812 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

Figure 8.31d. Finite element idealization of typical frame unit.

13.08-ft-high by 15-ft-long (4- by 4.57-m) unit consisting of W 36 300 columns and W

36 230 beams, the frame stiffness is approximately 8, 15, or 22% stiffer than for a stick
element model depending upon whether no, AISC minimum-, or full-continuity plates are
provided, respectively.
Using the virtual work expressions given above, or by performing a nite element
analysis, it is relatively easy to compute the contribution of panel zone deformation to
frame drift. The author recommends that before undertaking the analysis of large tubelike
frames, representative frame elements, say, at one-fourth, one-half, and three-fourths the
height of the building, be analyzed to get a feel for the contribution of panel zone
deformation to frame drift. Armed with the results, it is relatively easy to modify the
properties of beam and columns such that the overall behavior of the frame is properly
represented in the model.

8.4. DIFFERENTIAL SHORTENING OF COLUMNS

Columns in tall buildings experience large axial displacements because they are relatively
long and accumulate gravity loads from a large number of oors. A 60-story interior
column of a steel building, for example, may shorten as much as 2 to 3 in. (50 to 76 mm)
at the top, while a concrete column of similar height may experience an additional 2 to
3 in. (50 to 76 mm) of shortening due to creep and shrinkage of concrete. If such shortening
is not given due consideration, problems may develop in the performance of building
cladding systems. Proper awareness of this problem is necessary on the part of structural
engineer, architect, and curtain wall supplier to avoid unwelcome arguments, lost time,
and money.
The maximum shortening of a column occurs at the roof level, reducing to zero
at the base. In a concrete frame it may take several years for the shortening to occur
Special Topics 813

because of the long-term effect of creep, although a major part of it occurs within the
rst few months of construction. Very little can be done to minimize shortening, but the
design team should be aware of the magnitude of frame shortening so that soft joints are
properly detailed between the building frame and cladding to prevent axial load from being
transferred into the building facade. Before fabrication of cladding, the in-place elevations
of structural frame should be measured and used in the fabrication of cladding. The
design should provide for sufcient space between the cladding panels to allow for the
movement of the structure. Insufcient space may result in bowed cladding components
or, in extreme cases, the cladding panels may even pop out of the building.
A similar problem occurs when mechanical and plumbing lines are attached rigidly
to the structure. Frame shortening may force the pipes to act as structural columns resulting
in their distress. A general remedy is to make sure that nonstructural elements are not
brought in to bear the vertical loads by separating them from the structural elements.
The axial loads in all columns of a building are seldom the same, giving rise to
the problem of so-called differential shortening. The problem is more acute in a composite
structure because steel columns that are later encased in concrete are typically slender,
and are therefore subject to large axial loads during construction. Determining the mag-
nitude of axial shortening in a composite system is complicated because many of the
variables that contribute to the shortening cannot be predicted with sufcient accuracy.
Consider, for example, the lower part of the composite column that is continually under-
going creep. The steel column during construction is partly enclosed in concrete at the
lower oors, with the bare steel column projecting beyond the concreted levels by as
many as 8 or 10 oors. Another factor that is difcult to predict is the gravity load
redistribution due to frame action of columns and, if the building is founded on com-
pressible material, foundation settlement is another factor that inuences the relative
changes in the elevations of the columns. The magnitude of load imbalance continually
changes, making an accurate assessment of column shortening rather challenging. For
concrete buildings, the method of construction more or less takes care of the immediate
column shortening and, to a limited extent, the creep effects. This is because as each
oor is leveled at the time of its construction, the column shortening that has occurred
prior to the construction of that oor is compensated. Also, the creep and shrinkage
effects tend to be small because dead load accumulates incrementally over a 12- to 15-
month construction period.
Creep is difcult to quantify because it is time-dependent. Initially the rate of creep
is signicant; it diminishes as time progresses until it eventually reaches zero. Because of
sustained loads, the stress in concrete gradually gets transferred to the reinforcement with
a simultaneous decrease in concrete stress.
Columns with different percentages of reinforcement and different volume-to-surface
ratios creep and shrink differently. An increase in the percentage of reinforcement and
volume-to-surface ratio reduces the strain due to creep and shrinkage under similar stresses.
Differential shortening of columns induces moments in frame beams, resulting in gravity
load transfer to adjacent columns. A column that has shortened less receives more load,
thus compensating for the initial imbalance.
Differential rather than the absolute shortening of column is more signicant. Rel-
ative displacement between columns occurs because of the difference between the P/A
ratios of columns. P is the axial load on and A is the area of the column under consideration.
If all columns in a building have the same area and are sized for gravity load requirement
only, there will be no relative vertical movement between the columns. All columns will
undergo the same displacement because the P/A ratio is nearly constant for all columns.
In a building, this condition is seldom present. This is because typically in building design,
814 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

not all columns are designed for the same combination of loads. For example, the design
of frame column is governed by the combined gravity and lateral loads while nonframe
columns are designed for gravity loads only. This results in a large difference in the P/A
ratios between the two sets of columns. Differential column shortening between perimeter
and interior columns can produce oors that slope excessively. Since architectural partition
walls, doors, and ceilings are normally built plumb and level, respectively, problems will
result. Also, see Section 8.5, Floor-Leveling Problems.
Consider, for example, a steel tubular system with closely spaced exterior columns
and widely spaced interior columns. High-strength steel up to 65 ksi is used for the interior
column design, and because of large tributary areas and the desire to minimize column
sizes, the resulting P/A ratios are large. The exterior columns, on the other hand, usually
have a small P/A ratio for two reasons. First, their tributary areas are small because of
their close spacing of usually 5 to 12 ft (2.44 to 3.66 m). Second, the columns are sized
to limit lateral displacements, resulting in areas much in excess of those required for
strength consideration alone. Because of this imbalance in the gravity stress level, these
two groups of columns undergo different axial shortenings; the interior columns shorten
much more than the exterior columns.
A reversed condition occurs in buildings with interior-braced core columns and
widely spaced exterior columns; the exterior columns experience more axial shortening
than the interior columns. The behavior of columns in buildings with other types of
structural systems, such as interacting core and exterior frames, tends to be somewhere
in between these two limiting cases.
In all these cases, it is relatively easy to evaluate the shortening of columns. The
procedure requires a step-by-step manipulation of the basic PL/AE equation.
Having obtained the axial shortening values of all columns in a building, the next
step is to assign column length correction c for each column. The objective is to attain
as level a oor as practical. c is thus the difference between the specied theoretical
height of a given column and its actual height after it has shortened. The magnitude of
correction in a typically tall building of 30 to 60 stories is rather small, perhaps 1/8 in.
(3.17 mm) per oor, at the most. Therefore, instead of specifying this small correction at
each level, in practice it is usual to lump the corrections of a few oors to stipulate the
required correction. For example, in lieu of 18-in. correction at every level one would
specify 1 in. (25.4 mm) at every eighth oor.
Let us consider a typical column of a tall building with variations in story heights,
gravity loads, and areas up the height, as shown in Fig. 8.32a. The axial shortening of the
column at level n, denoted as n , is given by the following equation:

n NS
1 L
n =
E
Ak Pi
k =1 k i=k

where
n = axial shortening at level n
Pi = axial load increment
Lk = column height at story k
Ak = column area at story k
NS = number of stories

To illustrate this rather trivial procedure, consider a column that is N stories high, with a
constant cross-sectional area A, subjected to a constant load P at each oor. See Fig. 8.32b.
The above simplications are not valid in a practical column but keep the explanation simple.
Special Topics 815

Figure 8.32a. Axial shortening computations for a practical column.

It is evident that the axial shortening 1 at level 1 is equal to the total load at that
L
level multiplied by AE .
Thus,

L
1 = ( NS) P
AE
Similarly,

L
2 = 1 + ( NS 1) P
AE
L
3 = 2 +( NS 2) P
AE


L
n = n 1 + ( NS + 1 n) P
AE
L
ns = ns 1 + P
AE
In a similar manner, expressions for 1, 2, 3, n ns for a practical column shown
in Fig. 8.32a with a cross-sectional area decreasing up the height in a stepwise manner,
816 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

Figure 8.32b. Simplied column for calculation column shortening.

and subjected to different axial loads, may be derived as follows:

ns
L1
1 =
A1E
Pi
i =1
NS
L2
2 = 1 +
A2 E
Pi
i=2
NS
L3
3 = 2 + Pi
A3 E i = 3


L NS
n = n 1 + n Pi
An E i = n


ns
L
NS = NS 1 + ns Pi
Ans E i = ns
Special Topics 817

Table 8.1 shows in a tabular form the computations performed using the above
procedure. The assumed column sections, lengths, and variation of axial loads are given
in the table. The last column shows the lumped corrections at levels 2, 10, 20, 30, and 40,
and the roof. Basically, these corrections represent the lengths to be added to the theoretical
lengths of columns to achieve equal heights after the columns have shortened due to gravity
loads. For example, c = 1 1 4 in. (31.75 mm) at the tenth level means that the actual
fabricated length of column from its base to the tenth level should be made 1 1 4 in. longer
than the theoretical length. This overlength could be achieved by increasing the length of
column in each tier by 1 4 in. (6.35 mm) (ten stories equal ve tiers; therefore, 1 4 in. times
5 gives 1 1 4 in.). However, the fabricator may elect to increase the column length in each
story by 18 in. (3.2 mm) instead of 1 4 in. per tier. This and other similar options are, of
course, permissible because the end result of achieving a desired c at the tenth oor will
be the same.
The value of c = 2 in. (50.8 mm) at the 20th oor means the overlength of columns
between levels 1 and 20 should be 2 in. However, an overlength of 1 1 4 in. (31.75 mm)
up to the tenth level has already been achieved by specifying c = 1 1 4 in. at the tenth
level. Therefore, the increment between the 10th and 20th levels should be 2 in. less
1 1 4 in. = 3 4 in. (19.0 mm).

8.4.1. Simplied Method

In a steel building, typically the cross-sectional area of a column increases in two-story
increments from a minimum at top to a maximum at the base as shown in Fig. 8.32c. The
incremental steps in column areas are due to the nite choice of column shapes. Similarly,
the axial load on a column increases at each oor in a stepwise manner up the building
height. In tall buildings the signicance of these incremental steps diminishes rapidly,
allowing us to make the following assumptions which can be used to derive a simplied
formulation for axial shortening of columns. The rst relates to the axial load variation
due to gravity loads that may be assumed to increase linearly from top to the bottom. The
second is similar to the rst but applies to variation of column areas. However, a linear
variation using the actual column area at the bottom appears to underestimate the actual
shortening of columns. A slight modication in which the column area at the bottom is
taken as 0.9 times the actual area (0.9 Ab) appears to work well in predicting axial
shortenings. (See Figs. 8.32d and 8.32e.)

8.4.1.1. Derivation of Closed-Form Solution

The notations used in the derivation of a closed-form solution (Fig. 8.32f) are as follows:
L = height of the building (note previously in the longhand method, notation L was
used to denote story height)
z = axial shortening at a height x (also denoted as z) above foundation level
At = column area at top
Ab = modied column area at bottom equal to 0.9 actual area of column at bottom
= 0.9 AB
Ax = area of column at height x (also denoted as z) above foundation level
a = rate of change of area of column
Pt = axial load at top
Pb = axial load at bottom
Px = axial load at height x above foundation
b = rate of change of axial load
818 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

TABLE 8.1 Axial Shortening Computations for Practical Column

Column Lumped
length column
Pi n Column correction length Column
Accumulated Column Lk Story shortening, each correction, shortening,
Level load, kips section height, in. in. level, in. in. in.
50 53 W14 43 156 5.14 0.023 0.73 5.11
49 106 43 210 5.12 0.061 5.08
48 159 53 168 5.05 0.051 5.02
47 212 53 156 5.00 0.073 4.95
46 265 68 156 4.93 0.071 4.89
45 318 68 156 4.86 0.086 4.82
44 371 84 156 4.77 0.081 4.75
43 424 84 156 4.69 0.092 4.67
42 477 95 156 4.60 0.092 4.59
41 530 95 156 4.51 0.102 4.50
40 583 111 156 4.41 0.09 1.02 4.42
39 636 111 156 4.32 0.105 4.33
38 689 127 156 4.21 0.09 4.24
37 742 127 156 4.12 0.107 4.15
36 795 142 156 4.01 0.103 4.04
35 848 142 156 3.91 0.109 3.96
34 901 167 156 3.80 0.09 3.86
33 954 167 156 3.71 0.105 3.76
32 1007 176 156 3.62 0.105 3.66
31 1060 176 156 3.50 0.110 3.56
30 1113 202 156 3.39 0.101 1.07 3.46
29 1166 202 156 3.29 0.106 3.36
28 1219 211 156 3.19 0.106 3.26
27 1272 211 156 3.08 0.110 3.16
26 1325 228 156 2.97 0.106 3.12
25 1378 228 156 2.86 0.111 2.95
24 1431 246 156 2.75 0.107 2.85
23 1484 246 156 2.65 0.111 2.74
22 1537 264 156 2.53 0.107 2.64
21 1590 264 156 2.43 0.110 2.53
20 1643 287 156 2.32 0.104 1.06 2.42
19 1696 287 156 2.20 0.108 2.32
18 1749 314 156 2.10 0.101 2.21
17 1802 314 156 2.00 0.105 2.10
16 1855 314 156 1.90 0.108 1.99
15 1908 314 156 1.79 0.111 1.88
14 1961 342 156 1.68 0.104 1.78
13 2014 342 156 1.58 0.107 1.67
12 2067 370 156 1.47 0.101 1.56
11 2120 370 156 1.37 0.104 1.45
10 2173 370 156 1.26 0.107 0.53 1.34
9 2226 370 156 1.16 0.109 1.23
8 2279 398 156 1.05 0.104 1.12
7 2332 398 156 0.94 0.107 1.01
6 2385 398 156 0.84 0.11 0.89
5 2488 398 210 0.73 0.11 0.78
4 2491 426 168 0.62 0.11 0.67
3 2544 426 156 0.51 0.11 0.56
2 2597 500 156 0.40 0.09 0.45
Mezzanine 2650 500 240 0.31 0.15 0.17
1 2770 W14 500 240 0.16 0.16 0.17
NS = Number of stories = 50.
Special Topics 819

Figure 8.32c. Variation of cross-sectional area of a high-rise column.

ex = axial strain at height x

E = modulus of elasticity
The area of column at height z is given by

x x
Ax = At + Ab 1
L L
x
= Ab ( Ab At )
L
= Ab a x
where
Ab At
a =
L
The axial load at height z above foundation is given by
x x
Px = Pt + Pb 1
L L
= Pb b x
820 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

Figure 8.32d. Idealized gravity load distribution on a column.

where
Pt Pt
b =
L
The axial strain
Px
ex =
Ax E
Using vertical work:
z
Pz1 z = 0 Px1e x dx
with

Pz1 = 1 = Px1,
1 z Pb b x
E 0
z = dx
Ab a x
Pb z dx b z xdx
E 0 E 0
=
Ab a x Ab a x
Special Topics 821

Figure 8.32e. Idealized column cross-sectional areas.

Figure 8.32f. Axial shortening of columns; closed-form solution: (1) axial shortening z; (2)
column area; (3) column axial load; (4) unit load at height z; (5) axial strain; (6) axial displacement.
822 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

Figure 8.32g. Example 1, column-shortening calculations: (1) axial load variation; (2) actual
and assumed variation in column cross-sectional areas.

Evaluating the integrals we get the following nal expression for z.

Pb 1 az b 1 az
z = ln1 az + A ln 1
Ab E a 2 Ab
b
E a

Example 1.
Given. (See Fig. 8.32g)
Height of building: L = 682 ft = 8184 in. (207.8 m)
Modulus of elasticity: E = 29,000 ksi (200 103 MPa)
Axial load at top: Pt = 53 kips (237.5 kN)
Area of column at top: At = 12.48 in.2 (8052 mm2)
Axial load at base: Pb = 2770 kips (12.32 103 kN)
Actual column area at base: AB = 147 in2. (94.84 103 mm2)
Reduced column area at base: Ab = 0.9 147 = 133.3 in2. (86.0 103 mm2)
Required. Axial shortening of column at top.
Solution. Since column shortening is calculated at top, z = L.
Ab At 133 12.48
a = = = 0.01476 in.2 /in.
L 8184
Pb Pt 2770 53
b = = = 0.332 kip/in.
L 8184
aL 0.01476 8184
ln1 = ln 1
Ab 133.3
= ln(0.09362)
= 2.36847
Special Topics 823

Figure 8.32h. Example 2, differential shortening of columns H.36 and and G.6; schematic
framing plan.

2770 1 0.332
L at top = ( 2.36847)
29000 0.01476 29000
{4590.15(0.01476 8184 + 133.3 2.36847)}
= 15.327 10.2
= 5.127 in.
Similarly, the axial shortening is calculated at various heights by substituting appropriate
values for z. The results given in column 8 of Table 8.1 agree closely with those from the
longhand method. The appropriateness of the closed-form solution is obvious.
Example 2.
Given. A steel building 403 ft tall with 31 framed levels including the roof.
Tributary areas for gravity load calculations for the exterior column H.3 = 472 ft2 per
oor, and for the interior column G.6 is 810 ft2. See Fig. 8.32h for a schematic framing
plan, and Table 8.2 for an abbreviated column schedule.
Typical loads for estimating axial shortening columns are as follows:
Interior Col G.6 3 1 4 lt. wt. on 3'' deck = 50 psf
Partitions = 10 psf
Allowance for oor nishes,
ceiling, mech., etc. = 10 psf
Structural frame = 10 psf
Live load = 15 psf
810
95 psf = 76.9 kips/floor
1000
use 77 kips/oor
824 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

TABLE 8.2 Example 2: Column Schedule

Level Interior column Area (in.2 ) Exterior column Area (in.2 )

R W14 68 20 W30 211 62
28 W14 90 26.5 W30 235 69
26 W14 120 35.3 W30 261 76.7
24 W14 132 38.8 W30 292 85.7
22 W14 145 42.7 W30 326 95.7
20 W14 193 56.7 W30 326 95.7
18 W14 233 68.5 W30 357 104
16 W14 257 75.6 W30 357 104
14 W14 283 83.3 W30 391 114
12 W14 311 91.4 W30 391 114
10 W14 342 101 W30 433 127
8 W14 370 109 W30 433 127
6 W14 398 117 W30 477 140
4 W14 426 125 W30 477 140
2 W14 455 134 W30 526 154
G W14 500 147 W30 581 170

Exterior Col H.36 3 1 4 lt. wt. on 3'' deck = 50 psf

Partitions = 10 psf
Allowance for oor nishes,
ceiling, mech., etc. = 10
psf
Structural frame = 15
psf
Live load = 15
psf
Exterior cladding = 5psf
472
105 = 49.56 kips/floor
1000
use 50 kips/oor
Required. Compute axial shortening of columns H.3-6 and G-6 at the roof due to
gravity loads using the closed-form equation given earlier. Provide column length correc-
tions at levels 8, 16, 24, and the roof.
Solution. The variation of axial loads and cross-sectional areas for the two columns
are shown in Figs. 8.32i and 8.32j. Observe that Ab is the actual area of the column at the
foundation level multiplied by a factor of 0.9.
Thus Ab for the interior column = 0.9 147 = 132.3 in.2
Ab for the exterior column = 0.9 170 = 153. in.2
The loads Pb for the exterior and interior columns at foundation level are:
Pb = 31 50 = 1550 kips (exterior column), and
Pb = 31 77 = 2387 kips (interior column)
Load Pt = 50 kips for the exterior, and 77 kips for the interior column.
Column Length-Shortening Computations for Column G.6 (Interior Column)
L = 4836 in.
E = 29000 ksi
Pt = 77 kips
Special Topics 825

Figure 8.32i. Example 2, interior column G-6: (1) axial load variation; (2) variation of cross-
sectional areas.

Pb = 2387 kips
At = 20 in.2
Ab = 0.9 147 = 132.3 in.2

Ab At 132.3 20
a = = = 0.02322 in.2 /in.
L 4836
Pb Pt 2387 77
b = = = 0.4777 kip/in.
L 4836

Figure 8.32j. Example 2, exterior column H.36: (1) axial load variation; (2) variation of cross-
sectional areas.
826 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

aL 0.02322
ln 1 = ln 1 4836
Ab 132.3
= ln (0.151233)
= 1.8889
2387 1
L = 1.8889
29000 0.02322
0.4777
[1854.7{0.02322 4836 + 132.3 ( 1.8889)}]
29000
= 6.6958 4.1869
= 2.50 in.
Column Length-Shortening Calculations for Column H.36 (Exterior Column)

L = 31 13 12 = 4836 in.
E = 29000 ksi
Pt = 50 kips
Pb = 1550 kips
At = 62 in.2
Ab = 0.9 170 = 153 in.2

Ab At 153 62
a = = = 0.018817 in.2 /in.
L 4836
Pb Pb 1550 50
b = = = 0.3102 kip/in.
L 4836
aL 0.018817 4836
ln = 1 = ln 1
Ab 153
= ln (0.4052)
= 0.90328
1550 1
L = 0.90328
29000 0.018817
0.3102
[2824.2{0.018817 4836 + 153( 0.90328)}]
29000
= 2.56 1.42 = 1.134 in.
The required column length corrections are shown in Table 8.3.

8.4.2. Column Shortening Verication During Construction

This concept is best explained with reference to Fig. 8.32k that shows a framing plan for
a hypothetical building, say, some 48 stories tall. Identied therein are two columns: C1,
an interior column with a large tributary area; and C2, an exterior column of framed tube
with a relatively small tributary area. Under gravity loads, C1 would shorten more than
C2 because: 1) C1, designed only for gravity loads, has a P/A ratio that is relatively high;
and 2) C2, designed as a frame column, has its P/A ratio signicantly less than that for C,
because it is lightly loaded under gravity loads.
Special Topics 827

TABLE 8.3 Column Length Correction

Interior column Exterior column

Column Correction to Column Correction to

Level shortening scheduled length shortening scheduled length

Roof 2.50 in. 4@ 316 in. = 0.75 in. 1.13 in. 2@ 18 in. = 0.25 in.
24 1.80 in. 4@ 18 in. = 0.50 in. 0.75 in. 2@ 18 in. = 0.25 in.
16 1.25 in. 4@ 316 in. = 0.75 in. 0.50 in. 2@ 316 in. = 0.375 in.
8 0.625 in. 4@ 18 in. = 0.50 in. 0.25 in. 2@ 18 in. = 0.25 in.

Assume that you as the engineer for the project have specied column length
corrections to C1 at levels 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, and 48 with correction of 2 in. specied at
level 24. Let us say that when steel erection is at that level, i.e., at level 24, the contractor
takes an elevation survey of the columns, reports the top of column C1 is 1 in. higher than
the top of C2, and requests the engineer to conrm if this is acceptable in view of the fact
that additional shortening of the column is yet to occur.
Further calculations are needed to verify that this 1-in. overlength of C1 will take
place after the application deadloads at levels 24 through roof. This concept of verifying
the overlength of columns during construction is shown in Fig. 8.32l. Note that Rn shown
therein corresponds to the 1 in. discussed here for the hypothetical building. For a column
with a gradually decreasing area up the height, subjected to oor loads P1, P2 PRoof , Rn
at level n can be shown to be:
NS n
1 L
Rn =
E
Pi Ai
i=n i =1 i

Figure 8.32k. Framing plan. Column C1, designed for gravity loads only, shortens more than
C2, designed for both gravity and lateral loads. Compensating for relative elevation difference
between these two categories of columns is of imortance in tall buidings.
828 Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings

Figure 8.32l. Physical interpretation of column overlength: (1) column shortening due to loads
at all oors; (2) column shortening due to loads below the nth level; (3) column residual overlength
Rn = n B.

8.5. FLOOR-LEVELING PROBLEMS

Although not a safety issue, achieving level oors has become more arduous in modern
buildings because stronger materials combined with more rened designs have resulted
in lighter oor construction that is more prone to deections than in the earlier heavier
buildings. Engineers face considerable challenge in providing level oors because many
of the variable factors encountered in practice are difcult to dene and defy exact
numerical solutions.
In steel ofce buildings, composite oor beams for typical 3042-ft spans are often
specied and delivered with a predetermined camber, while in concrete buildings the
camber is built into the form work. Usually the specied camber for composite beams
ranges from a minimum of 12 in. (12.7 mm) to a maximum of 2.5 in. (63.5 mm). Cambers
smaller than 12 in. (12.7 mm) are difcult to achieve, while cambers substantially greater
than 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) will result in other constructability problems. Cambers are specied
anticipating that dead loads imposed on the oors will overcome the camber, resulting in
a level oor. This is not always the case because: 1) Steel beam rolling and construction
tolerances combined with long-term effect of creep of concrete affect the nal result up
or down in both steel and concrete construction; 2) Usually, camber is calculated as if a
beam were pin-connected or completely xed, depending upon the type of connections
specied at the beam ends (Actual conditions vary. For instance, even with simple shear
tab connections, composite steel beams experience partial xity. Depending upon the
degree of xity, the nal result could vary again up or down); 3) Columns in buildings
shorten elastically due to gravity loads, and the magnitude of shortening between an interior