.2% for
breads added with dried mucilage at 50 C in relation to the control
bread. Coelho and Salas-Mellado (2015) developed bread added
with 7.8% of chia flour and 11% of chia seed to replace wheat flour.
The authors noted that by reducing the vegetable fat content, there
was a reduction in the levels of saturated fats and an increase in
the level of polyunsaturated fat, showing that if used in bakery
products, chia seeds can produce healthier products. Moreover,
the ash content increased with the substitutions, while the protein
content was not significantly different.
Zandonadi, Botelho and Arajo (2009) working with a gluten-
free bread verified that the addition of 3.08% of Psyllium in a bread
formulation containing rice cream (18,56%),corn starch (33.22%)
and potato starch (45.14%) decreased the fat content in 42.3% of
the bread when compared with the control sample. Brasil et al.
(2011) studied the effect of the addition of inulin on the nutri-
tional, physical and sensory parameters of bread and they verified
a reduction of 85% in fat content for bread with 6% of inulin in the
formulation.
3.3.2. Technological and physical characteristics of breads
Table 4 presents the values that were determined for breads in
which the fat was replaced by chia mucilage (CM) at different
levels of substitution. The values of cooking loss were lower than
the control sample in all breads where the fat was replaced by chia
mucilage. An increase in water evaporation due to a larger surface
caused by the increase in specific volume did not occur, and with
the use of CM that is essentially composed of fibers, the water

Table 3
Proximal composition (g/100 g) and caloric value of breads and cakes prepared using 25, 50, 75 and 100% fat replacement with CM.

Mucilage Moisture Protein* Lipids* Ash* Others carbohydrates* Caloric Value (kcal.100
1 g)
Control 36.61 0.00a,b 12.68 0.27a,b 1.66 0.16a 2.64 0.14a 83.02 397.74
Breads Lyophilized BCM25 36.02 0.15b,c 13.14 0.40a 1.52 0.11a,b 2.69 0.04a 82.65 396.84
BCM50 35.11 0.05e 11.44 0.20d 0.93 0.01d,e 2.66 0.07a 84.97 394.01
BCM75 33.98 0.47f 12.38 0.13a,b 0.72 0.14e,f 2.66 0.06a 84.24 392.96
BCM100 35.10 0.20e 11.26 0.12d 0.32 0.12f 2.64 0.03a 85.78 391.04
Dried at 50 C BCM25 35.79 0.21c,d 11.52 0.27c,d 1.38 0.03a,b,c 2.59 0.12a 84.51 396.54
BCM50 33.91 0.03f 12.41 0.03a,b 1.20 0.29b,c,d 2.64 0.03a 83.75 395.44
BCM75 35.28 0.28d,e 12.22 0.05b,c 1.05 0.40c,d,e 2.61 0.05a 84.12 394.81
BCM100 36.90 0.18a 9.87 0.51e 0.66 0.03e,f 2.61 0.02a 86.86 392.86
Cakes Control 36.69 0.42C,D 4.45 0.70E 9.35 0.09A 1.99 0.02A 84.21 438.79
Lyophilized CCM25 34.72 0.50F 8.61 0.13B,C 7.58 0.28B 1.93 0.05A 81.88 430.18
CCM50 37.79 0.26A,B 8.37 0.06B,C 6.22 0.06D 1.71 0.02B 83.70 424.26
CCM75 36.42 0.15D,E 8.32 0.47B,C 4.86 0.08E 1.72 0.02B 85.10 417.42
CCM100 38.24 0.06A 9.84 0.07A 2.95 0.04 G 1.66 0.01B 85.55 408.11
Dried at 50 C CCM25 35.73 0.05E 8.75 0.01B,C 7.65 0.03B 1.64 0.03B 81.96 431.69
CCM50 37.22 0.22B,C 7.87 0.37C 6.93 0.00C 1.71 0.03B 83.49 427.81
CCM75 36.50 0.24C,D,E 8.46 0.32B,C 4.52 0.00F 1.72 0.06B 85.30 415.72
CCM100 38.52 0.23A 9.13 0.04A,B 2.10 0.14 H 1.70 0.06B 87.07 403.70

BCM-25, BCM-50, BCM-75 and BCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of vegetable fat by chia mucilage, respectively. CCM-25, CCM-50, CCM-75 and
CCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of margarine fat by chia mucilage, respectively. Average of three values with standard deviation, same letter in
the column indicates that there is no significant difference between the means by Tukey test (p < 0.05).
*
Dry basis.
 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244 241

Table 4
Technological characteristics and water activity of breads and cakes prepared using 25, 50, 75 and 100% fat replacement with CM.

Mucilage Losses on cooking (%) Symmetry (cm) SV (cm3.g
1) Firmness (N) Aw Total Score
a a,b f a
Breads Control 9.73 0.23 ND 3.41 0.09 3.17 0.02 0.951 0.001 87.89 0.92b,c
Lyophilized BCM25 5.98 0.14e,f,g ND 3.55 0.30a,b 3.62 0.01e 0.946 0.001a,b 85.01 0.90d
BCM50 6.91 0.03b,c,d ND 3.33 0.08a,b 3.89 0.02d 0.936 0.001e 89.44 0.77b
BCM75 7.17 0.08b,c ND 3.60 0.02a 4.42 0.10c 0.936 0.002e 88.93 0.84b
BCM100 6.36 0.17d,e,f ND 2.86 0.05c 6.36 0.04a 0.936 0.002e 88.61 0.45b
Dried at 50 C BCM25 5.88 0.42f,g ND 3.63 0.15a 2.91 0.01 g 0.941 0.003c,d 79.33 0.57e
BCM50 6.62 0.26c,d,e ND 3.60 0.08a 3.07 0.02f,g 0.940 0.001c,d,e 85.64 0.87c,d
BCM75 7.37 0.21b ND 3.48 0.22a,b 3.8 0.13d,e 0.937 0.000d,e 89.95 0.76b
BCM100 5.37 0.29 g ND 3.13 0.11b,c 6.03 0.11b 0.943 0.001b,c 93.79 1.64a
Cakes Control ND 2.95 0.15E 1.95 0.05E 7.78 0.04E 0.929 0.007A 90.67 2.31A
Lyophilized CCM25 ND 3.73 0.06C,D 2.05 0.08D,E 7.90 0.22D,E 0.910 0.004C 81.33 2.31B
CCM50 ND 4.13 0.06B,C 2.13 0.06B,C,D 8.28 0.11D 0.916 0.003B,C 92.00 0.00A
CCM75 ND 4.70 0.10A 2.22 0.04A,B 9.36 0.15C 0.921 0.001A,B 88.00 0.00A
CCM100 ND 4.50 0.20A,B 2.06 0.05C,D,E 11.15 0.17B 0.918 0.002B,C 74.67 2.31C
Dried at 50 C CCM25 ND 4.13 0.29B,C 2.29 0.02A 6.93 0.05F 0.917 0.004B,C 92.00 0.00A
CCM50 ND 3.50 0.10D 2.24 0.06A,B 7.78 0.34E 0.913 0.003B,C 90.67 2.31A
CCM75 ND 4.67 0.25A 2.19 0.04A,B,C 9.13 0.12C 0.920 0.001A,B 88.00 0.00A
CCM100 ND 4.40 0.10A,B 2.07 0.04C,D,E 15.11 0.12A 0.916 0.002B,C 73.33 2.31C

SV: specific volume; Aw: water activity. ND: not determined BCM-25, BCM-50, BCM-75 and BCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of vegetable fat by
chia mucilage, respectively. CCM-25, CCM-50, CCM-75 and CCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of margarine fat by chia mucilage, respectively.
Average of three values with standard deviation, same letter in the column indicates that there is no significant difference between the means by Tukey test (p < 0.05).

retention was high. The free water was reduced, not allowing its
evaporation during the baking step.
Breads specific volume (SV) with fat substitution of 25, 50 and
75%, replaced by dried at 50 C and lyophilized CM, did not differ
statistically from the control. For breads with total replacement
of fat, the SV values were low, however, a reduction of about 8%
was verified in SV value with the addition of 100% CM dried at
50 C in relation to the control bread and a reduction of about
16% in bread with addition of 100% of lyophilized mucilage, indi-
cating that the mucilage slightly impair this technological charac-
teristic in the breads. The slight decrease in SV can be due to the
interruption of the protein network influenced by the addition of
mucilage, as well as Pareyt, Finnie, Putseys, and Delcour (2011)
report that lipid interactions with proteins can cause destabiliza-
tion of gas cells and impact bread volume, structure and firmness
of the crumb.
The SV values obtained were similar to those found by
Steffolani, Martinez, Le, and Gomez (2015), who studied the effect
of addition of different forms of chia, with or without pre-
hydration on the rheological properties of dough and sensory and
technological quality of breads. They observed a general tendency
showing that the incorporation of chia reduced SV values of the
breads, but higher SV were obtained after addition of chia flour
than the addition of chia seeds. Furthermore, the product SV was
better when the pre-hydration of flour and seed was carried out
before the bread processing.
Firmness is an important parameter for the quality of bakery
products and can determine the sensorial shelf life a full stop,
and fat is an ingredient with a positive effect on product texture
for keeping breads and cakes softer for a longer period, so the
effects of its reduction must be closely evaluated. Regarding the
firmness, it can be observed in Table 4, that with the addition of
mucilage the values were small but significant, since firmness
increases in proportion to the amount of mucilage added. It was
observed that the mucilage dried at 50 C showed a better perfor-
mance than the lyophilized mucilage on the characteristics of
bread crumb firmness.
Water activity is an important parameter to be determined
since it shows the water that is not attached to the substrate and
therefore available for the proliferation of microorganisms. The
addition of CM reduces the water activity, possibly because muci-
lage can absorb water, reducing the free water of the product.
The total scores ranged from 79.33 to 93.79, and among the
evaluated characteristics, crust color, uniformity, and crust charac-
teristics were the aspects that most influenced the total bread
scores. Breads with 25% of fat replacement presented the lowest
score, whereas the highest score was obtained for bread with total
substitution of fat by dried mucilage, which was higher than the
control bread. According to Dutcosky (1996), a bread that presents
score between 61 and 80 can be classified as regular quality bread
and values of 81100 are classified as good quality bread. There-
fore, only the bread with 25% of fat replacement for CM dried at
50 C was classified as regular, while the remaining were classified
as good quality breads.
Considering all technological parameters, the addition of CM
slightly affected the specific volume and firmness, in some cases
even improving the total score.
3.3.3. Color
For baked products, crust color is directly influenced by the
Maillard reaction and caramelization, the main chemical changes
caused during baking. The color of the crumb is influenced by
the wheat flour, the smaller the particle size the brighter the color
(Popov-Raljic, Mastilovic, Lalicic-Petronijevic, & Popov, 2009).
Table 5 presents the color parameters of breads where the fat
was replaced by chia mucilage (CM) at different percentages.
Among the treatments, it is observed that crust brightness
decreases as the replacement of fat increases, except for the 25%
replacement by the CM dried at 50 C, showing that the color of
CM influenced both bread crust and crumb colors, with the addi-
tion of both mucilages presenting a dark tonality of similar inten-
sity. Korus, Witczak, Ziobro, and Juszczak (2015) verified that the
addition of linseed mucilage produced breads with darker color
than the control bread, similar to what was found in the present
study. A product similar to wheat bread is obtained when the color
of the crumb tends to yellow (near 90), which was obtained in all
fat substitution options, since the Hue angle (h) ranged from 86.11
to 89.57.
3.3.4. Sensory evaluation
Considering all the bread characteristics, BCM-75 and BCM-100
breads with CM dried at 50 C were selected for the sensory eval-
uation because the products presented a high fat reduction, besides
having physical and technological properties similar to the control
242 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244

Table 5
Color parameters of breads and cakes prepared using 25, 50, 75 and 100% fat replacement with CM.

Mucilage CRUST CRUMB

* * *
L a b h () L* a* b* h ()
b a b,c a d
Control 45.56 1.75 16.98 0.54 27.13 0.35 57.96 67.42 1.70
1.01 0.01 14.88 0.42a,b 86.11
Breads Lyophilized BCM-25 57.56 0.53a 16.24 0.04a,b 34.43 1.13a 64.75 70.31 0.74a
0.95 0.05d 15.83 0.31a 86.56
BCM-50 43.62 2.18b,c 17.08 1.49a 27.82 0.48b,c 58.45 57.57 0.58b
0.15 0.05b 13.19 0.09c,d 89.35
BCM-75 37.80 0.95d,e 14.53 0.87a,b,c 26.83 1.41b,c,d 61.56 58.52 0.60b
0.45 0.01c 14.5 0.69a,b,c 88.22
BCM-100 36.54 0.96e,f 12.73 0.65c 28.27 0.86b 65.75 48.49 0.31c 0.09 0.02a 13.56 0.42b,c 89.20
Dried at 50 C BCM-25 31.77 0.46 g 12.97 0.62c 24.57 0.37d 62.17 41.51 1.85d
0.09 0.05b 12.05 0.35d 89.57
BCM-50 40.36 0.46c,d 13.9 1.62b,c 25.58 0.77c,d 61.48 57.85 1.65b
0.42 0.03c 13.94 0.67b,c 88.27
BCM-75 35.78 1.51e,f 14.6 0.97a,b,c 27.46 0.62b,c 62.00 55.04 1.87b
0.41 0.04c 14.13 0.58b,c 88.33
BCM-100 33.34 1.04f 14.17 1.35a,b,c 25.73 0.35c,d 61.15 50.03 0.51c 0.16 0.02a 14.02 0.70b,c 89.35
Cakes Control 27.28 1.25E 11.69 0.33D 14.93 0.24C 51.94 25.75 0.85F 14.20 0.38C 19.71 0.22B,C 54.23
Lyophilized CCM-25 39.79 1.11A 13.38 0.73A 15.20 0.71C 48.64 25.46 0.81F 14.44 0.16C 19.07 0.24C 52.86
CCM-50 33.60 0.21D 12.51 0.37A,B,C,D 14.71 0.25C 49.62 30.07 0.55A,B,C 15.43 0.23B 20.23 0.09B 52.66
CCM-75 39.70 1.78A,B 13.28 0.12A,B 17.33 0.38B 52.54 29.34 0.44B,C,D 15.22 0.06B 19.62 0.33B,C 52.20
CCM-100 36.61 1.49B,C,D 11.82 0.31D 14.52 0.33C 50.82 28.33 0.53D,E 13.50 0.12D 16.53 0.07E 50.76
Dried at 50 C CCM-25 38.66 1.31A,B,C 13.05 0.37A,B,C 18.37 0.22A 54.61 31.51 0.25A 16.29 0.21A 21.95 0.30A 53.42
CCM-50 36.37 0.26C,D 12.42 0.25A,B,C,D 16.73 0.08B 53.41 30.56 0.35A,B 15.42 0.12B 20.24 0.04B 52.70
CCM-75 39.60 0.40A,B 12.30 0.15B,C,D 16.92 0.27B 53.98 28.84 0.27C,D,E 14.50 0.26C 17.87 0.36D 50.94
CCM-100 37.39 0.68A,B,C 12.14 0.14C,D 14.56 0.34C 50.18 27.72 0.59E 13.50 0.10D 17.11 0.10E 51.72

BCM-25, BCM-50, BCM-75 and BCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of vegetable fat by chia mucilage, respectively. CCM-25, CCM-50, CCM-75 and
CCM-100: formulations with 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution of margarine fat by chia mucilage, respectively. L*: brightness; a* and b*: chroma; h: hue angle. Average of three
values with standard deviation, same letter in the column indicates that there is no significant difference between the means by Tukey test (p < 0.05).

bread. For this selection, it was taken into account that obtaining
CM dried at 50 C is less expensive than lyophilized mucilage.
Table 6 presents the results of the sensory analysis of the selected
breads.
The scores for all of the attributes were greater than seven, as
shown in Table 6, the average acceptance of the judges ranged
from moderately liked to liked a lot and the index of accept-
ability was greater than 86.0%. According to Spehar and Santos
(2002), for a product be considered acceptable in terms of its sen-
sory properties, it must obtain a minimum score of 70%, a value
obtained in both samples. Only the parameters of appearance,
color of the crumb and odor did not present a difference
(p < 0.05) between the two formulations. Parameters of texture
and flavor in bread with 75% of fat replacement obtained higher
scores than the product with 100% of fat replacement, which
may be due to the lack of fat in the formulation, the ingredient that
positively contributes to texture and flavor. Steffolani et al. (2015)
found that the use of chia seed and pre-hydrated chia seed in bread
formulations provided a better acceptability of the product than
the use of chia flour without pre-treatment. The responses
obtained by Coelho and Salas-Mellado (2015) in the sensory eval-
uation ranged from moderately liked to liked a lot for bread
added with chia seed and chia flour. The results obtained for pur-
chase intent was very satisfactory, showing 50.9% of response
would certainly buy for BCM-75 formulation and 39.6% of
response would certainly buy for BCM-100 formulation.
Evaluating the overall attributes, it was found that the formula-
tion BCM-75 may have had a better acceptability because it pre-
sented greater specific volume values compared to the other
formulations.
3.4. Cakes
3.4.1. Proximal composition
Table 3 presents the proximal composition of control chocolate
cake and chocolate cakes with margarine replaced by chia muci-
lage (CM) at different levels of substitution. The increased degree
of fat replacement resulted in a higher moisture and higher protein
content. Cakes with higher moisture values were obtained with the
highest addition of mucilage, associated with the higher water
absorption capacity of the chia mucilage. In the same way, the
cakes added with mucilage presented higher protein content than
the control cake, being the case of the substitution of fat content in
high as 100%.

Table 6
Scores of sensory analysis of breads and cakes prepared using fat replacement with CM.

Parameters Breads Cakes

BCM-75 Dried at 50 C BCM-100 Dried at 50 C CCM-75 Lyophilized CCM-75 Dried at 50 C
Appearance 8.23 0.85a 8.18 0.84a 7.54 1.31A 7.57 1.37A
Crust color 7.91 1.15b 8.15 0.91a 7.67 1.27A 7.62 1.24A
Color of the crumb 8.24 0.95a 8.19 0.92a 7.62 1.20A 7.59 1.21A
Odor 7.62 1.46a 7.54 1.47a 7.66 1.26A 7.67 1.29A
Texture 7.91 1.19a 7.41 1.50b 7.56 1.37A 7.61 1.32A
Flavor 7.95 1.11a 7.59 1.25b 7.85 1.20A 7.89 1.08A
Overall quality 8.01 1.04a 7.81 1.13b 7.76 1.09A 7.83 1.02A
Overall quality (IA) (%) 89.0 86.8 86.2 87.0
Certainly would buy (%) 50.9 39.6 36.0 42.0
Probably would buy (%) 35.8 41.5 38.0 36.0
Maybe buy/maybe wouldnt buy (%) 11.3 14.2 21.0 17.0
Probably wouldnt buy (%) 2.0 4.7 5.0 5.0

BCM-75 and BCM-100: formulations with 75 and 100% substitution of vegetable fat by chia mucilage dried at 50C, respectively. CCM-75: formulation with 75% substitution
of margarine fat by chia mucilage gel, respectively. Average of three values with standard deviation, same letter in the line indicates that there is no significant difference
between the means by Tukey test (p < 0.05).
 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244
Felisberto et al. (2015) studied the technological effects of add-
ing chia mucilage to cakes through fat reduction of 25, 50, 75 and
100% and found the same behavior with respect to moisture con-
tent as showed in this study. Borneo et al. (2010) found a lower
protein content when they replaced eggs by chia gel in cakes,
and when the oil replacement was tested the content in cakes
was similar.
Formulations without addition of fat (CCM-100) obtained a
higher reduction in the lipid content, 68.5% with lyophilized CM
and 77.5% with CM dried at 50 C. Due to this fact, the caloric value
was lower because lipids are responsible for this characteristic.
Results of Borneo et al. (2010) showed a fat reduction of 57% in
cakes by adding chia gel, however cakes of these formulations
showed lower specific volume, besides not presenting a good sen-
sory acceptability.
3.4.2. Technological and physical characteristics of cakes
Table 4 presents the values that were determined for the cakes
with the margarine replaced by different levels of CM. A loss of
cakes symmetry occurred with the replacement of fat by CM. The
symmetric profile desired is the zero value, which is well below
that found, possibly due to action and amount of yeast and the
effect of the CM. Felisberto et al. (2015) also found increased sym-
metry value on replacing fat with lyophilized CM. The authors
attributed the loss of symmetry to the viscosity of the cake dough.
Volume, a very important quality for cakes, strongly influences
consumer preference, and is directly related to the type and
amount of shortening used (Felisberto et al., 2015). The highest
cake specific volume with lyophilized mucilage was obtained with
the CCM-75 formulation, while for the mucilage dried at 50 C, for-
mulations with 25, 50 and 75% of mucilage presented higher SV
values in comparison with the control cake. One of the best known
effects of fats is the property of promoting aeration of the dough,
which directly influences the cake volume, due to the formation
and stabilization of foam. However, the effect provided by the fat
reduction was offset by the addition of chia mucilage, obtaining
higher specific volume in cakes added with mucilage compared
to the control chocolate cake. The high viscosity obtained by the
addition of hydrocolloid can result in improved stability during
the period of fermentation and baking, resulting in an increased
specific volume of the bakery products (Shittu, Rashidat, &
Evelyn, 2009).
Just as in the bread, the water activity was lower in all cakes
with fat substitution due to the water absorption capacity of chia
mucilage, ranging from 0.910 to 0.921. The decrease in water activ-
ity results in less soft cakes. This was evident in the present work,
with formulations with lower water activity presenting the highest
hardness values.
Regarding the total score, these ranged from 73.3 to 92.0. The
CCM-25 cake with addition of lyophilized mucilage and the CCM-
100 cake for the two mucilage types presented the lowest scores.
The CCM-100 cake presented thicker walls and a drier aspect than
the others, since the complete removal of fat, often changes the
texture, lightness, color, body and smoothness of the product,
resulting in lower scores. The CCM-75 formulation for both types
of mucilage showed no significant difference from the control cake,
however some slices of this formulation, presented large alveoli
making them have irregular appearance.
Considering the evaluated parameters, the addition of CM to
chocolate cakes, improved technological characteristics, especially
at lower levels (up to 50%) of mucilage in both types of drying.
3.4.3. Color
Color is one of the most important characteristics in the appear-
ance of a cake, since this combined with the texture and flavor, and
contributes to the consumers preference for the product
243
(Felisberto et al., 2015). Table 5 presents the color parameters of
chocolates cakes with fat replacement by chia mucilage (CM) at
different levels of substitution.
Differently what happened in breads, cakes added with muci-
lage promoted increased brightness. The L values obtained were
higher in the crust and the crumb proportional to the replacement
of margarine. Factors that influence the color are sugar content,
eggs, chocolate powder, improper baking powder, temperature or
cooking time, oven structure, humidity and air velocity within
the oven (Pertuzatti, Esteves, Alves, Lima, & Borges, 2015), as well
as color of CM. Regarding the values of Hue angle, these varied
from 48.64 to 54.61, remaining in purple and yellow.
In this study, a darker coloration was obtained with the addition
of CM in the products. Pizarro, Almeida, Samman, and Chang
(2013) observed a reduction of the color values of all parameters
evaluated in cakes with addition of chia flour, probably because
of its dark color, affecting the crumb color of cakes.
3.4.4. Sensory evaluation
Associating all the determined characteristics, both CCM-75
samples, with CM dried at 50 C and lyophilized CM were selected
to perform the sensory evaluation. This is because, while present-
ing a significant reduction of fat, they were the formulations that
presented the physical and technological properties similar to the
control cake. Table 6 presents the results of the sensory analysis
of chocolate cakes that were developed with fat replacement by
the CM dried at 50 C and the lyophilized CM.
Through Table 6, it can be observed that in all evaluated param-
eters, there was no significant difference in the two tested formula-
tions, showing that the type of mucilage utilized did not affect the
responses of sensory parameters. All attributes presented scores
between 7 and 8, showing that chocolate cakes were evaluated as
moderately like. The index of acceptability (IA) was greater than
83%, which confirms that the cakes are considered as acceptable
by the panelists (Spehar & Santos, 2002). Though the consumption
of chocolate cake by the panelists was low, the result obtained for
the purchase intent was very satisfactory, with a similar value for
both types of cakes, being 42.0% of response corresponding to
would certainly buy for the CCM-75 formulation with CM dried
at 50 C and 36.0% of response corresponding to would certainly
buy for the CCM-75 formulation with lyophilized CM.
4. Conclusions
The addition of chia mucilage slightly affected the technological
characteristics of the breads and reduced the caloric value as a
result of the fat replacement, showing that the greater substitution
tested (75 and 100%) produced low reductions in quality parame-
ters. The bread prepared with 75% of fat replacement by CM dried
at 50 C resulted in a reduction of 36.7% of the lipid content, in rela-
tion to control, and showed a higher acceptability and greater pur-
chase intent by the panelists.
For chocolate cakes, the technological characteristics were
improved in the formulation with fat replacement lower than
50%. However, the formulation with 75% of fat replacement for
both types of mucilage presented slight reductions in technological
parameters, except for the specific volume. In the sensorial analy-
sis, cakes with 75% replacement presented the same level of
acceptability, with greater purchase intent for the chocolate cake
added with CM dried at 50 C. Moreover, the cake prepared with
75% of fat replacement by CM dried at 50 C showed a reduction
of 51.6%, greater than cake with addition of lyophilized mucilage
that presented a reduction of 48.0%.
Therefore, for the elaborated bakery products, bread and choco-
late cake, the lyophilized mucilage and the mucilage dried at 50 C
244 S.S. Fernandes, Myriam de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado / Food Chemistry 227 (2017) 237244
showed efficiency in the fat replacement in the formulation. On the
sensorial point of view, products with CM dried at 50 C were more
acceptable, which presents an advantage, since this type of drying
is less expensive than lyophilization.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Coordenao de Aperfeioamento de Pes-
soal de Nvel Superior (CAPES Brazil) for supporting this study
and Dubai Alimentos S.A. and NaturOvos companies for supplying
the raw materials.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.
01.075.
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