Tenth U.S.

National Conference on Earthquake Engineering

Frontiers of Earthquake Engineering
July 21-25, 2014
10NCEE Anchorage, Alaska

APPLICATION OF DISCRETE ELEMENT

MODELING FOR SIMULATION OF
CYCLIC DIRECT SIMPLE SHEAR
RESPONSE OF GRANULAR MATERIALS
A. Dabeet1, D. Wijewickreme2, P. Byrne3

ABSTRACT

The discrete element method has been increasingly used to model fundamental aspects of soil
behavior. Evaluation of DEM modeling approach in simulating observed soil response is crucial
for its effective use in research and industry. This paper addresses the development of a DEM
model of the direct simple shear (DSS) test, and its use under cyclic loading conditions. The
DEM model results are compared with data from laboratory cyclic DSS testing performed on
glass beads. Noted close agreement between simulations and laboratory results highlights the
effectiveness of the DEM modeling approach in accurately capturing the cyclic DSS response of
the glass beads.

1
PhD Candidate, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane,
Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4. adabeet@civil.ubc.ca.
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver,
BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4. dharmaw@civil.ubc.ca.
3
Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane,
Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4. pmb@civil.ubc.ca

Dabeet A., Wijewickreme D., Byrne P. Application of DEM for simulation of the cyclic direct simple shear
response of granular materials. Proceedings of the 10th National Conference in Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, Anchorage, AK, 2014.
 Application of Discrete Element Modeling for Simulation of Cyclic
Direct Simple Shear Response of Granular Materials

A. Dabeet1, D. Wijewickreme2, P. Byrne3

ABSTRACT

The discrete element method has been increasingly used to model fundamental aspects of soil
behavior. Evaluation of DEM modeling approach in simulating observed soil response is crucial
for its effective use in research and industry. This paper addresses the development of a DEM
model of the direct simple shear (DSS) test, and its use under cyclic loading conditions. The DEM
model results are compared with data from laboratory cyclic DSS testing performed on glass
beads. Noted close agreement between simulations and laboratory results highlights the
effectiveness of the DEM modeling approach in accurately capturing the cyclic DSS response of
the glass beads.

Introduction

The recent increase in computational power along with the development of efficient algorisms
makes it feasible to model soils more realistically as a collection of particles using discrete
element method (DEM) codes, such as that developed by Cundall & Strack [1]. DEM is a
fundamental, yet simple, approach that is based on the application of Newtons laws of motion to
simulated particles. Particle Flow Code in Three Dimensions (PFC3D), developed by Itasca Inc.
[2] based on DEM, has been successfully used by researchers to capture fundamental aspects of
soil behavior. The capability of the PFC code in particular for simulating soil response has
already been demonstrated by comparing the response patterns of ideal granular particles using
PFC modeling with those obtained from laboratory testing [3][5]. Observed good agreement of
the shear response between PFC modeling and experiments highlights the potential of discrete
element modeling to effectively capture the behavior of granular materials.

DEM has been predominantly used to simulate soil behavior under monotonic shear loading
conditions [5][12]. However, limited studies are available in literature on DEM simulation of
soils under cyclic shear conditions [13][16]. With this background, and in consideration of the
extensive use of the DSS device in characterizing the seismic response of soils, analysis of DSS
specimens subjected to drained and constant volume cyclic loading conditions was undertaken
using PFC3D version 3.1. This paper addresses the development of the DSS DEM model; the
outcomes from the DEM simulation of laboratory DSS testing using the PFC3D model are then
compared with data from laboratory DSS testing performed on glass beads.
 Overview of the discrete element program PFC3D

In PFC3D, rigid spheres referred to as balls are used to represent soil particles. Rigid
displacement controlled boundaries referred to as walls are used to represent model
boundaries. Contacts between two entities (i.e. Ball-Ball or Ball-Wall) are simulated using the
soft contacts approach which allows a very small overlap distance between the contacting
entities as shown in Fig. 1 for two balls in contact. It is noted that the use of the soft contacts
approach violates the compatibility requirement. As such, DEM assumes that the overlapping
volume between the entities in contact is very small and therefore is of negligible significance
from a practical perspective.

The magnitude of the overlap is related to normal and shear forces, Fn and Fs, at the contacts
through normal and shear stiffness values, Kn and Ks, respectively. For the linear contact model,
Kn and Ks are constants. Alternatively, the non-linear Hertz-Mindlin contact model uses variable
Kn and Ks values as defined in Eq. 1 and Eq. 2. The Hertz-Mindlin model is described in more
detail in Itasca Inc. [17].

( ) (1)

( )
( )| | (2)

Where n is the overlap distance between the two contacting entities, | | is the
magnitude of normal force at the contact, G is the elastic shear modulus, is Poissons
ratio, and
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] (3)

Where r is sphere radius and the superscripts [ ] and [ ] refer to the two spheres in contact.

Kn and Ks have the units of force/displacement. Friction, F, defined as the ratio of shear to
normal force at which slippage at contacts occurs can be specified. The contacts between the
balls and walls (i.e. boundaries) are modeled in a similar way to contacts between balls. The
code uses an explicit solution scheme.
 Overlap disctance in
the normal direction
(n)

Fs Fn

Vector between the

centeriods of the two
balls in contact

Projection of contact
plane

Figure 1. Schematic showing the projection of two balls in contact in a DEM simulation.

Analysis Methodology

A DSS specimen, comprising a diameter of 7 cm and a height 2.1 cm, filled with balls was
considered for the PFC simulations herein, leading to a height to diameter ratio of 0.3. The
specimen size is similar to the actual specimen size used in NGI-type DSS devices. Specimen
preparation was simulated by numerically raining particles under gravity simulating the
preparation of pluviated glass beads specimens that are used for the evaluation of the PFC model.

Specimens simulated to be deposited using pluviation were initially formed in a very loose state
in a cylindrical mould that had the same diameter as the specimen cavity. The locations of the
balls were generated randomly inside the mould with the resulting uniform particle diameters of
2 mm which is the same particles distribution as that for the tested glass beads. It is noted that the
results from DSS tests on glass beads are used for comparison with the model results as
discussed later in this paper.

The soil placement simulation is graphically illustrated in Fig. 2. A mould containing particles is
represented on top of the specimen cavity as shown in Fig. 2a. Gravity is then numerically
activated and the process of balls falling under gravity and filling the specimen cavity is
simulated. At the end of the soil placement phase, particles with centres located above the top of
the specimen are deleted and the top cap/boundary is placed (Fig. 2b).

The consolidation of the specimen was simulated by moving the bottom boundary upwards
(similar to consolidation process in the University of British Columbia DSS device) at a rate of
0.05 mm/second. The time step was set to 2x10-5 seconds /computation cycle (i.e. it takes one
million computation cycles to displace each of the walls by 1 mm). The simulation can vary from
several hours to days in terms of processing time depending on the number of balls in the model
and the computation power available.
The specimen is bounded laterally by a cylindrical wall that consists of 15 rigid rings (each with
height of 1.4 mm) which simulates boundary shear strain conditions for the cylindrical specimen
DSS test with rings providing lateral confinement. During shearing, the rings are moved
independently at different rates to achieve uniform boundary shear strain, xz. The top boundary
is displaced horizontally as a function of shear strain in the positive x-direction (coordinates are
shown in Fig. 2). The bottom boundary is allowed to move in the z-direction during drained
shearing to maintain the desired zz.

a)

Mould

Balls falling
under gravity Lateral rings
forming
specimen cavity

Bottom
boundary

b)

Top
boundary

z
y
x Lateral rings

Bottom
boundary

Figure 2. Side view illustration of the PFC specimen prepared by numerically simulated
pluviation: a) particles just prior to pluviation; b) particles at the end of consolidation.

Average stresses were calculated at the boundaries for comparison with the results of the real
DSS test. Vertical effective stress, 'v, at the boundaries is equal to the sum of forces acting at
the wall-ball contacts for the top and bottom boundaries divided by the total surface area of the
top and bottom boundaries. Horizontal effective stress, 'h, is equal to the summation of radial
contact forces acting on lateral rings divided by inner surface area of the rings. The shear force
driving the upper boundary and the lateral rings was calculated as the summation of boundary
contact forces in the x-direction acting on the top cap and the rings located in the top half of the
specimen. Shear stress, h, is equal to shear force divided by the area of the top boundary.
The boundary shear strain rate () used for the simulations reported herein was 2.5 x 10-7
/computation cycle, and the time increment was set at 2 x 10-5 sec/computation cycle. The size of
shear strain increment was selected based on the results of a sensitivity study that indicated non-
changing response for shear strain increments larger than 2.5 x 10-7 /computation cycle.

During shearing, the required constant volume condition was enforced by fixing the top and
bottom boundaries of the simulated specimen in the z-direction. It has been shown that the
decrease (or increase) in vertical stress acting on the top and bottom boundaries is equivalent to
increase (or decrease) in pore water pressure during an undrained test [18], [19].

During drained shearing, the vertical effective stress is kept constant at its end-of-consolidation
value using a sub-routine that effectively controls the movement of the bottom specimen
boundary along the z-axis as needed to maintain constant vertical effective stress. Volumetric
strain is calculated based on the change of the distance between the top and bottom boundaries
during shearing. For constant volume simulations, the bottom boundary is fixed in the z-
direction. It is noted that the top boundary remains fixed during all simulations (i.e., for both
drained and constant volume shearing conditions) which simulates the fixed top platen used in
the University of British Columbia DSS device.

The rationale behind the selection of model input parameters was previously discussed in detail
[20]. An interparticle friction coefficient, F, of 0.176 is used based on a study conducted by
Cavarretta et al. [21] on glass beads (glass beads were used for evaluation of the DEM model). A
friction value of 10 was used for the interfaces between the particles and the top and bottom
boundaries. Zero friction at the lateral rings was assumed which is similar to the near-zero
friction at the lateral boundaries in the real DSS device. Poissons ratio, , of 0.22 was used for
the Hertz-Mindlin contact model and was selected based on Hrtl & Ooi [5]. The selected shear
modulus, G, of 1.5 GPa used for the Hertz-Mindlin contact model was derived based on
comparison between PFC simulations results of an odometer test and laboratory odometer test
performed on glass beads. Density scaling was used to speed up the time it takes to perform the
simulations. The density of the glass beads was multiplied by a factor of 104. As a result the
critical time step increases by a factor of 100 as critical time step is proportional to the square
root of the mass and, in turn, dramatically reducing the required simulation time to perform the
analysis. This technique has been commonly used in DEM analysis for quasi-static solutions to
reduce the simulation time [6], [7].

Evaluation of the Performance of the PFC3D Model Representing DSS Test

Initial Consolidation Response

The simulated DSS specimen was consolidated to vertical effective stress, 'vc, of 100 kPa. At
the end of the consolidation phase, the void ratio, ec, evaluated at central specimen locations
(void ratio was calculated for particles within a central spherical zone with a diameter of 1.4 cm)
has a value of 0.607. A coefficient of lateral earth pressure at the end of consolidation, ko
(='hc/'vc), of 0.65 was calculated.
Cyclic Shear Stress-Strain Response

Fig. 3 presents typical responses of a simulated DSS specimen during cyclic constant volume
(i.e., equivalent to undrained) shearing for a specimen initially consolidated 'vc of 100 kPa and
loaded to CSR of 0.12. An overall trend of decreasing 'vc with the increase in number of cycles
is noted with the transient near zero 'vc condition reached in about three loading cycles. It is
noted that the PFC model captures stress paths and shear stress-strain response typically
observed for loose granular soils (for example, see Wijewickreme et al. [22]) including the
dilative behavior observed during the last cycle and momentary loss of strength (i.e. near zero
vertical effective stress).

a)

16
'vc = 100 kPa
12 CSR = 0.12

8
Shear stress, h (kPa)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-4

-8

-12

-16
Vertical effective stress, 'vc (kPa)

b)

16

12

8
Shear stress, h (kPa)

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
-4

-8

-12

-16
Shear strain, (%)

Figure 3. Results of a cyclic constant volume simulation with 'vc of 100 kPa and CSR of 0.12:
a) stress path; b) shear stress strain response.

Fig. 4 depicts a central cross section through the simulated specimen showing balls and contact
forces as black lines (force chains). The thickness of the lines is proportional to the magnitude of
contact forces. Force chains at the end of consolidation are shown in Fig. 4a. At the end of
consolidation, a significant number of strong force chains can be seen to be aligned generally in
the vertical direction which is the direction of major principal stress after consolidation and
before shear. Fig. 4b presents force chains at the end of the cyclic simulation with CSR of 0.12
(see Fig. 3) at the instance of = -8.3%, h= -12 kPa , and 'v = 33.5 kPa. It can be seen from
Fig. 4b, most of the strong force chains are oriented in a direction that is inclined to the vertical
direction. This is expected because with a shear stress applied on the specimen, the direction of
major principal stress will rotate and be inclined. The strong force chains will, therefore, rotate
and be inclined in a direction consistent with the rotation of the direction of major principle
stress. Further, the reduction in vertical effective stress level from its end of consolidation value
of 100 kPa to 'v of 33.5 kPa at the end of the shearing phase is clearly noted from the smaller
thickness of forces chain in Fig. 4b compared to these in Fig. 4a.

a)

b)

Figure 4. Side view of the simulated specimen illustrating force chains for the specimen sheared
with CSR of 0.12: a) at the end of consolidation and before shearing; b) at the end of the shearing
phase.

The shear stress-strain response and volumetric strains vs. shear strains plots for a cyclic drained
simulation performed with shear strain single amplitude of 2% is presented in Fig. 5. The
observed overall contractive behavior with the progression of cyclic loading is in accord with
that typically observed for loose sands [23].

Cyclic Resistance Ratio

For comparison purposes, the cyclic shear resistance herein is defined as the number of load
cycles required to reach a single-amplitude horizontal shear strain = 3.75%, in a given constant
volume DSS test under a given applied CSR. This = 3.75% condition in a DSS specimen is
essentially equivalent to reaching a 2.5% single-amplitude axial strain in a triaxial soil specimen.
An identical definition has been previously used to assess the cyclic shear resistance of sands by
the U.S. National Research Council [24], and it also has been adopted in many previous
liquefaction studies at the University of British Columbia.
a)
40

Shear stress, h (kPa)

20

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-20

-40
Shear strain, (%)

b)
0

Contractive
Volumetric strain, ev (%)

0.5

1.5

2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Shear strain, (%)
Figure 5. Drained cyclic response a simulated DSS specimen: a) shear stress versus shear strain;
b) volumetric strain versus shear strain.

Figure 6. Cyclic stress ratio versus number of cycles to reach of 3.75% obtained from DSS
laboratory tests performed on glass beads and from simulation results.
Cyclic stress ratio (CSR) versus number of cycles to reach of 3.75% for 3 simulations
performed with CSR values of 0.08, 0.1, and 0.12, respectively, are presented in Fig. 6. The
results of cyclic tests performed on the glass beads for validation of the numerical model are also
included in the plot. Overall, the model predictions and the laboratory results fall within a narrow
range indicating that the developed PFC model of the DSS test has the ability to adequately
simulate the cyclic response of the glass beads.

Conclusions

A discrete element model PFC3D was developed to simulate the laboratory direct simple shear
(DSS) test. The selection of input parameters for the developed model, and the performance of
the model were evaluated. It was shown that the proposed DEM model is able to effectively
capture typically observed aspects of cyclic shear behavior of granular materials including:

Significant overall drop in vertical stress level with the progression of constant volume
cyclic loading. This is followed by transient 'vc of about zero along with the
development of large shear strains during the last loading cycle, which is typically
observed from DSS testing results on loose sands.
Overall increase in shear-induced contractive volumetric strains with the increase in
number of cycles observed from the results of drained cyclic simulation of the DSS test.
Close agreement between the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) versus number of cycles to reach
of 3.75% responses obtained from PFC simulations and laboratory testing results on
glass beads.

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