Haskell (programming language)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Haskell /hskl/[27] is a standardized, general-purpose purely

functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong
Haskell
static typing.[28] It is named after logician Haskell Curry.[1] The latest
standard of Haskell is Haskell 2010. As of May 2016, a group is
working on the next version, Haskell 2020.[29]

Haskell features a type system with type inference[30] and lazy

evaluation.[31] Type classes first appeared in the Haskell programming Paradigm functional, lazy/non-
language.[32] Its main implementation is the Glasgow Haskell strict, modular
Compiler. Designed by Lennart Augustsson,
Dave Barton, Brian
Haskell is based on the semantics, but not the syntax, of the language Boutel, Warren
Miranda, which served to focus the efforts of the initial Haskell
Burton, Joseph Fasel,
working group.[33] Haskell is used widely in academia[34][35] and
Kevin Hammond,
industry.[36]
Ralf Hinze, Paul
Hudak, John Hughes,
Thomas Johnsson,
Contents Mark Jones, Simon
Peyton Jones, John
1 History
Launchbury, Erik
1.1 Haskell 1.0 to 1.4
1.2 Haskell 98 Meijer, John
1.3 Haskell 2010 Peterson, Alastair
2 Features Reid, Colin
3 Code examples Runciman, Philip
4 Implementations Wadler
5 Applications
5.1 Industry First appeared 1990[1]
5.2 Web
Stable release Haskell 2010[2] /
6 Criticism
7 Related languages July 2010
8 Conferences and workshops Preview release Haskell 2020
9 Haskell Base library and Algebra announced[3]
10 Notes
11 References Typing static, strong, inferred
12 Further reading discipline
13 External links OS Cross-platform
Filename .hs, .lhs
extensions
History
Website www.haskell.org
Following the release of Miranda by Research Software Ltd, in 1985, Major implementations
interest in lazy functional languages grew. By 1987, more than a dozen GHC, Hugs, NHC, JHC, Yhc, UHC
non-strict, purely functional programming languages existed. Miranda
was the most widely used, but it was proprietary software. At the Dialects
conference on Functional Programming Languages and Computer Helium, Gofer
Architecture (FPCA '87) in Portland, Oregon, there was a strong Influenced by
consensus that a committee be formed to define an open standard for
Clean,[4] FP,[4] Gofer,[4] Hope and
Hope+,[4] Id,[4] ISWIM,[4] KRC,[4]
Lisp,[4] Miranda,[4] ML and Standard
such languages. The committee's purpose was to consolidate existing Lisp,[4] Miranda,[4] ML and Standard
functional languages into a common one to serve as a basis for future ML,[4] Orwell, SASL,[4]
research in functional-language design.[37]
Scheme,[4] SISAL[4]

Haskell 1.0 to 1.4 Influenced

Agda,[5] Bluespec,[6]
The first version of Haskell ("Haskell 1.0") was defined in 1990.[1] The C++11/Concepts,[7]
committee's efforts resulted in a series of language definitions (1.0, 1.1, C#/LINQ,[8][9][10][11] CAL, Cayenne,[8]
1.2, 1.3, 1.4). Clean,[8] Clojure,[12] CoffeeScript,[13]
Curry,[8] Elm, Epigram, Escher,[14]
Haskell 98 F#,[15] Frege,[16] Hack,[17] Idris,[18]
Isabelle,[8] Java/Generics,[8]
In late 1997, the series culminated in Haskell 98, intended to specify a
stable, minimal, portable version of the language and an accompanying LiveScript,[19] Mercury,[8] mega, Perl
standard library for teaching, and as a base for future extensions. The 6,[20] PureScript,[21] Python,[8][22]
committee expressly welcomed creating extensions and variants of Rust,[23] Scala,[8][24] Swift,[25]
Haskell 98 via adding and incorporating experimental features.[37] Timber,[26] Visual Basic 9.0[8][9]

In February 1999, the Haskell 98 language standard was originally published as The Haskell 98 Report.[37] In
January 2003, a revised version was published as Haskell 98 Language and Libraries: The Revised Report.[28]
The language continues to evolve rapidly, with the Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC) implementation
representing the current de facto standard.[38]

Haskell 2010

In early 2006, the process of defining a successor to the Haskell 98 standard, informally named Haskell Prime,
began.[39] This was intended to be an ongoing incremental process to revise the language definition, producing
a new revision up to once per year. The first revision, named Haskell 2010, was announced in November
2009[2] and published in July 2010.

Haskell 2010 adds the foreign function interface (FFI) to Haskell, allowing bindings to other programming
languages; fixes some syntax issues (changes in the formal grammar); and bans so-called n-plus-k-patterns
(definitions of the form fact (n+1) = (n+1) * fact n are no longer allowed). It introduces the Language-
Pragma-Syntax-Extension which allows code designating a Haskell source as Haskell 2010 or requiring certain
extensions to the Haskell language. The names of the extensions introduced in Haskell 2010 are
DoAndIfThenElse, HierarchicalModules, EmptyDataDeclarations, FixityResolution,
ForeignFunctionInterface, LineCommentSyntax, PatternGuards, RelaxedDependencyAnalysis,
LanguagePragma and NoNPlusKPatterns.[2]

Features
Haskell features lazy evaluation, pattern matching, list comprehension, type classes and type polymorphism. It
is a purely functional language, which means that functions generally have no side effects. A distinct construct
exists to represent side effects, orthogonal to the type of functions. A pure function may return a side effect
which is subsequently executed, modeling the impure functions of other languages.

Haskell has a strong, static type system based on HindleyMilner type inference. Its principal innovation in this
area is type classes, originally conceived as a principled way to add overloading to the language,[40] but since
finding many more uses.[41]

The construct that represents side effects is an example of a monad. Monads are a general framework that can
model different kinds of computation, including error handling, nondeterminism, parsing and software
transactional memory. Monads are defined as ordinary datatypes, but Haskell provides some syntactic sugar for
their use.
Haskell has an open, published specification,[28] and multiple implementations exist. Its main implementation,
Haskell has an open, published specification,[28] and multiple implementations exist. Its main implementation,
the Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC), is both an interpreter and native-code compiler that runs on most
platforms. GHC is noted for its rich type system incorporating recent innovations such as generalized algebraic
data types and type families. The Computer Language Benchmarks Game also highlights its high-performance
implementation of concurrency and parallelism.[42]

An active, growing community exists around the language, and more than 5,400 third-party open-source
libraries and tools are available in the online package repository Hackage.[43]

Code examples
A "Hello world" program in Haskell:[a]

module Main where

main :: IO ()
main = putStrLn "Hello, World!"

The factorial function in Haskell, defined in a few different ways (the type annotation is optional):

-- Type annotation (optional, same for each implementation)

factorial :: (Integral a) => a -> a

-- Using recursion (with the "ifthenelse" expression)

factorial n = if n < 2
then 1
else n * factorial (n - 1)

-- Using recursion (with pattern matching)

factorial 0 = 1
factorial n = n * factorial (n - 1)

-- Using recursion (with guards)

factorial n
| n < 2 = 1
| otherwise = n * factorial (n - 1)

-- Using a list and the "product" function

factorial n = product [1..n]

-- Using fold (implements "product")

factorial n = foldl (*) 1 [1..n]

-- Point-free style
factorial = foldr (*) 1 . enumFromTo 1

An efficient implementation of the Fibonacci numbers as an infinite list:

-- Type annotation (optional, same for each implementation)

fib :: Int -> Integer

-- With self-referencing data

fib n = fibs !! n
where fibs = 0 : scanl (+) 1 fibs
-- 0,1,1,2,3,5,...

-- Same, coded directly

fib n = fibs !! n
where fibs = 0 : 1 : next fibs
next (a : t@(b:_)) = (a+b) : next t

-- Similar idea, using zipWith

fib n = fibs !! n
where fibs = 0 : 1 : zipWith (+) fibs (tail fibs)

-- Using a generator function

fib n = fibs (0,1) !! n
where fibs (a,b) = a : fibs (b,a+b)
The Int type refers to a machine-sized integer (used as a list subscript with the !! operator), while Integer is an
arbitrary-precision integer. For example, using Integer, the factorial code above easily computes factorial
100000 as a number of 456,574 digits, with no loss of precision.

An implementation of an algorithm similar to quick sort over lists, where the first element is taken as the pivot:

-- Type annotation (optional, same for each implementation)

quickSort :: Ord a => [a] -> [a]

-- Using list comprehensions

quickSort [] = [] -- The empty list is already sorted
quickSort (x:xs) = quickSort [a | a <- xs, a < x] -- Sort the left part of the list
++ [x] ++ -- Insert pivot between two sorted parts
quickSort [a | a <- xs, a >= x] -- Sort the right part of the list

-- Using filter
quickSort [] = []
quickSort (x:xs) = quickSort (filter (<x) xs)
++ [x] ++
quickSort (filter (>=x) xs)

Implementations
All listed implementations are distributed under open source licenses.[44]

Implementations which comply fully, or very nearly, with the Haskell 98 standard, include:

The Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC) compiles to native code on many different processor
architectures, and to ANSI C, via one of two intermediate languages: C--, or in more recent versions,
LLVM (formerly Low Level Virtual Machine) bitcode.[45][46] GHC has become the de facto standard
Haskell dialect.[47] There are libraries (e.g., bindings to OpenGL) that work only with GHC. GHC is also
distributed with the Haskell platform.
The Utrecht Haskell Compiler (UHC) is a Haskell implementation from Utrecht University.[48] It
supports almost all Haskell 98 features plus many experimental extensions. It is implemented using
attribute grammars and is currently used mostly for research on generated type systems and language
extensions.
Jhc, a Haskell compiler written by John Meacham, emphasizes speed and efficiency of generated
programs and exploring new program transformations.
Ajhc is a fork of Jhc.
LHC is a whole-program optimizing backend for GHC, based on Urban Boquists compiler intermediate
language, GRIN.[49] Older versions of LHC were based on Jhc rather than GHC.

Implementations no longer actively maintained include:

The Haskell User's Gofer System (Hugs) is a bytecode interpreter. It used to be one of the
implementations used most widely, alongside the GHC compiler,[50] but has now been mostly replaced
by GHCi. It also comes with a graphics library.
nhc98 is a bytecode compiler focusing on minimizing memory use.
The York Haskell Compiler (Yhc) was a fork of nhc98, with the goals of being simpler, more
portable and efficient, and integrating support for Hat, the Haskell tracer. It also had a JavaScript
backend, allowing users to run Haskell programs in web browsers.
HBC is an early implementation supporting Haskell 1.4. It was implemented by Lennart Augustsson in,
and based on, Lazy ML. It has not been actively developed for some time.

Implementations not fully Haskell 98 compliant, and using a variant Haskell language, include:

Gofer was an educational dialect of Haskell, with a feature called constructor classes, developed by
Mark Jones. It was supplanted by Hugs (see above).
Helium is a newer dialect of Haskell. The focus is on making learning easier via clearer error messages.
It currently lacks full support for type classes, rendering it incompatible with many Haskell programs.
Applications
Darcs is a revision control system written in Haskell, with several innovative features, such as more
precise control of the patches to be applied.
Cabal is a tool for building and packaging Haskell libraries and programs.[51]
Linspire GNU/Linux chose Haskell for system tools development.[52]
Xmonad is a window manager for the X Window System, written fully in Haskell.[53]
GHC is also often a testbed for advanced functional programming features and optimizations in other
programming languages.
Pandoc is a tool to convert one markup format into another.
The Shake build system, aiming to be reliable, robust and fast.[54]

Industry

Facebook implements its anti-spam programs[55] in Haskell, as open-source software.[56]

Bluespec SystemVerilog (BSV) is a language for semiconductor design that is an extension of Haskell.
Also, Bluespec, Inc.'s tools are implemented in Haskell.
Cryptol, a language and toolchain for developing and verifying cryptography algorithms, is implemented
in Haskell.
The first formally verified microkernel,[57] seL4, used Haskell as a prototyping language for the OS
developer.[57]:p.2 At the same time the Haskell code defined an executable specification with which to
reason, for automatic translation by the theorem-proving tool.[57]:p.3 The Haskell code thus served as an
intermediate prototype before final C refinement.[57]:p.3

Web

Haskell web frameworks exist,[58] including:

Yesod
Happstack
Snap[59]

Criticism
Jan-Willem Maessen, in 2002, and Simon Peyton Jones, in 2003, discussed problems associated with lazy
evaluation while also acknowledging the theoretical motives for it,[60][61] in addition to purely practical
considerations such as improved performance.[62] They note that, in addition to adding some performance
overhead, lazy evaluation makes it more difficult for programmers to reason about the performance of their
code (particularly its space use).

Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, and Arjan van IJzendoorn in 2003 also observed some stumbling blocks for
Haskell learners: "The subtle syntax and sophisticated type system of Haskell are a double edged sword
highly appreciated by experienced programmers but also a source of frustration among beginners, since the
generality of Haskell often leads to cryptic error messages."[63] To address these, researchers from Utrecht
University developed an advanced interpreter called Helium which improved the user-friendliness of error
messages by limiting the generality of some Haskell features, and in particular removing support for type
classes.

Ben Lippmeier designed Disciple[64] as a strict-by-default (lazy by explicit annotation) dialect of Haskell with a
type-and-effect system, to address Haskell's difficulties in reasoning about lazy evaluation and in using
traditional data structures such as mutable arrays.[65] He argues (p. 20) that "destructive update furnishes the
programmer with two important and powerful tools... a set of efficient array-like data structures for managing
collections of objects, and ... the ability to broadcast a new value to all parts of a program with minimal burden
on the programmer."
Robert Harper, one of the authors of Standard ML, has given his reasons for not using Haskell to teach
introductory programming. Among these are the difficulty of reasoning about resource use with non-strict
evaluation, that lazy evaluation complicates the definition of data types and inductive reasoning,[66] and the
"inferiority" of Haskell's (old) class system compared to ML's module system.[67]

It was consistently criticised by developers due to the lack of good management of different versions of a
particular library by default build tool cabal. Although this has been addressed by the release of the Stack, cabal
continues to be shipped as the default build tool.

Related languages
Clean is a close, slightly older relative of Haskell. Its biggest deviation from Haskell is in the use of uniqueness
types instead of monads for I/O and side-effects.

A series of languages inspired by Haskell, but with different type systems, have been developed, including:

Agda, a functional language with dependent types

Idris, a general purpose functional language with dependent types, developed at the University of St
Andrews
Epigram, a functional language with dependent types suitable for proving properties of programs
Cayenne, with dependent types
mega, strict and more
Elm, a functional language to create web front-end apps, no support for higher-kinded types
PureScript, a small strongly typed programming language that compiles to JavaScript

Java virtual machine (JVM) based:

Frege, a Haskell-like language with Java's scalar types and good Java integration.[68][69][70]
Jaskell, a functional scripting language that runs in Java VM.[71]
Eta-lang, which intends to be Haskell on the JVM

Other related languages include:

Curry, a functional/logic programming language based on Haskell

Haskell has served as a testbed for many new ideas in language design. There have been many Haskell variants
produced, exploring new language ideas, including:

Parallel Haskell:
From Glasgow University, supports clusters of machines or single multiprocessors.[72][73] Also
within Haskell is support for Symmetric Multiprocessor parallelism.[74]
From MIT[75]
Distributed Haskell (formerly Goffin) and Eden.
Eager Haskell, based on speculative evaluation.
Several object-oriented versions: Haskell++, and Mondrian.
Generic Haskell, a version of Haskell with type system support for generic programming.
O'Haskell, an extension of Haskell adding object-orientation and concurrent programming support which
"has ... been superseded by Timber."[76]
Disciple, a strict-by-default (laziness available by annotation) dialect of Haskell which supports
destructive update, computational effects, type directed field projections and allied functional aspects.
Scotch, a kind of hybrid of Haskell and Python.[77][78]
Hume, a strict functional language for embedded systems based on processes as stateless automata over a
sort of tuples of one element mailbox channels where the state is kept by feedback into the mailboxes,
and a mapping description from outputs to channels as box wiring, with a Haskell-like expression
language and syntax.
Conferences and workshops
The Haskell community meets regularly for research and development activities. The main events are:

International Conference on Functional Programming (ICFP)

Haskell Symposium (formerly the Haskell Workshop)
Haskell Implementors Workshop
Commercial Users of Functional Programming (CUFP)

Since 2006, a series of organized hackathons has occurred, the Hac series, aimed at improving the
programming language tools and libraries.[79]

Haskell Base library and Algebra

As Haskell separates domains (types) and behaviour (type classes) you may find correspondences with the
algebra world that underlies the standard typeclasses of the Haskell basic library.

The Num class has the operation signatures required for a Ring, except for the (+) and (*) neutral elements,
which are predefined as literals.[80]

Operation laws like (+) and (*) associativity and addition conmutativity are not related with the typeclass, but
rather proofs to be checked on the instances.

$ ghci
Prelude > :type 0
0 :: Num a => a -- 0 belongs to any type that has a Num instance, a Ring
Prelude > :type 1
1 :: Num a => a -- neutral for the product of a type that implements Num

The Word data types (Word, WordN) implement the Num type class with Modular arithmetic whereas the
data types (Int, IntN) use two's complement arithmetic that doesn't match the decimal arithmetic with
shocking results for big values, in which case unlimited precision types Integer and Natural (from
Numeric.Natural) is the way to go:

Prelude > maxBound ::Int

9223372036854775807
Prelude > (maxBound ::Int) +1 -- two's complement Int addition (it doesn't throw exceptions)
-9223372036854775808
Prelude > (maxBound ::Int) *2 -- two's complement Int product (no exceptions either)
-2

Possible workarounds to make it match with regular arithmetic, throwing Overflow on displicent
outcomes is

to check the addition result for same signum {-1,0,1} with the operands when operand signs
match[81][82]
or to perform the operation with unlimited precision, checking the typecasted result.[82]

The Fractional type class adds to Num the multiplicative inverse in the recip function (for "reciprocal") and, as
a consequence, the division. It corresponds to a Field.[83]

The Real type class requires Num and Ord, corresponds to an Ordered ring,[84] which serves to Integer
numbers, Rational[85] and Floating point numbers.[86]

The Integral type class adds operations for the euclidean division to the required Real and Enum classes,
corresponding to an Euclidean ring which is an Integral ring.[87]
The Floating type class adds to Fractional the calculus functions (sqrt, trigonometric functions, logarithms)
common to Floating point (Float, Double) and Complex numbers.[88][86][89]

The exponentiation comes in three flavours:

A positive integer exponent requires that the base domain has the product (specified in Num, signature of
a Ring)

(^) :: (Num a, Integral ex) => a -> ex -> a -- (^) admits non-negative exponents of an euclidean domain, throws an

A negative integer exponent requires that the base domain has the multiplicative inverse (specified in
Fractional, signature of a Field)

(^^) :: (Fractional a, Integral ex) => a -> ex -> a -- (^^) admits all exponents of an euclidean domain

A floating point exponent requires that the base domain has the floating point exponentiation and
logarithm functions, as specified in the Floating type class.[88]

(**) :: (Floating a, Floating ex) => a -> ex -> a

Conversions between euclidean types preserve the representation, not the value. Numeric type downcasting
does not throw overflow:

$ ghci
Prelude > import Data.Int
Prelude Data.Int> fromIntegral (32767 :: Int16) :: Int8
-1
Prelude Data.Int> fromInteger (2^64 :: Integer ) :: Int32
0

Notes
a. 'Hello world' is meant as the introductory prototype of a read-eval-print loop. The IO tool putStrLn prints
a string, which is the only essential line of this example. The second line of this example is a type
definition, which is unnecessary for Haskell, because the compiler infers the type; instead, the second
line serves to communicate the programmer's intention to the reader. The first line of the example isn't
needed, either, because the start symbol main in this simple example makes the module Main a nicety,
which instead would have been a necessity in a multi-module example. Rather, the first two lines are
provided for consistency with larger examples.

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Further reading
Reports

Peyton Jones, Simon, ed. (2003). Haskell 98 Language and Libraries: The Revised Report. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521826144.
Marlow, Simon, ed. (2010). Haskell 2010 Language Report (PDF). Haskell.org.

Textbooks

Davie, Antony (1992). An Introduction to Functional Programming Systems Using Haskell. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-25830-8.
Bird, Richard (1998). Introduction to Functional Programming using Haskell (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall
Press. ISBN 0-13-484346-0.
Hudak, Paul (2000). The Haskell School of Expression: Learning Functional Programming through
Multimedia. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521643384.
Hutton, Graham (2007). Programming in Haskell. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521692695.
O'Sullivan, Bryan; Stewart, Don; Goerzen, John (2008). Real World Haskell. Sebastopol: O'Reilly.
ISBN 0-596-51498-0 (full text)
Thompson, Simon (2011). Haskell: The Craft of Functional Programming (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0201882957.
 Lipovaa, Miran (April 2011). Learn You a Haskell for Great Good!. San Francisco: No Starch Press.
ISBN 978-1-59327-283-8. (full text)
Bird, Richard (2014). Thinking Functionally with Haskell. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-
107-45264-0.

Tutorials

Hudak, Paul; Peterson, John; Fasel, Joseph (June 2000). "A Gentle Introduction To Haskell, Version 98".
Haskell.org.
Yet Another Haskell Tutorial, by Hal Daum III; assumes far less prior knowledge than official tutorial
Yorgey, Brent (12 March 2009). "The Typeclassopedia" (PDF). The Monad.Reader (13): 1768

History

Hudak, Paul; Hughes, John; Peyton Jones, Simon; Wadler, Philip (2007). "A History of Haskell: Being
Lazy with Class" (PDF). Proceedings of the third ACM SIGPLAN conference on History of programming
languages (HOPL III): 12155. ISBN 978-1-59593-766-7. doi:10.1145/1238844.1238856.
Hamilton, Naomi (19 September 2008). "The A-Z of Programming Languages: Haskell".
Computerworld.

External links
Official website
Haskell Wiki
Planet Haskell an aggregator of Haskell related blogs and other Haskell-related news sites
Hackage central package archive
Hoogle API search engine

Tutorials

Try Haskell! in-browser interactive tutorial

School of Haskell online tutorials
Functors, Applicatives, And Monads In Pictures
Real World Haskell - free to read online

Miscellaneous

The Monad.Reader quarterly magazine on Haskell topics

The Evolution of a Haskell Programmer slightly humorous overview of different programming styles in
Haskell

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