Chapter I: Introduction to Statistics (Basic Statistics)

Some Terms and Terminologies in Statistics (Frequently used terms)

a. Data: A processed information
b. Raw data: A data observed as it from the field or sources
c. Grouped data: Any data that are grouped in one clusters. Types of grouped data are
discrete and continuous
d. Discrete data: a grouped data that are grouped with an integer numbers
e. Continuous data: a grouped data that are grouped with an interval
f. Frequency: repeated observations
g. Bias: An error of measurements
h. Un-bias: opposite to Bias (no Bias)
i. Source of data: a data where we collected
j. Primary data: first time making from the source
k. Secondary data: any data not a first information . That is already collected data
utilized for some other study

Long Answer Type Questions (5 marks)

1.What is the Meaning of Statistics?

The word Statistics is derived from the Latin word Statis which means a political state.
Clearly, statistics is closely linked with the administrative affairs of a state such as figures
regarding defense force, population, housing, food, financial resources etc. What is true about
a government is also true about industrial administration units, and even one's personal life.
The word statistics has several meanings. In the first place, it is a plural noun, which
describes a collection of numerical data such as employment statistics, accident statistics,
population statistics, birth and death, income and expenditure, of exports etc. It is in the sense
that the word statistics is used by a layman or a newspaper. Secondly, the word statistics as
a singular noun, is used to describe a branch of applied mathematics, whose purpose is to
provide methods of dealing with a collections of data and extracting information from them
in compact form by tabulating, summarizing and analyzing the numerical data or a set of
observations. The various methods used are termed as statistical methods and the person
using them is known as a statistician. A statistician is concerned with the analysis and
interpretation of the data and drawing valid worthwhile conclusions from the same. It is in the
second sense that we are writing this guide on statistics.

Lastly the word statistics is used in a specialized sense. It describes various numerical items
which are produced by using statistics (in the second sense) to statistics (in the first sense).
Averages, standard deviation etc. Are all statistics in this specialized third sense.

The word statistics in the first sense is defined by Professor Secrit as follows: By statistics
we mean aggregate of facts affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes, numerically
expressed, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standard of accuracy, collected
in a systematic manner for a predetermined purpose and placed in relation to each other.
This definition gives all the characteristics of statistics which are (1) Aggregate of facts (2)
 Affected by multiplicity of causes (3) Numerically expressed (4) Estimated according to
reasonable standards of accuracy (5) Collected in a systematic manner (6) Collected for a
predetermined purpose (7) Placed in relation to each other

2. What are the classifications of measurement scales?

It is important, in statistical analysis, to know about the different scales of measurement,

these are:
INTERVAL
Scale with a fixed and defined interval e.g. temperature or time.

ORDINAL
Scale for ordering observations from low to high with any ties attributed to lack of
measurement sensitivity e.g. score from a questionnaire.

NOMINAL with order

Scale for grouping into categories with order e.g. mild, moderate or severe. This can be
difficult to separate from ordinal.

NOMINAL without order

Scale for grouping into unique categories e.g. eye colour.

DICHOTOMOUS
As for nominal but two categories only e.g. male/female.
In addition to the classification of measurement scales, other related terms are used to
describe types of data:
CATEGORICAL vs. NUMERICAL (quantitative vs. qualitative)
Data that represent categories, such as dichotomous (two categories) and nominal (more than
two categories) observations, are collectively called categorical (qualitative). Data that are
counted or measured using a numerically defined method are called numerical (quantitative).
DISCRETE vs. ORDERED CATEGORICAL
Discrete data arise from observations that can only take certain numerical values, usually
counts such as number of children or number of patients attending a clinic in a year.
Ordered categorical data are sometimes treated as discrete data, this is wrong. For example,
using the Registrar General's classification of social class, it would be wrong to say that
class I is five times the socio-economic status as class V, as there is not a strict numerical
relationship between these categories. It follows, therefore, that average social class is a
meaningless statistic. Thus, ordered categorical data should not be treated as discrete data
for statistical analysis. Discrete data may be treated as ordered categorical data in statistical
analysis, but some information is lost in doing so.

CONTINUOUS
Continuous data are numerical data that can theoretically be measured in infinitely small
units. For example, blood pressure is usually measured to the nearest 2mm Hg, but could
be measured with much greater resolution of difference. The interval measurement scale is
intended for continuous data. Sometimes continuous data are given discrete values at
certain thresholds, for example age a last birthday is a discrete value but age itself is a
continuous quantity; in these situations it is reasonable to treat discrete values as
continuous. Remember that information is lost when continuous data are recorded only in
ranges (ordered categories), and the statistical analysis of continuous data is more powerful
than that of categorical data.

PERCENTAGES and RATIOS

Percentages or ratios summarise two pieces of information, namely their constituent
numerator and denominator values. Simple ratios (0 to 1, i.e. the denominator is the
maximum possible value that the numerator can take) can be treated as continuous data.
More difficult to analyse data arise when the ratio represents a change, and the value can be
negative. Ratios of observations compared with reference values, e.g. height relative to the
mean of a reference population for a given sex and age, are difficult to handle as values
may fall either side of 1 (100%).

Short Answer Type Questions (2 marks)

1. Define the term Statistics

Sir R.A.Fisher defined statistics as, The science of statistics is essentially a
branch of applied mathematics and may be regarded as mathematics applied to
observational data.
2. Give the statements given by A.L.Bowley about statistics and A.E. Waugh.
According to A.L.Bowley Great number are not counted correctly to a unit,
they are estimated.
The statement about statistics from A.E.Waugh The purpose of statistical
methods is to simplify great bodies of numerical data
3. What does census method imply?
Census method means to include each unit or object of the population under
reference for enquiry or observation.
4. Give in a few words the statistical perspective.
Statistical perspective is the invaluable compendium, which gathers all the
facts, figures, objective survey and fascinating remembrances to a assimilable
record.
5. What are the different types of investigations?
There are two types of investigations,
a. Investigation through census method
b. Investigation through sample methods
6. Define Primary data
Primary data are those which are collected from the units or individuals
directly and these data have never been used for any purpose earlier.
7. Define Secondary data.
The data, which had been collected by some individual or agency and
statistically treated to draw certain conclusions. Again the same data are used
and analysed to extract some other information is secondary data.
8. What are different sources of statistical errors?
Following are the four sources of statistical errors
a. Errors of origin
b. Errors of inadequacy
 c. Errors of manipulation and
d. Errors of interpretation
9. What kind of deficiencies of data are checked through editing?
Data are edited to remove mainly four deficiencies which are:
a. Completeness of data
b. Consistency of data
c. Accuracy of data and
d. Homogeneity of data
10. What is meant by investigation through sample method?
In sample method, an investigator has to select some units from the population
about which conclusions have to be drawn and take observations on the
selected units. The result obtained from sample values are applicable to the
population as a whole.
11. What are the functions of statistics?
The four functions of statistics are
a. Collection of data
b. Presentation of data
c. Analysis of data and
d. Interpretation of results

One word Questions (1 Mark)

1. What is INTERVAL scale?

Scale with a fixed and defined interval e.g. temperature or time.
2. What is ORDINAL scale?
Scale for ordering observations from low to high with any ties attributed to lack of
measurement sensitivity e.g. score from a questionnaire.
3. What is NOMINAL scale with order ?
Scale for grouping into categories with order e.g. mild, moderate or severe. This can
be difficult to separate from ordinal.
4. What is NOMINAL scale without order ?
Scale for grouping into unique categories e.g. eye colour.
5. What is DICHOTOMOUS Scale?
As for nominal but two categories only e.g. male/female.
Objective type Questions (1 Mark)
1. The statement statistics is both a science and an art was given by
a. R.A.Fisher b. Tippet c. L.R.Connor d. A.L.Bowley

Ans: b

2. Who originally gave the formula for the estimation of errors?

a. L.R.Connor b. W.I.King c . A.L.Bowley d. A.L.Boddington

Ans: d

3. Branches of statistics includes

a. Applied statistics b. Mathematical statistics c. Industry statistics d. Both a and b
Ans: d

4. Scale used in statistics which provides difference of proportions as well as magnitude

of differences is considered as
a. Good scale b. Wrong scale c. Ratio scale d. Plastic scale

Ans: c

5. Sample is a ________ of population

a. Thing b. Not a thing c . duplicate d. Part

Ans: d

6. Sample statistics are denoted by the

a. Roman letters b. Associated random samples c. Lower case of Greek letters d. Roman
letters

Ans: d

7. What is the first stage in statistics?

a. Organize data b. Identify the group of people to be studied c. summarized data d.
Collect data

Ans: b

8. A numerical value used as a summary measure for a sample, such as sample mean, is
known as a
a. Population parameter b. Sample statistic c. Sample parameter d. Population mean

Ans: b

9. Questionnaire survey method is used to collect

a. Primary data b. Qualitative data c. Secondary data d. None of these

Ans: a

10. Population census is conducted through

a. Sample survey b. Accounting c. Complete enumeration d. Investigation

Ans: c

11. A parameter is a measure which is computed from

a. Population data b. Sample data c. Tested data d. Survey

Ans: a

12. In statistics , a population consists of:

a. All People living in a country b. All subjects or objects whose characteristics are
being studied c. All people living in the area under study d. None
Ans: b
 13. In statistics, survey means
a. Collecting information from elements b. Making mathematical calculations c.
Drawing graphs d. None

Ans: a

14. The nominal scale of measurement only satisfies the identity property of
a. Descriptive category b. Ordered category c. Equal intervals d. None

Ans: a

15. The ordinal scale of measurement has a property

a. Descriptive category b. ordered category c. Equal intervals d. None

Ans: b

16. Consider the centigrade scale for measuring temperature. Which of the following
measurement properties is satisfied by the centigrade scale?
I. Magnitude II. Equal Intervals III. A minimum value of zero
a. I only b. II only c. III only d. I and II only

Ans: d

17. Scale with fixed and defined interval

a. Ordinal b. Interval c . Nominal d. Dichotomous

Ans: b

18. An expression of a figure to a round figure is called

a. Adding b. Subtracting c approximating d. Discarding

Ans: c.

19. Published thesis is an example of

a. Primary data b. Secondary data c. Hand data d. No data

Ans: a

20. In statistics, the difference between maximum and minimum is usually called
a. Subtraction b. Range c adding none

Ans: b