Palm Management in South America

Palm Management in South America
Rodrigo Bernal, Claudia Torres, Nstor

Garca, Carolina Isaza, Jaime Navarro,
Martha Isabel Vallejo, Gloria Galeano &
Henrik Balslev
The Botanical Review
ISSN 0006-8101
Bot. Rev.
DOI 10.1007/
s12229-011-9088-6
1 23
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Author's personal copy
Bot. Rev.
DOI 10.1007/s12229-011-9088-6
Rodrigo Bernal1,3 & Claudia Torres1 & Nstor Garca1 & Carolina Isaza1 &
Jaime Navarro1 & Martha Isabel Vallejo1 & Gloria Galeano1 & Henrik Balslev2
1
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Apartado, 7495 Bogot, Colombia
2
Department of Biological Sciences, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade, Building 1540,
8000 rhus C, Denmark
3
Author for Correspondence; e-mail: rgbernalg@unal.edu.co
# The New York Botanical Garden 2011
Abstract We reviewed information on management of useful palms in South

America. We documented management for 96 species, from incidental activities
intended to increase populations of wild palms to the inclusion of palms in complex
agroforestry systems. Two species, Bactris gasipaes and Parajubaea cocoides, are
domesticated. Managed species are remarkably fewer than species used in the
region, which suggests that harvesters often disregard the fate of the species they
use. The best way of managing palms is to employ harvest methods that do not
decimate the populations. Although a variety of harvesting techniques have been
documented, overharvest is common, and mismanagement prevails unnecessary
felling of palms in order to harvest leaves or fruits is a widespread practice. Research
should focus on assessing production in response to management practices, but
eradicating the habit of destructive harvest is an obvious priority. Research on palm
management must be combined with actions addressed to all stakeholders of the
palm/humans system.
Resumen Revisamos la informacin sobre manejo de palmas tiles en Suramrica.

Documentamos manejo para 96 especies, desde el cuidado ocasional de palmas con
el fin de incrementar las poblaciones silvestres, hasta la introduccin intencional de
algunas especies en chagras o en sistemas agroforestales. Dos especies, Bactris
gasipaes y Parajubaea cocoides, son domesticadas. Las especies manejadas son
notablemente menos que las especies tiles, lo que refleja poco inters de los
cosechadores por la suerte de las especies usadas. La mejor forma de manejar las
palmas es emplear mtodos de cosecha que no diezmen las poblaciones. Aunque se
han documentado diversas tcnicas de cosecha, la sobrecosecha es comn y
predomina el mal manejo: tumbar innecesariamente las palmas para cosechar las
hojas o los frutos es una prctica comn. La investigacin debera enfocarse en
evaluar la respuesta de las palmas a las prcticas de manejo, pero es prioritario
erradicar las prcticas de cosecha destructiva. Se debe combinar la investigacin
sobre manejo de palmas con acciones dirigidas a todos los actores del sistema
palma/hombre.
Keywords Agroforestry . Arecaceae . Ethnobotany . Harvest Techniques . Sustainable Use

R. Bernal et al.
Palabras clave Agroforestera . Arecaceae . Etnobotnica . Tcnicas de Cosecha . Uso

Sostenible
Introduction
The palm flora of South America comprises 50 genera and ca. 476 species (Pintaud et
al., 2008; Noblick, 2009; Noblick & Lorenzi, 2010a, b; Bernal & Borchsenius, 2010;
Bernal & Galeano, 2010; but see Dransfield et al., 2008 for a lower figure), of which
85% are endemic to the subcontinent. On the other hand, there are ca. 390 ethnic
groups in this region (Lewis, 2009). The large number of species combined with the
ethnic and cultural richness of the area, has given rise to an extensive diversity of palm
uses and associated management practices (e. g., Maca et al., 2011). Whereas uses
have been relatively well documented, management of the involved species is not
always discussed by authors, despite its great relevance for guaranteeing the long-term
availability of the resource. In this paper we review currently available information on
palm management in South America. We circumscribe management, following
Clement (1992), as a less sophisticated form of cultivation that may include some
kind of protection by humans and some genetic modifications of the species involved.
As a framework for our analysis, we provide an overview of palm use (Table 1),
including only general use categories and citing only the most important species.
Table 1 Summary of the Most Important Uses of South American Palms
Use category Part used Species Most common level of trade
Food Fruit Aiphanes horrida, Attalea amygdalina, Domestic consumption, local

A. maripa, A. speciosa, Bactris gasipaes,
B. guineensis, Euterpe oleracea,
E. precatoria, Mauritia flexuosa,
Oenocarpus bacaba, O. bataua, O. minor
Oil Attalea allenii, A. butyracea, A. colenda, Domestic consumptiom, local
A. phalerata, A. spectabilis, A. speciosa,
Elaeis oleifera, Oenocarpus bacaba,
O. bataua, O. minor
Palm heart Bactris gasipaes, Euterpe edulis, E. National, international
oleracea, E. precatoria
Construction Leaf Attalea butyracea, A. maripa, Geonoma Domestic consumption
deversa, Lepidocaryum tenue, Manicaria
saccifera, Sabal mauritiiformis
Stem Euterpe oleracea, Iriartea deltoidea, Domestic consumption
Socratea exorrhiza
Handicraft Spear leaf Astrocaryum chambira, A. malybo, Regional, national
A. standleyanum, Mauritia flexuosa
Seed Phytelephas aequatorialis, P. macrocarpa National, international
Stem Desmoncus polyacanthos Local, regional
Sheath Aphandra natalia, Attalea funifera, Local, regional
Leopoldinia piassaba
Cosmetic Leaf Copernicia prunifera International
Palm management is analyzed from the perspective of the human groups involved,
the palm products marketed, the associated land use and land tenure, the harvest
techniques and seasons, and other associated practices. Finally, we give an overview
of use as a conservation strategy.
Methods
We searched for information in published sources and, when possible, in

unpublished reports, theses or other types of gray literature, in order to recover
valuable information that otherwise remains unnoticed. Review of gray literature
is particularly biased for Colombia, where we were able to revise several
libraries of government agencies and NGOs. Information from the documents
was tabulated, and analyzed considering three major aspects associated to
management of non timber forest products (Ticktin, 2004): type of land use
(mixed forest, palm stands, fallow plots, agroforestry systems, pastures, planta-
tions), harvest techniques (felling, climbing the palms or a neighboring tree,
cutting leaves, harvesting from the ground), and associated practices (pruning,
thinning, weeding, pest control, fertilization, enrichment of harvested areas, fire
use, harvest area rotation, selective harvest, seasonal restriction, transplanting).
The review is focused on management of wild, semi-wild and, to a lesser extent,
small-scale cultivated palms. We have not included cases of palms cultivated at
large scales, like Bactris gasipaes. Palm nomenclature follows Pintaud et al.
(2008), except for Oenocarpus mapora, which is considered a synonym of O.
minor following Galeano and Bernal (2010).
Results
We found information on management for 96 species of palms. The most

important products derived from South American palms are edible fruits, palm
hearts, oils, stems and leaves for construction, and various palm parts for making
a variety of implements (Table 1). Management ranged from incidental activities
intended to increase the growth of the populations of wild palms, to the inclusion
of palms in complex agroforestry systems. In some cases, prospective, large-scale
uses have been suggested for some species: Mauritia flexuosa and Attalea
butyracea have been looked at as potential sources of biofuel (Forero et al.,
2003; Miranda et al., 2008a, b; Bernal et al., 2010); A. butyracea has been
investigated for its use as animal feed and as a source of charcoal (Devia et al.,
2002); and Astrocaryum vulgare, Attalea speciosa, Copernicia prunifera, and M.
flexuosa were recently suggested as possible sources for geotextiles used in erosion
control (Mendona, 2006).
Human Groups
Uses and management of South American palms are mostly made by Amerindians,
Afroamericans, and mestizos or caboclos, the latter two being broad terms
R. Bernal et al.
encompassing ethnically mixed people, many of whom regard themselves as white.

Indigenous peoples of South America comprise 4.2% of the population in the
subcontinent (Alb et al., 2009), and they represent the best documented cases of
palm management (Appendix 1). This may be due in part to the large diversity of
Amerindian groups in our study area, and to their longer history of permanence in
the territory, but it is also a result of the greater focus of researchers on this human
group. We found records of management of 45 palm species by Amerindian groups,
i.e., one tenth of all species occurring in South America and almost half of all the
species for which management practices are documented.
Palm management by mestizos or caboclos is documented for 68 species, many
of them in Brazil. Remarkable cases include management of Euterpe edulis (Reis
et al., 2000c), E. oleracea (Pierce & Shanley, 2002), E. precatoria (Schmidt, 2003)
for the production of palm heart in the Atlantic forest and the Amazon in Brazil,
and fruit production from Mauritia flexuosa (Anderson et al., 1995) on the flood
plain of the Amazon estuary. Other examples of palms managed by mestizos are
Astrocaryum standleyanum which is used for production of leaf fibers in Pacific
Ecuador and Aphandra natalia which, in the Amazon of Ecuador, is managed for
production of piassaba fibers from the leaf sheaths (Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992, 1994;
Fadiman, 2003). In Colombia mestizos manage Astrocaryum malybo for produc-
tion of leaf fibers (Barrera et al., 2007b; Linares et al., 2008), Attalea butyracea for
production of fruits for animal feed (Moreno et al., 1991), and Phytelephas
macrocarpa for seed production (Torres & Perdomo, 2008). In Peru mestizos
manage Oenocarpus minor for production of fruits (de Jong, 2001, as Oenocarpus
mapora).
Afroamericans comprise 10.4% of the population in Colombia (Vicepresidencia
Repblica de Colombia, 2010) and 5% in Ecuador (Guerrero, 2005). Information on
palm management by Afroamericans is relatively scarce, in spite of their
predominance on the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and northern Ecuador, one of
the areas with extremely high palm richness (Bjorholm et al., 2005). Interesting
cases include management of Phytelephas aequatorialis for vegetable ivory
production in Ecuador (Velsquez, 1998), Euterpe oleracea for palm heart
production in Colombia (Corponario, 1989; Muoz, 2007), and Astrocaryum
standleyanum for fiber production in Ecuador (Fadiman, 2003).
Palm Products Marketed
Products obtained from palms may be used domestically, with no associated

trade, or they may enter market chains that range from small-scale, local markets
to national or international trade. Local markets include trade with fruits, fruit
derivatives, seeds, palm hearts, palm wine, palm weevil larvae, tiles for thatch,
and various implements like brooms, hats, fans, and fly brushes (e.g., Johnson,
1982; Bernal, 1992; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1992; Meja, 1992; Kahn &
Moussa, 1999; Narvez & Stauffer, 1999; Maca, 2004; Lawrence et al., 2005;
Bernal et al., 2010). The most commonly sold palm fruits in local markets are
those of Bactris gasipaes, Mauritia flexuosa, Oenocarpus bataua, Euterpe
oleracea, Euterpe precatoria, Astrocaryum aculeatum, Acrocomia aculeata,
Aiphanes horrida, and Bactris guineensis (Bernal, 1992; Meja, 1992; Moussa &
Kahn, 1997; Miranda et al., 2008a, b; Galeano & Bernal, 2010). Palm nuts that are
commonly sold include Aiphanes horrida and Attalea amygdalina in Colombia
(Bernal, 1992; Surez, 2001), Parajubaea cocoides in Ecuador (Balslev & Barfod,
1987), and P. torrallyi in Bolivia (L. de la Torre, pers. comm.). Palm heart obtained
from E. precatoria is sold in local markets in Peru (Meja, 1992; Ros, 2001),
Bolivia (Pea-Claros & Zudeima, 2000), and Brazil (Nepstad et al., 1992), and
palm heart of E. oleracea is sold in Brazil (Strudwick & Sobel, 1988). Palm wine
(from Attalea butyracea) is sold at local level in Colombia (Bernal, 1992; Pulgarn
& Bernal, 2004; Bernal et al., 2010). Palm beetle larvae are sold as a delicacy
throughout Amazon markets (e.g., Meja, 1992) and at some places on the western
slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (L. de la Torre, pers. comm.).Tiles for thatching
made from leaves of Lepidocaryum tenue braided on split palm stems are sold
along the Amazon River from Iquitos to Tabatinga (Meja, 1992; Navarro et al.,
2011) and from leaves of Geonoma deversa in Bolivian Amazon (Paniagua-
Zambrana, 2005). A wide variety of implements made from palm stems, leaves,
inflorescences, fruits or seeds are common in local markets throughout the area
(Bernal, 1992; Meja, 1992; Mlaga Valencia et al., 1996).
Much fewer palm products reach markets beyond the production areas, and edible
products derived from palms seldom reach major cities. Major exceptions are palm
hearts, which reach national markets as a by-product of their mostly international
market (Strudwick & Sobel, 1988; Linares, 1991; Bernal, 1992; Meza, 2001;
Moraes, 2001; Ros, 2001; Pierce & Shanley, 2002; Goulding & Smith, 2007); the
fruits of Bactris gasipaes, which have made it into many large cities in Colombia
(Gonzlez, 2007); palm honey from the Chilean wine palm, Jubaea chilensis which
is sold in domestic markets in Chile (Gonzlez et al., 2009); fibers or items derived
from them; spear leaves to be used during Easter (e.g., Montfar et al., 2010) and
handicrafts made from several palm species, notably in Astrocaryum and
Phytelephas (Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992, 1994; Castao et al., 2007; Hbschmann et
al., 2007; Lozano, 2007; Linares et al., 2008).
The most important export product entering international trade is palm heart,
which in 2008 generated a revenue of USD 100.26 million to the five largest
exporting countries, Ecuador, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Colombia (CICO, 2009;
Proexport, 2009; Agrodataperu, 2010; IBCE, 2010). Most palm heart in commerce
comes from Bactris gasipaes, Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria, and E. edulis. Bactris
gasipaes is produced in plantations, and will not be further dealt with here. Other
exports to the international market include fruits of Attalea speciosa (Mitja & Ferraz,
2001) and E. oleracea from Brazil (Brondizio et al., 2002; Goulding & Smith,
2007); E. precatoria from Venezuela (Van Looy et al., 2008); B. gasipaes and, to a
lesser extent, Mauritia flexuosa from Peru (Ros, 2001; SUNAT, 2006); piassava
fibers of Attalea funifera from Brazil (Voeks, 1988), and those of Leopoldinia
piassaba from Colombia and Brazil (Centro de Comercio Internacional, 1969;
Crizn, 2001; Linares et al., 2008), both of which were an important export product
in the 19th century (Wallace, 1853); thatch tiles woven with leaves of Geonoma
deversa from Bolivia (L. de la Torre, pers. comm.); handicrafts made from seeds of
Phytelephas, Ammandra, and Astrocaryum from Ecuador and Colombia (Borgtoft
Pedersen, 1994; SUNAT, 2006; Linares et al., 2008; Torres & Perdomo, 2008), and
oil for cosmetics from Attalea speciosa from Bolivia (IBCE, 2009).
R. Bernal et al.
Associated Land Use
Most palm products in South America are harvested from wild plants growing at
relatively low densities in species-rich ecosystems. In some cases, however, products
are harvested from large homogeneous palm stands that cover extensive areas, as is
the case with palm heart from Euterpe oleracea (e.g., van Andel, 2000a; Valente &
Almeida, 2001); fruits from Mauritia flexuosa (e.g., Castao et al., 2007; Meza,
2001); fruits and leaves from Butia capitata (Pezzani, 2007) and Parajubaea
torrallyi (L. de la Torre, pers. comm.), and palm wine from Jubaea chilensis
(Gonzlez et al., 2009). Other palm products are harvested from isolated palm
individuals surviving in pastures or other deforested areas; examples of these include
leaf sheath fibers from Aphandra natalia in Ecuador (Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992), leaf
fibers from Astrocaryum malybo, fruits from Attalea butyracea, Ceroxylon spp., and
Copernicia tectorum in Colombia (Galeano & Bernal, 2005; Barrera et al., 2007a, b;
Bernal et al., 2010), fruits from Attalea speciosa and A. phalerata in Brazil (May,
1991; Pinheiro, 2004), palm sap from Jubaea chilensis in Chile (Gonzlez et al.,
2009), and leaves and fruits from Butia capitata in Uruguay (Pezzani, 2007).
Some palms are planted in fallows or they are selectively favored when the forest
is cleared for swidden-fallow agriculture. In the Amazon, common palms in fallow
plots include Astrocaryum aculeatum, A. chambira, Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria,
Oenocarpus bataua, O. minor and Mauritia flexuosa (Strudwick & Sobel, 1988;
Hammond et al., 1995; Moussa & Kahn, 1997; de Jong, 2001; Schmidt, 2003;
Miranda et al., 2008; Flores et al., 2009). In other cases, palms are components of
more complex agroforestry systems; in the lowlands, these systems involve crops
like cocoa (Theobroma cacao), avocado (Persea americana), guamo (Inga spp.),
bananas (Musa spp.), papaya (Carica papaya), pineapple (Ananas comosus), and
timber trees like Cedrela odorata and Tabebuia spp., and include the palms Attalea
colenda, A. speciosa, B. gasipaes, Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria, Mauritia flexuosa,
Oenocarpus bataua, and Phytelephas aequatorialis (Johnson, 1983, 2002; May et al.,
1985b; Clement, 1986, 1989; King & Forero, 1988; Blicher-Mathiesen & Balslev,
1990; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1990; Dubois, 1990; Dos Santos, 2000; Ros,
2001; Varn & Zapata, 2001; Vieira et al., 2007; van Looy et. al., 2008).
In the Andes, agroforestry systems with palms include crop plants like coffee
(Coffea arabica), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), guava (Psidium guajava),
shade or timber trees (e.g., Cordia alliodora, Ochroma pyramidale, Inga edulis,
Erythrina edulis), and bamboo (Guadua angustifolia). Palms found in these Andean
agroforestry systems include Aiphanes horrida (Galeano & Bernal, 1987, as A.
caryotifolia), Ceroxylon alpinum, C. echinulatum, and C. sasaimae (Galeano &
Bernal, 2005; Pintaud & Anthelme, 2008).
The most elaborate step in the spectrum of palm management is domestication.
Only two species among South American palms can be considered as domesticated,
according to Clements (1992) criteria of being cultivated and having at least one
landrace dependent upon human intervention for its continued genetic survival: the
rain forest peach palm, Bactris gasipaes (Clement, 1992), and the Andean coco,
Parajubaea cocoides, known only in cultivation in Ecuador and southern Colombia,
and probably derived from the wild Parajubaea torralyi (Moraes & Henderson,
1990). Whereas B. gasipaes played a major role in human nutrition since pre-
Columbian times (Patio, 1963) and has become a widespread crop, Parajubaea
cocoides has been cultivated only in cities and towns, with the double role of
ornamental and nut-producing palm (Balslev & Barfod, 1987).
Land Tenure
Although information on land ownership is not included in most of the references

reviewed, in many cases use appears to be associated to communal lands or protected
areas, such as Amerindian reservations (Balick, 1988a; van Andel, 2000; Costa &
Duarte, 2002; Cruz, 2006; Patio, 2006; Castao et al., 2007; Balslev et al., 2008;
Linares et al., 2008), extractive reserves (Nepstad et al., 1992; Pinard, 1993;
IMAFLORA, 2004; Rocha, 2004; Clement et al., 2005), communal lands of Afro-
descendants in Colombia and Ecuador (Galeano & Bernal, 1987; Velsquez, 1998; van
Andel, 2000; Hernndez, 2003; Torres & Perdomo, 2008), or national parks and
reserves (Reis et al., 2000c; Svenning & Maca, 2002; Llamozas et al., 2003; Paniagua-
Zambrana, 2005; Pezzani, 2007; Aguilar-Mena, 2008; Holm et al., 2008; Flores et al.,
2009; Thompson et al., 2009) (Appendix 1). Remarkable cases are found in Chile and
Uruguay, where Jubaea chilensis and Butia capitata are exploited in private areas
within a national park and a biosphere reserve, respectively. In some cases harvest is
made in the peasants own property, whereas in other areas, landless peasants harvest
palms in private lands with or without permission from the land owners, as is the case
with Attalea speciosa (Pinheiro, 2004) and Butia capitata (Carvalho, 2008) in Brazil,
and with Astrocaryum malybo, Copernicia tectorum and Attalea butyracea in northern
Colombia (Barrera et al., 2007a, b; Bernal et al., 2010).
Harvest Techniques
Harvesting palm products may involve either destructive felling of palm stems or
non-destructive harvest of fruits, leaves, fibers or other plant parts. Destructive
felling may be necessary in cases where the product to be harvested is the stem itself.
However, in many cases the literature documents destructive harvest by felling, even
when the products could be harvested without felling.
Necessary Felling of Stems
Stems must be felled when palms are used for their wood, palm hearts, starch, or as a
substrate for rearing weevil larvae. When palms are cut for their wood, it most often
involves domestic uses such as construction or manufacture of weapons, which
require a relatively small number of stems. Such uses are widespread throughout
South America, and in most cases, this kind of domestic use is probably not
associated with other management practices related to the felling, and its impact is
probably limited. In the Colombian Amazon, for example, the roof of a large
communal house or maloka, measuring ca. 100 m2, is thatched with leaves of the
understory palm Lepidocaryum tenue that are braided onto split stems of 25
individuals of the tall canopy palm Socratea exorrhiza (R. Bernal, pers. obs.).
In some cases, however, palm stems enter market chains, where the demand poses a
stronger pressure on the resource, as is the case with stems of Iriartea deltoidea that are
R. Bernal et al.
used for construction, for posts, for making furniture, musical instruments and more
(Anderson & Putz, 2002; Galeano, pers. obs.; L. de la Torre, pers. comm.), Socratea
exorrhiza that is used for roof construction (Navarro et al., 2011),Copernicia tectorum
that is used for manufacturing hats (Petit, 2001; Artesanas de Colombia, 2009),
species of Wettinia in Colombia used in construction (R. Bernal, pers. obs.), and stems
of Desmoncus polyacanthos used in Peru for weaving furniture and baskets
(Henderson & Chvez, 1993; Hbschmann et al., 2007). With the exception of
Desmoncus polyacanthos, seeds of which are sometimes scattered in the forest by
harvesters (Hbschmann et al., 2007), we found no reference indicating any kind of
replacement planting for these species. Desmoncus has the additional advantage of
producing several stems per individual, which minimizes impact of stem cutting.
Palm heart exploitation is also intrinsically destructive, as the harvested product
comes from the stems growing point, and its extraction necessarily implies excising
the crown. Although palm heart is extracted from many different palms for domestic
consumption, at least one species, Prestoea acuminata, is regularly consumed during
Easter in Colombia, causing a strong pressure on local populations of this cespitose
palm (Gamba Trimio, 2004); although, in practice, this ritual seasonality of use
works as a management plan, it is probably not intended as such. This species was
also at some point the source of a canning industry in Ecuador (Knudsen, 1995), but
its wild populations do not support a harvest intensity beyond domestic consumption
(Knudsen, 1995; Gamba Trimio, 2004), and now it has been replaced in commerce
by palm hearts from the cultivated Bactris gasipaes (Borchsenius & Moraes, 2006;
L. de la Torre, pers,. comm.).
The three major wild sources of palm hearts in commerce are species of Euterpe.
Two of them, Euterpe edulis and E. precatoria, have solitary stems, whereas E.
oleracea is cespitose. Exploitation of Euterpe edulis in southeastern Brazil has long
been conducted without any management and its harvest has been considered
unsustainable (Ribeiro et al., 1994; Orlande et al., 1996; Galleti & Fernndez, 1998;
Quitete, 2008), although it might be sustainable if management plans were followed.
These plans include respecting a minimal harvest diameter of 8.5 cm, harvest cycles
of 56 years, and leaving untouched 5060 reproductive adults per ha (Reis et al.,
2000a, b, c). Euterpe precatoria is exploited without any management in Amazonian
Peru (Ros, 2001; Meza, 2001) and Bolivia (Johnson, 1996; Stoian, 1999, 2000;
Herrera, 2000; Pea-Claros & Zuidema, 2000; Zuidema & Boot, 2000; Moraes,
2001), although in the latter country a management plan and the corresponding law
are available (Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible, Repblica de Bolivia, 2006). Its
harvest is considered unsustainable by most authors (Pea-Claros, 1996; Pea-
Claros & Zuidema, 2000; Zuidema & Boot, 2000), unless exploited at low harvest
intensities (2550% of all adult palms) and long cycles (1632 years) (Zuidema &
Boot, 2000), which would probably be unprofitable. Euterpe oleracea is exploited in
estuarine areas of Brazil (e.g., Jardim & Anderson, 1987; Anderson, 1988; Pollack et
al., 1995), Guyana (van Andel, 2000), Venezuela (Finol, 1978), and Colombia
(Tibaquir, 1980; Corponario, 1989). Its cespitose habit offers excellent possibil-
ities for management, and its harvest is considered sustainable by most authors (e.g.,
Muniz-Miret et al., 1996; Weinstein & Moegenburg, 2004), although overharvest
once led to temporary population depletion in some areas of the Pacific lowlands of
Colombia (Bernal & Galeano, 1993). Management practices include selective
cutting of stems in a clump, elimination of other trees in the palm stands, and
planting of seedlings near dwellings (Vallejo et al., in press).
Extraction of palm starch is another activity that requires cutting of palm stems. The
most important sources of this resource in South America are Mauritia flexuosa (Heinen
& Ruddle, 1974) and Manicaria saccifera (Wilbert, 1976), both of them used by the
Warao of the Orinoco delta, and Syagrus romanzoffiana, formerly used by the Ach of
Paraguay (Vellard, 1939). It has been hypothesized that another species, Iriartea
deltoidea, was used for starch-extraction in the past by hunters-gatherers from the
Vaups River of Brazil and Colombia, but that this practice is now forgotten (Bernal et
al., 2007). Only Mauritia is used today as a source of starch, in the Orinoco delta, but
no management practice is known in connection with this use.
The use of palms as a substrate for rearing weevil larvae has been documented for
many Amerindian communities in South America. In many cases, the larvae are
simply extracted from stems that have fallen naturally or have been felled for other
purpose (e.g., Galeano, 1992). However, there are documented cases of palm felling
exclusively for providing a habitat for these larvae. In Amazonian Venezuela, the Jot
Indians cut down Oenocarpus bacaba palms and make wedge-shaped cuttings near
the stem apex, deep enough to penetrate the pith, in order to facilitate colonization
by Rhynchophorus palmarum and R. barbirostris (Choo et al., 2009). In northeastern
Colombia, the Bari Indians cut down Oenocarpus bataua palms to harvest larvae
that develop in the stems within 2 months (Beckerman, 1977). Clastres (1972)
reported a similar use of palms by the Ach of Paraguay, and Dufour (1987)
described an intermediate situation, where palms are cut down to get their fruits, but
with the expectation that they will be invaded by weevils and the larvae will be
ready to harvest within 2 or 3 months. In none of these cases there seems to be any
additional kind of management.
Unnecessary Felling of Palms
In some cases palms are felled to harvest their fruits, seeds, expanded or unexpanded
leaves, sap or fibers, even when these products could have been obtained without
cutting down the palms. The destructive option is preferred because it is easier and
quicker. The most dramatic examples include cutting down individuals just to get
their fruits, as is practiced for Mauritia flexuosa in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and
Peru (e.g., Peters et al., 1989; Ruiz-Murrieta, 1991; Ojeda-Salvador, 1994; Hiraoka,
1999; Castao et al., 2007; Manzi & Coomes, 2009), and for Oenocarpus bataua in
the same countries and also in Bolivia (e.g., Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1992;
Aguilar-Mena, 2008; Miranda et al., 2008).
Other cases of similar mismanagement include harvest of spear leaves of
Astrocaryum chambira in Amazonia (Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1992), A.
standleyanum on the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador (Fadiman, 2003; Linares
et al., 2008), and leaf sheath fibers of Aphandra natalia in Ecuador and Peru (Borgtoft
Pedersen, 1992; Kronborg et al., 2008). These three species offer interesting
contrasting cases of sustainable and unsustainable management depending on the
users. Whereas tall palms are cut down in some areas (Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev,
1992; Fadiman, 2003; Lpez et al., 2006; Kronborg et al., 2008; Linares et al., 2008),
in other areas spear leaves of Astrocaryum species are harvested using a chisel attached
R. Bernal et al.
at the tip of a long pole (Borgtoft Pedersen, 1994; Holm Jensen & Balslev, 1995; Cruz,
2006), and fibers of Aphandra are harvested using a ladder (Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992).
In most cases of palm felling, harvesters claim that they cut down only very tall
individuals that cannot be climbed or reached with poles or ladders. In reality, what
happens in most areas is that harvesters cut virtually any palm whose leaves or
infructescences are beyond easy reach. In most cases palms that are felled could
have been collected with the use of some basic tools, which usually are already
known by locals, and even used by some of them (Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; de
Castro, 1993a; Bovi, 1999a; Varn & Zapata, 2001; Vormisto, 2002; Zent & Zent,
2002; Castao et al., 2007; Linares et al., 2008; R. Bernal, pers. obs.). A case that
illustrates that excessive height is not always the true reason for cutting down palms
is what used to happen in Ecuador with tagua, Phytelephas aequatorialis, during the
20th century. Although the ideal stage for collecting seeds of this palm is when they
have fallen to the ground, during the golden age of tagua harvesters would
sometimes cut down palms (which are only 35 m tall), in order to collect fruits that
were still not fully ripe (Acosta Sols, 1944).
In contrast with described mismanagement, where ignorance of alternative harvest
methods can hardly justify cutting down palms, sap extraction presents an interesting
case of mismanagement due to lack of implementation of techniques used elsewhere.
Two South American palms are particularly relevant as sources of palm sap Attalea
butyracea in Colombia (Pulgarn & Bernal, 2004; Bernal et al., 2010), and Jubaea
chilensis in Chile (Gonzlez, 1994; Gonzlez et al., 2009). Both species are tall,
massive palms with stems up to 50 cm or more in diameter, and both of them are cut
down to obtain sap, which flows through the meristem, after removing the leaves
and cutting out a cavity on the meristematic area.
In Colombia, sap of Attalea is fermented and sold locally as a low-status, home-
brewed wine. Due to the low standard of the product it has not generated a
significant demand. Therefore, there is no specific management of the palm for this
purpose, and palms are just cut as needed. Sap of the Chilean Jubaea, in contrast, is
concentrated into a thick honey that is canned or bottled and distributed in national
markets. Thus, production has generated management plans, and only 30 selected
palms per year are cut down at the most important sap processing place (Gonzlez et
al., 2009), which has resulted in a healthy age distribution in the population.
But the destructive nature of sap extraction in South America is remarkable, when
compared with the way sap is sustainably extracted through the inflorescences of
standing plants of several palm species in South Asia and in some places in Africa.
Throughout South Asia, sap is extracted from inflorescences of the sugar palm
Arenga pinnata (Miller, 1964; Mogea et al., 1991), the palmyra palm Borassus
flabellifer (Dissanayake, 1986; Khieu, 1996), the solitary fish tail palm Caryota
urens (Dissanayake, 1977, 1986), the coconut Cocos nucifera (Kitze & Johnson,
1975), the mangrove palm Nypa fruticans (Fong, 1989; Miah et al., 2003), and from
the upper part of the stem in sugar date palm Phoenix sylvestris (Kitze & Johnson,
1975). In Senegal sap for producing wine is tapped from Elaeis guineensis by
drilling a hole in the stem just below the crown, and inserting a small tube to collect
the liquid (H. Balslev, pers. obs.). In none of these cases are the palms killed. The
only place in the Western Hemisphere where non-destructive tapping is used is the
coast of Michoacn, Mexico, where coconut tapping was introduced in the 16th
century by Philippines brought to work on coconut palm plantations (Bruman, 1945;

Zizumbo-Villarreal & Colunga-GarcaMarn, 2008). Since species tapped without
felling the palm represent diverse growth habits and belong to three different
subfamilies, there is no reason why the same technique could not be employed
properly in the harvest of palm sap from Attalea and Jubaea. Preliminary research in
Chile suggests that Jubaea can be tapped without felling the palms (Gonzalez et al.,
2009), by cutting about one third of all leaves in the crown, as is done with Phoenix
canariensis in the Canary Islands.
Nondestructive Harvest of Palms
In some cases, harvest of fruits, seeds, leaves, and fibers from tall individuals is
carried out through the use of appropriate tools or techniques, and the palms are not
cut down. These techniques include climbing the palm, reaching the crown with a
ladder, reaching the required structure from a neighboring tree, and using a cutting
tool attached to a pole. The most basic type of stem climbing is direct unaided
ascent, using just hands and feet to push the body up the stem (Borgtoft Pedersen,
1992; Zent & Zent, 2002; Weinstein & Moegenburg, 2004). This is done when
harvesting palms that are not too tall or too massive, and, of course, palms that are
not spiny. It is most often used to cut infructescences. Palms climbed in this way to
harvest their fruits include Aphandra natalia, Euterpe precatoria, E. oleracea,
Oenocarpus bacaba and O. bataua. An improvement of this basic climbing, making
some cuttings along the stem to use them as steps, is commonly done with the
coconut palm, Cocos nucifera along the coasts of South America (Borgtoft Pedersen
& Balslev, 1993), but we found no references of its use in other species. This
practice is suitable for palms that are not too thin or too hard, like Mauritia flexuosa,
Oenocarpus bataua, or some species of Attalea.
Another, more elaborate, climbing technique consists in making a ring with a
liana or a rope around the stem that will be climbed, leaving it loose enough for one
foot to fit into the ring on each side of the stem. Both feet are then inserted in the
ring, just below the ankles and, by applying the soles against the stem while pulling
the legs open, body weight is partially converted to horizontal pressure against the
stem (and against the ankles!), thus holding the feet in place while the body is
stretched upwards. The feet and the ring are then pulled upwards while holding the
body in place with the arms, and a new thrust is made with the feet (Borgtoft
Pedersen & Balslev, 1993; R. Bernal, pers. obs.). A palm leaf can be used instead of
a liana or a rope (Strudwick & Sobel, 1988). This technique has been observed for
harvest of fruits of Oenocarpus in the Colombian Amazon (R. Bernal, pers. obs.),
and is probably the one used for Sabal mauritiiformis (Moreno et al., 1991),
Mauritia flexuosa (Vsquez & Gentry, 1989), and Euterpe precatoria (de Castro,
1993b), although these sources do not describe in detail how the ropes are used.
The most elaborate climbing device used in South America consists in two X-shaped
wooden structures used in Manaus, Brazil, to climb the spiny stems of Bactris gasipaes
(Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1993). One angle of each structure is pressed against the
stem, and the two ends of the X are tied with a rope, leaving the stem inside the
formed triangle. Awooden piece connects the two other ends. The harvester alternately
pulls up the lower X with his feet while sitting on the upper triangle, and then pushes
R. Bernal et al.
up the upper X while standing on the lower one. This technique, called marotaje in
Colombia, was introduced in the 1990s to the Ro Anchicay, in western Colombia,
for the management of Bactris gasipaes (J. Ceballos, pers. comm.).
Commercial climbing devices like spurs or palm bicycles have been also cited
in some sources (Bohrquez, 1972; de Castro, 1993a) for harvesting Mauritia
flexuosa, but their cost would probably make them inaccessible to most rural people.
Palm bicycles given by an NGO to the Shuar and Achuar in Ecuador for harvesting
Oenocarpus bataua were not adopted by all users (L. de la Torre, pers. comm.).
Using a ladder to harvest palm fruits, leaves or fibers is a relatively uncommon
practice. It has been documented for Aphandra natalia (Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992),
Attalea butyracea (Moreno et al., 1991), Euterpe oleracea (M. I. Vallejo, pers. obs.),
and Mauritia flexuosa (Vsquez & Gentry, 1989). The limited use of this practice is
probably due to the difficulty of moving a ladder through the forest or the palm
stand, plus the damage that it would suffer if left outdoors. Sometimes a pole or a
bamboo stem with carved out steps is left leaning on the palms, and used as an easy
way for recurrent climbing. This method is documented for harvesting leaves of
Astrocaryum chambira in Peru (Vormisto, 2002) and for harvesting Attalea
butyracea in Colombia (Cocom 2010; I. Olivares, pers. comm.). We did not find
references of steps being attached with ropes to the palm stems, as is done in Asia
for harvesting the coconut palm (e.g., Thampan, 1975).
In some cases, fruits or spear leaves are reached by climbing a neighboring tree
(Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1993; Coomes, 2004;
Castao et al., 2007). According to Borgtoft Pedersen and Balslev (1993), the
Waorani of Ecuador, when planting a Bactris gasipaes palm, sometimes also plant a
Cecropia tree (sic, most likely a Pourouma cecropiifolia) nearby, and climb the latter
to get the palms fruits.
In other cases, fruits or leaves are harvested using a pole with a chisel or a
machete attached to one end. This practice has been documented for harvesting spear
leaves of Astrocaryum standleyanum (Fadiman, 2003; Torres, 2007; Linares et al.,
2008), A. chambira (Holm Jensen & Balslev, 1995; Vormisto, 2002), A. aculeatum
(Schroth et al., 2004, as A. tucuma), and Copernicia tectorum (Barrera et al., 2007a);
expanded leaves of Sabal mauritiiformis (Moreno et al., 1991), and fruits of Bactris
gasipaes (Erazo-Rivadeneira & Garca, 2001) and Mauritia flexuosa (de Castro,
1993a). For some species, such as Oenocarpus bataua, the peduncle is apparently
too thick and fibrous to be cut in this way (Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1993).
Fibers of Attalea funifera sometimes are harvested with a hook attached to the end of
a pole (Voeks, 1988).
In palms with hard fruits, or when the desired product is the seed, fallen fruits or
seeds can be harvested directly from the ground. This practice has been documented
for Acrocomia aculeata (Lleras & Coradin, 1984), Astrocaryum vulgare (Valente &
Almeida, 2001), Attalea colenda (Blicher-Mathiesen & Balslev, 1990; Borgtoft
Pedersen & Balslev, 1992), A. maripa (Vsquez & Gentry, 1989), A. speciosa
(Pinheiro & Ferro, 1995; Anderson et al., 2001; Lima-Rufino et al., 2008), Syagrus
coronata (Lima-Rufino et al., 2008), Phytelephas aequatorialis (Acosta Sols, 1944),
P. macrocarpa (Bernal, 1998, as P. seemannii), and Ammandra decasperma (Ramrez
& Morales, 2003). This kind of harvest is the ideal one, as it causes no damage to the
palm, but it is not suitable for all species, particularly those with soft mesocarp. Even
so, fruits of some species with soft mesocarp, like Mauritia flexuosa, are
occasionally picked up from the ground (Melnyk, 1996).
However, using appropriate tools for harvest is not per se a guarantee of
sustainability. This is particularly true in the case of spear leaves, where an overharvest
can eventually kill the palm through leaf depletion, if no harvest schedules are
properly introduced. This was documented by Vergara (2002) and Vergara and Bernal
(2002) for Ceroxylon alpinum. In this species, spear leaves were cut from large,
acaulescent juveniles without causing any immediate damage, but since the number of
leaves harvested per year was the same as the number of leaves produced, palms
eventually died, as a consequence of the lack of leaf replacement. Near some Waorani
communities in Ecuador, individuals of Astrocaryum chambira become scarce due to
overharvesting their spear leaves for fiber (Davis & Yost, 1983).
Low or acaulescent palms offer the best conditions for management, as their harvest
does not require great effort or special tools, and thus, damage to palms is minimized,
requiring only regulation of harvest volumes and times for guaranteeing sustainability.
This group includes Elaeis oleifera that produces oil from its fruits (Patio, 1977;
Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Moreno et al., 1991), Astrocaryum malybo that produces leaf
fibers used for weaving mats (Barrera et al., 2007b), Bactris guineensis that produces
edible fruits (Casas, 2008), Geonoma deversa and Lepidocaryum tenue that produce
leaves for thatching (Aez, 1992; Mendoza Rodrguez, 2007), and Aphandra natalia
(Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992), and Leopoldinia piassaba (Putz, 1979; Linares et al., 2008)
that provide piassaba fibers from their leaf sheaths.
Harvest Seasons
Harvest seasons are defined by each species phenology, in the case of fruits, and by
climatic conditions, particularly flooding, which sometimes restrict or facilitate
access to the harvesting sites (e.g., Crizn, 2001). In the case of seeds, like those of
Phytelephas, timing is not as constraining, and they can be collected up to several
months after they have fallen to the ground (Velsquez, 1998). For stems and leaves,
it is often believed that the products will last longer if harvested when the moon is in
its appropriate phase. This has been recorded for expanded leaves of Attalea
butyracea (Moreno et al., 1991; Bernal et al., 2010), Sabal mauritiiformis, (Moreno
et al., 1991), and Welfia regia (R. Bernal, pers. obs.) for thatching, and spear leaves of
Astrocaryum standleyanum used for weaving (Torres, 2007), all of which are harvested
when the moon is waning. For stems of Bactris guineensis harvest is made when the
moon is waxing (Casas, 2008). Sap extraction of the austral Jubaea chilensis is
regulated by seasons, and extends from mid-spring (October) to autumn (April).
Associated Practices
Management practices associated to palm harvest include elimination of other plants

growing near the palms, as it is commonly done for the palm heart producing
Euterpe oleracea (Anderson et al., 1995; Coomes, 2004; Weinstein & Moegenburg,
2004; Meza, 2001; Kronborg et al., 2008), and cutting off shoots in cespitose palms
(Calzavara, 1972; Jardim & Anderson, 1987; Pollak et al., 1995; Nogueira et al.,
1998; Ribeiro-de Azevedo, 2005; Weinstein & Moegenburg, 2004). Removal of
R. Bernal et al.
neighboring plants is often used as a practice to favor development of seedlings or

juveniles of useful species (Peters et al., 1989; Velsquez, 1998; Brondzio et al.,
2002; Johnson, 2002; Meza, 2001). In some cases, as in the management of fruit
producing Attalea maripa, A. speciosa and Oenocarpus bacaba, unproductive palms
are eliminated, in order to open space for new individuals (May et al., 1985a; Zent &
Zent, 2002). In the dioecious Mauritia flexuosa and Phytelephas aequatorialis, new
space in the palm stands is gained by reducing the number of male palms (Hiraoka,
1999; Velsquez, 1998). In the latter species the reduction is made until reaching a
proportion of one male per seven females.
Other practices are 1. The enrichment of palm populations by transplanting
seedlings, as has been reported for Euterpe oleracea (Goulding & Smith, 2007); 2.
Dispersing seeds, as is done for Oenocarpus bataua by the Nukak of Colombia
(Politis, 1996) and probably also for other species by different nomadic groups, who
discard palm seeds after consuming the mesocarp; to what extent this practice is
regarded by the nomadic Amerindians themselves as an enrichment practice is not
clear; and 3. The use of fire to favor palm development, as used for Attalea funifera
in Brazil (Voeks, 1988).
Management practices recommended by researchers include harvest intensity,
minimal age and size of first harvest (mainly for palm heart production), or the use
of appropriate harvest techniques (Cruz, 2006; Castao et al., 2007; Goulding &
Smith, 2007; Mendoza Rodrguez, 2007; Meza, 2001; Torres, 2007; Miranda et al.,
2008). Some management systems have been regulated by law for particular species,
like harvest of palm heart from Euterpe edulis in Brazil (Reis et al., 2000c) and
Bolivia (Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible, Repblica de Bolivia, 2006), sap from
Jubaea chilensis in Chile (Gonzlez et al., 2009), and wood of Iriartea deltoidea in
Colombia (Corpoamazonia, 2006).
Conservation Through Use
Although many authors report a negative impact of palm harvest on palm

populations (Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1992; Castao
et al., 2007; Goulding & Smith, 2007; Linares et al., 2008), in some cases use has
been considered as the best option for conservation. In Uruguay, for example,
conservation of Butia capitata has been considered effective only if local people get
any profit from the palm stands (Pezzani, 2007). In Chile, the largest stands of
Jubaea chilensis are those where management for palm sap extraction has been a
traditional activity (Gonzlez, 1994). In those areas, palm populations have a healthy
size class distribution, with a large number of juveniles, in contrast with unharvested
areas, where populations consist only of adult palms, with no regeneration.
In Colombia, land owners in the Magdalena River basin protect their tagua palms
(Phytelephas macrocarpa), only if they can get any income by selling their nuts
(Torres & Perdomo, 2008). However, in this area tagua still remains underexploited,
due in part to the environmental authoritys reluctance to give harvest permits, in
spite of a study that shows the sustainability of seed harvest for this species (Bernal,
1998). Another local environmental authority, on the contrary, has allowed
controlled harvest of spear leaves of Attalea butyracea in Cundinamarca,
Colombia, as a strategy to avoid palm destruction by land owners (J. Sarmiento,
pers. comm.). In Ecuador, peasants that are not allowed to harvest spear leaves of
Ceroxylon echinulatum replace the palms with income-producing crops (L. de la
Torre pers. comm.).
Conservation through use, however, requires close monitoring, to assure that
recommended practices and management plans are indeed followed. This point
appears to be weak, judging from the reviewed references. Remarkable exceptions
include Astrocaryum aculeatum, which is sustainably managed for use and
conservation in the western Amazon in Brazil (Costa & Duarte, 2002), Oenocarpus
bataua, which is both used and conserved in Shuar and Achuar communities in the
Amazon of Ecuador (Alarcn & Garca, 2006), and Trithrinax schizophylla, which is
sustainably harvested in the eastern Bolivian lowlands (Lozano, 2007).
In the large number of studies that we have reviewed, we have found evidence of
only few efforts to introduce and enforce sustainable harvest practices. Thus, after at
least two decades of alarm about the unnecessary felling of palms to collect their
fruits or their spear leaves (Peters et al., 1989; Vsquez & Gentry, 1989), this
practice remains widespread throughout northern South America (Flores et al., 2009;
Manzi & Coomes, 2009; Montfar et al., 2010; R. Bernal, pers. obs.) even if a few
initiatives have focused on this problem for Mauritia flexuosa in Peru (Manzi &
Coomes, 2009), Ceroxylon in Ecuador (Montfar et al., 2010), and Oenocarpus
bataua and Astrocaryum standleyanum in Colombia (Torres, 2007; R. Bernal, pers.
obs.), but the impact of these initiatives is usually not widespread.
Discussion
Compared to the number of palm species used by people in South America, the
figure of those with any documented type of management is relatively low. Whereas
85% of all palms in Ecuador receive some use (de la Torre et al., 2008), 74% in
Bolivia (Maca et al., 2011), 61% in Colombia (Galeano & Bernal, 2010), 53% in the
Andes (Maca et al., 2011), and 40% in South America as a whole (Henderson et al.,
1995), only 20% of all South American palms appear to have any significant
management. This means that a large proportion of used species are just harvested
from their natural habitats without any concern about the impact of the harvest.
It is true that information on uses is more readily collected by researchers than
information on management of the involved species. Although some managed
species may have escaped our review, our figure of managed species could be an
overestimation of the real situation, because many species are managed in some
areas but elsewhere they are just harvested without any management or even
mismanaged.
The most widespread management practice, the selective harvest of individuals
based on age, size or sex, is applied by various ethnic groups to 21 species
occurring in a variety of habitats. In most cases, however, as with stem or fruit
harvest, restriction by age or size is probably related to the unavailability of the
resource in younger plants, rather than a management-driven action. When young
individuals provide suitable resources (e.g. expanded or spear leaves), usually
they are also harvested. This is the case of Astrocaryum chambira (Holm Jensen
& Balslev, 1995), Ceroxylon alpinum (Vergara, 2002), Copernicia prunifera
R. Bernal et al.
(Johnson, 1970), Copernicia tectorum (Barrera et al., 2007a), Lepidocaryum tenue

(Navarro, 2009), Mauritia flexuosa (Sampaio et al., 2008) or Welfia regia (Torres &
Avendao, 2009).
Another management practice is small scale cultivation of relevant species,
usually near households or in chagras or chacras. Besides the widespread peach
palm, Bactris gasipaes, 19 species are cultivated for their usefulness: Aphandra
natalia, Astrocaryum aculeatum, A. chambira, A. malybo, A. standleyanum, Attalea
butyracea, A. funifera, Butia capitata, Copernicia prunifera, Euterpe edulis, E.
oleracea, E. precatoria, Mauritia flexuosa, Oenocarpus bataua, O. minor, Para-
jubaea cocoides, Phytelephas aequatorialis, Prestoea acuminata, and Syagrus
romanzoffiana. Most of them are cultivated near their natural areas of distribution
and only Euterpe oleracea and probably also Parajubaea cocoides have been
dispersed far away from their natural ranges.
But remarkably, unsustainable management of palms in South America appears to
be more widespread than sustainable management. There are records of 38 species
that are felled to harvest their sap, leaves or fruits, which in most cases could be
sustainably harvested with a small additional effort or with the use of simple tools.
Surprisingly, unsustainable management is common among Amerindian communi-
ties (Stagegaard et al., 2002; Vormisto, 2002; Zent & Zent, 2002; Castao et al.,
2007; Aguilar-Mena, 2008; Linares et al., 2008), in contrast with the widespread
belief that traditional management by Amerindian people is efficient and sustainable
(Peters, 1996).
Recommendations for sustainable management are already available for several
species. Although generalizations are not always possible, because each situation of
management requires an appropriate evaluation, some general recommendations can
be given. First, harvest intensity must be controlled by implementing the
recommendations of available ecological studies, as is the case of vegetable ivory
palm Phytelephas macrocarpa in Colombia (Bernal, 1998, as P. seemannii) or of
palm heart Euterpe edulis in Brazil (Reis et al., 2000a, b, c). Second, non-destructive
harvest must be encouraged, by promoting the use of basic techniques for climbing
(Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992; Zent & Zent, 2002; Weinstein & Moegenburg, 2004) or
different type of tools (Holm Jensen & Balslev, 1995; Vormisto, 2002; Fadiman,
2003; Torres, 2007; Linares et al., 2008). Finally, palm species of interest should be
introduced in agroforestry systems, which seems to be an adequate alternative for
sustainable management; these practices are documented for at least 15 palms in
South America, including Bactris gasipaes (Clement, 1986, 1989), Attalea speciosa
(May et al., 1985b), and Ceroxylon echinulatum (Pintaud & Anthelme, 2008).
Assessing sustainability and reducing harvest impact has so far been the focus of
most research, and information is now available for several species. In many cases,
the next step would be to study how management practices enhance productivity, as
has been done for Euterpe oleracea in Brazil. A study of this species by Anderson
and Jardim (1989) showed that fruit production increased 60% after 1 year of
weeding and thinning. But before comparable research is undertaken for other
species, it is necessary to eradicate the widespread unsustainable management
practice of felling palms. To achieve this, researchers face the complex task of
implementing projects that go beyond sheer research, and influence the whole
spectrum of stakeholders, from local harvesters to national decision-makers.
Acknowledgements This review was made as a part of the European Unions FP7 Project 212631
PALMS (Palm harvest impacts in tropical forests) (http://www.fp7-palms.org). We thank Corporacin
Autnoma Regional de Nario, Tumaco, for permit to access unpublished documents, Mnica Moraes and
Betty Milln for providing valuable references, and William Baker, Luz Mara Calvo, Luca de la Torre,
and Manuel Maca for critically reading the manuscript.
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Appendix 1
Table 2 Synopsis of Palm Management in South America. Countries: BO, Bolivia; BR, Brazil; CH, Chile; CO, Colombia; EC, Ecuador; GU, Guyana; PE, Peru; SU, Suriname;
UR, Uruguay; VE, Venezuela. Human Groups: AF, Afro-descendants; AM, Amerindians; ME, Mestizos or Caboclos. Harvest Techniques: CN, Climbing Neighboring Tree; CP,
Climbing the Palm; CT, Cutting Tool at the End of a Pole; DH, Direct Harvest of Low or Acaulescent Palms; FM, Felling as a Consequence of Mismanagement; FR, Felling
Required; GH, Harvest from the Ground; ND, No Data (but No Felling); SC, Shoot Cutting in Cespitose Palms. Management: CU, Cultivation; DS, Diagnostic Study or
Monitoring Prior to Harvest; EN, Enrichment of Harvested Areas through Seed Dispersal or Seedling Planting; FE, Fertilization; FI, Fire Use; HR, Harvest Area Rotation; LP,
Leaving Palms When Forest is Cut; PC, Pest Control; SH, Selective Harvest by Age, Size or Sex; SR, Seasonal Restriction (Moon Phases, Phenological or Climatic Cycles,
Tradition); SS, Individuals or Areas Left as Seed Sources; TH, Thinning and Pruning (Removal of Individuals, Shoots or Leaves); TR, Transplanting; WE, Weeding or Removal
of Competing Shrubs, Trees or Lianas. Land Use: AS, Agroforestry System; FP, Forest on Floodplain; GP, Garden Plot; PF, Primary Forest; PL, Plantation; PS, Palm Stand; PT,
Pasture; SF, Secondary Forest. Land Tenure: AT, Afrodescendant Territory; CL, Private Lands of Common Use; IT, Indigenous Territory; ER, Extractive Reserve; NL, National
Lands; PA, Protected Areas; PL, Private Lands. Conservation Status: * Vulnerable; ** Endangered [Based on Dransfield et al. (1988), IUCN (2010), Valencia et al. (2000),
Llamozas et al. (2003), and Galeano and Bernal (2010)]
Species Country Human Harvest Management Land use Land Use category Part used Reference
group technique tenure
Acrocomia BR ME FM CU, LP, TR PL Food, Fuel, Natural Fruit, Whole palm Lleras & Coradin, 1984; Moraes,
aculeata ingredients, 2004; Caldas-Lorenzi, 2006;
Ornamental Moreno & Moreno, 2006
Aiphanes BO, CO, EC CU, LP AS, GP PL Ornamental, Food Whole palm, Seed Borchsenius et al., 1998; Moraes,
horrida 2004; Galeano & Bernal, 2010
Allagoptera BO, BR AM DH PF, PT IT Food Fruit Balick, 1988; Paniagua-Zambrana,
leucocalyx 2005
Ammandra CO ME GH PF AT, PL Handicraft Fruit, Seed; Ramrez & Morales, 2003
decasperma
Aphandra BR, EC, PE AM CP, DH, FM LP, SH, WE AS, PT PL Handicraft, Implements Sheath, Petiole, Borgtoft Pedersen, 1992; Boll et
natalia and tools, Construction, Leaf, Fruit, al., 2005; Kronborg et al., 2008
Food, Animal feed Inflorescence,
Seed
Astrocaryum BO, BR AM, ME CT, FR, GH, CU, DS, HR, GP, PL, SF IT Food, Implements and Stem, Fruit, Seed Moussa & Kahn, 1997; Boom, 1986;
aculeatum ND LP tools, Handicraft Costa & Duarte, 2002; Schroth
et al., 2004; Clement, 2005
Astrocaryum CO, EC, PE AM, ME CN, CP, CT, CU, LP, SH, GP, PF IT Food, Handicraft, Implements Fruit, Spear leaf, Stem Wheeler, 1970; Vsquez & Gentry,
chambira DH, FM, FR SS, WE and tools, Construction 1989; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev,
R. Bernal et al.
1990; Holm Jensen & Balslev, 1995;

Table 2 (continued)
Vormisto, 2002; Coomes, 2004; Cruz,

2006; Lpez et al., 2006; Balslev et
al., 2008; Linares et al., 2008
Astrocaryum PE ME CT Food Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989
huicungo
Astrocaryum BR, CO, GU ME FM AS, FP IT Food Spear leaf, Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Kahn,
jauari PE, SU 1993; Piedade et al., 2003
Astrocaryum CO** ME DH CU, LP, SH PT CL, PL Handicraft Spear leaf Barrera et al., 2007b
malybo
Astrocaryum BO, BR, PE AM FR, GH, ND PF, FP ER, IT Construction, Food, Natural Fruit, Seed, Leaf, Clement, 2005; Paniagua-Zambrana,
murumuru ingredients Stem,Spear leaf 2005; Lopes et al., 2007; Balslev
et al., 2008
Astrocaryum CO, EC* AF, AM, CT, FM, FR CU, EN, LP, PF AT, IT, PA Construction, Food, Handicraft Fruit, Stem, Spear Galeano & Bernal, 1987; Borgtoft
standleyanum ME SR leaf Pedersen, 1994; Fadiman, 2003;
Hernndez, 2003; Torres, 2007;
Linares et al., 2008
Astrocaryum BR ME GH LP PT, SF Construction, Food, Fruit, Stem, Spear Valente & Almeida, 2001; Lorenzi
vulgare Implements leaf et al., 2010
and tools
Attalea CO AF DH LP PF AT Food Seed Waldrn, 2001

allenii
Attalea CO** ME DH LP AS, PT, SF Cultural, Food Seed, Spear leaf Surez, 2001
amygdalina
Attalea PE AM FM Construction Whole leaf Bodley & Benson, 1979
bassleriana
Attalea BO, BR, EC, AM, ME CP, FM, FR CU, LP, SR GP, PT IT, PL Animal feed, Construction, Fruit, Leaf, Leaf Moreno et al., 1991; Pulgarn &
butyracea CO, PE, VE Food, Handicraft, blade, Spear leaf, Bernal, 2004; Goulding & Smith,
Implements Sap, Stem, 2007; Balslev et al., 2008; Cocom,
and tools 2010, Bernal et al., 2010
Attalea EC* ME GH LP PT Animal feed, Food Fruit, Seed Blicher-Mathiesen & Balslev, 1990
colenda
Table 2 (continued)
Attalea CO AF DH LP PF AT Construction, Food, Fuel Leaf, Spear leaf, Galeano & Bernal, 2010
cuatrecasana Fruit, Seed
Attalea BR CP, CT, DH CU, FI, LP PF, PT Food, Handicraft, Seed, Sheath Voeks, 1988; Lorenzi et al., 2010
funifera Implements and tools
Attalea BR, CO, PE, AM, ME CN, CP, FM, LP, TH PF, SF PA Construction, Food, Fruit, Leaf, Stem, Acero, 1979; Vsquez & Gentry, 1989;
maripa VE FR, GH Implements and tools Valente & Almeida, 2001; Zent &
Zent, 2002; Salm, 2004
Attalea BR, CO, PE AM, ME DH SR PF IT Construction, Food Fruit. Leaf Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Galeano &
microcarpa Bernal, 2010
Attalea PE ME DH Food Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989
moorei
Attalea BO, BR, PE AM, ME DH, FM, FR, CU, LP PT, SF Construction, Food, Fuel, Fruit, Leaf, Stem, Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; May, 1991;
phalerata GH Natural ingredients Seed Moraes et al., 1996; Moraes, 2001;
Balslev et al., 2008; Paniagua-
Zambrana & Moraes, 2009
Attalea PE ME DH PF Food Seed Vsquez & Gentry, 1989
plowmanii
Attalea BO, BR ME CT LP PT Construction, Food Fruit, Leaf Lorenzi et al., 2010
princeps
Attalea PE ME CT Food Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989

salazarii
Attalea BO, BR AM, ME FM, FR, GH LP, TH, WE AS, GP, PF, CL, PA Animal feed, Construction, Fruit, Stem, Seed May et al., 1985a, b; Balslev &
speciosa PT Food, Fuel, Natural Moraes,1989; Peters et al., 1989;
ingredients Dubois, 1990; Pinheiro & Ferro,
1995; Anderson et al., 2001;
Mitja and Ferraz 2001; Pinheiro,
2004; Paniagua-Zambrana, 2005;
Lima-Rufino et al., 2008
Attalea BR DH PS, SF PA Food Fruit Valente & Almeida, 2001
spectabilis
Attalea BR, PE** ME FM LP PT Construction, Food Fruit, Leaf, Seed Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Lorenzi
tessmannii et al., 2010
R. Bernal et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Bactris GU, PE AM, ME DH, SC PF, SF IT Construction, Food Fruit, Stem, Whole Van Andel, 2000b; Balslev et al., 2008
acanthocarpa leaf
Bactris CO AF SC LP PF, SF AT Construction Stem Galeano & Bernal, 1987
barronis
Bactris BR, CO, PE ME SC LP PT, SC AT, IT, PL Food Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Galeano &
brongniartii Bernal, 2010; Lorenzi et al., 2010
Bactris CO AF FM, SC LP PF, PT, SF Construction, Implements Stem Pino & Valois, 2004; Galeano &
coloradonis and tools Bernal, 2010

Bactris BR, PE ME SC LP PF, PT, SF Food Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Lorenzi
concinna et al., 2010
Bactris BR, CO, EC, AM, ME CP, CN, CT, CU, FE, PC, AS, GP, PF, IT, PA Food, Fuel Fruit, Palm Heart, Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Borgtoft
gasipaes PE FR, SC SH, SR, PL Seed Pedersen & Balslev 1990; Alomia,
TH, 1996; Erazo-Rivadeneira & Garca,
WE 2001; Ros, 2001; Roosevelt, 2001;
Yuyama & Silva, 2003; Clement et
al., 2004; Clement et al., 2004;
Maciel et al., 2005; Salazar et al.,
2006; Balslev et al., 2008
Bactris CO ME DH, FR, SC LP, SR PT CL, PL Construction, Food, Fruit, Stem Moreno et al., 1991; Casas, 2008;
guineensis Handicraft, Galeano & Bernal, 2010
Implements and tools

Bactris BO, BR, CO AM, ME DH, SC LP, SR PT, PF,SF CL, PL Construction, Food, Handicraft Fruit, Stem Paniagua-Zambrana, 2005; Casas,
major 2008; Galeano & Bernal, 2010;
Lorenzi et al., 2010
Bactris BR, CO, EC, AF, ME DH, SC LP PT, SF IT, PL Construction, Food Fruit, Stem Vsquez & Gentry, 1989
maraja PE
Butia BR, UR ME ND CU, EN, LP PS, PT CL, NL, PA, PR Animal feed, Food, Handicraft Fruit, Leaf, Spear Rivas & Barilani, 2004; Pezzani,
capitata leaf 2007; Carvalho, 2008
Ceroxylon CO** ME DH, FM LP PT PL Cultural Spear leaf Galeano & Bernal, 2005; Vergara,
alpinum 2002; Vergara & Bernal, 2002
Ceroxylon CO, VE** DH, FM, FR, LP PT PL Construction, Cultural Spear leaf, Stem Llamozas et al., 2003
ceriferum
Table 2 (continued)
Ceroxylon EC, PE ME FM, FR, GH LP, CU AS, PT PL Animal feed, Construction Fruit, Spear leaf, Borchsenius et al. 1998; Pintaud &
echinulatum Stem Anthelme, 2008
Ceroxylon PE ME CT, FR, GH CU, FE, LP, AS, GP PL Animal feed, Construction Fruit, Stem Galeano et al., 2008
peruvianum TR
Ceroxylon CO**, PE ME DH, FM, FR LP PT PL Construction, Cultural Spear leaf, Stem Galeano & Bernal, 2005; Galeano
quindiuense et al., 2008
Ceroxylon CO**, EC ME DH, FM, FR, LP PT PL Animal feed, Construction, Fruit, Spear leaf, Borchsenius et al. 1998; Galeano
ventricosum GH Cultural Stem & Bernal, 2005
Ceroxylon spp. BO, EC, CO ME DH, FM, FR LP PT Construction, Cultural Spear leaf, Stem Balslev & Moraes, 1989; Borgtoft
Pedersen & Balslev, 1992;
Galeano & Bernal, 2005
Coccothrinax VE* ND PT Construction, Handicraft Spear leaf, Whole Braun, 1997; Llamozas et al., 2003
barbadensis leaf
Copernicia BO, BR ME FR CU, LP Construction, Ornamental Leaf, Stem, Whole Balslev & Moraes, 1989; Moreno &
alba palm Moreno, 2006; Lorenzi et al., 2010
Copernicia BR ME CT, FR CU, LP, SH PL, PT Fuel, Handicraft, Implements Leaf, Stem Johnson, 1970; Johnson, 1972;
prunifera and tools, Natural Lorenzi et al., 2010
ingredients
Copernicia CO, VE ME CT, DH, FR, LP, SH FP, PS, PT CL, NL Animal feed, Construction, Fruit, Spear leaf, Moreno et al., 1991; Braun, 1997;
tectorum GH Handicraft Stem, Whole leaf Casado et al., 2001; Petit, 2001;
Barrera et al., 2007a; Artesanas
de Colombia, 2009
Desmoncus CO, EC AF, AM FM PF AT, IT Handicraft, Implements Stem Linares et al., 2008; Borchsenius
cirrhifer and tools et al., 1998
Desmoncus CO AM FM PF IT Handicraft, Implements Stem Linares et al., 2008; Borchsenius
giganteus and tolos et al., 1998
Desmoncus CO AM FM PF IT Handicraft, Implements Stem Linares et al., 2008
mitis and tolos
Desmoncus BR, CO AM, ME FM, SC PT IT, PL Construction, Handicraft, Stem Moreno et al., 1991; Linares et
orthacanthos Implements and tools al., 2008; Lorenzi et al., 2010
Desmoncus PE ME FM, SC EN, SH PF IT Handicraft Stem Henderson & Chvez, 1993;
R. Bernal et al.
Table 2 (continued)
polyacanthos Hbschmann et al., 2007

Dictyocaryum EC, CO ME FR, GH LP PL Construction Handicraft Stem, Seed Bernal, 1992; Borchsenius
lamarckianum & Moraes, 2006
Elaeis BR*, CO**, ME DH CU, LP PT PL Food, Handicraft Fruit, Spear leaf Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Kahn,
oleifera PE*, SU*, 1993; Barrera et al., 2007b
VE*
Euterpe BR* AM, ME FR CU, SH, HR SF PA, PL, NL Construction, Food Stem, Palm heart Delgado & Landini, 1976; Ribeiro
edulis et al., 1994; Orlande et al., 1996;

Galleti & Fernndez, 1998; Reis
et al., 2000b, c; Ribeiro & Odorizzi,
2000; Fantini & Guries, 2004;
Quitete, 2008
Euterpe BR, CO, EC, AF, AM, CP, CT, FM, CU, EN, FE, FP, GP, PF, AT, CL, PL Construction, Food, Fruit, Palm heart, Calzavara, 1972; Cavalcante &
oleracea GU, VE* ME SC, SH, SS, TH, PL, PS, Ornamental Stem Johnson, 1977; Anonymous, 1978;
TR, WE PT, Finol, 1978; Jardim & Anderson,
SF 1987; Anderson, 1988; Strudwick
& Sobel, 1988; Peters et al., 1989;
Anderson, 1990; Avila, 1990;
Dubois, 1990; Linares, 1991; Bovi
& de Castro, 1993; Alenpac, 1995;
Anderson et al., 1995; Pollak et al.,

1995; Restrepo, 1996; May et al.,
1997; Nogueira et al., 1998;
Nogueira & Oliveira, 2000; van
Andel, 2000a; Valente & Almeida,
2001; Brondzio et al., 2002;
Johnson, 2002; Pierce & Shanley,
2002; Schmidt, 2003; Weinstein &
Moegenburg, 2004; Ribeiro-de
Azevedo, 2005; Goulding & Smith,
2007; Ribeiro-de Azevedo &
Ryohei, n.d.
Euterpe BO, BR,CO, AM, ME CP, FM, FR, CU, HR, LP, AS, GP, PF, IT, ER, PA Construction, Food Fruit, Palm heart, Anderson, 1978; Acero, 1979; FAO,
precatoria EC, PE, VE* GH, ND SH, SS SF Stem 1986; Vsquez & Gentry, 1989;
Table 2 (continued)
Galeano, 1992; Nepstad et al.,

1992; de Castro, 1993a; Melnyk,
1996; Melnyk & Bell, 1996; Stoian,
1999; Herrera, 2000; Pea-Claros &
Zudeima, 2000; Moraes, 2001; Ros,
2001; Schmidt, 2003; Rocha, 2004;
Rocha & Viana, 2004; Castao
et al., 2007; Goulding &
Smith, 2007; Meza, 2001;
Van Looy et al., 2008
Geonoma GU, VE AF, AM DH AT, IT Construction Whole leaf Stauffer, 2000; Van Andel, 2000b
baculifera
Geonoma BO, BR, CO, AM, ME DH, FM SH PF, SF IT Construction, Implements Stem, Whole leaf Anderson, 1978; Balslev & Moraes,
deversa PE, VE and tolos 1989; Galeano, 1992; Braun, 1997;
Gunchez & Romero, 1998; Flores
& Ashton, 2000; Montoya, 2001
Geonoma EC AM DH, FM PF PA, IT Construction Whole leaf Svenning & Maca, 2002
macrostachys
Geonoma VE DH, FM PF Construction Whole leaf Stauffer, 2000
maxima
Geonoma CO ME DH SH PF Ornamental Whole leaf Rodrguez & Orjuela, 2000

orbignyana
Iriartea BO, BR, CO, AM, ME FR LP, SH PF, SF, PT AT, ER, IT, PA Construction, Handicraft, Stem Jordan, 1970; Bodley & Benson,
deltoidea EC, PE Implements and tools 1979; Balslev & Moraes, 1989;
Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev,
1990; Galeano, 1992; Pinard, 1993;
Anderson, 1998; Anderson & Putz,
2002; Patio, 2006
Jubaea CH* ME FR, GH, CU, DS, SH, PS, PT PA Food, Ornamental Sap, Seed, Whole Gonzlez, 1994; Gonzlez et al., 2009
chilensis TR plant
Leopoldinia BR,CO,VE* AM, ME DH, FM SH PF IT, NL Construction, Food, Handicraft Sheath, Leaf, Fruit Centro de Comercio Internacional,
piassaba 1969; Putz, 1979; Lescure et al.,
1992; Narvez & Stauffer, 1999;
R. Bernal et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Stauffer, 2000; Crizn, 2001;

Lepidocaryum PE, CO AM DH, FM SH PF IT Construction Whole leaf Khan & Meja, 1987; Surez, 2002;
tenue Navarro 2009
Manicaria BR, CO, GU, AF, AM, DH CU, LF PF, SF AT, IT Construction, Handicraft, Inflorescence, Leaf Wilbert, 1976, 1980; Van Andel,
saccifera VE ME Implements and tools 2000b; Valente & Almeida, 2001;
Mauritia CO, VE AM FM, ND LF PF IT Construction Whole leaf Stauffer, 2000; Galeano & Bernal, 2010
carana
Mauritia BR, CO, EC, AM, ME CN, CP, CT, CU, EN, FE, FP, GP, PF, IT, PA Construction, Food, Handicraft Fruit, Spear leaf, Stem Bohrquez, 1972; Heinen & Ruddle
flexuosa GU, PE, VE* DH, FM, LF, SH, TH, PS, PT, SF 1974; Acero, 1979; Garzn, 1987;
FR, WE Kahn, 1988; Peters et al., 1989;
GH Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Ruiz-
Murrieta, 1991; de Castro, 1993a;
Ruiz-Murrieta & Levistre-Ruiz,
1993; Ojeda-Salvador, 1994;
Anderson et al., 1995; Melnyk,
1996; Braun, 1997; Bovi, 1999b;
Hiraoka, 1999; Van Andel, 2000a;
de Jong, 2001; Valente & Almeida,
2001; Varn & Zapata, 2001;

Stagegaard et al., 2002; Pezo, 2005;
Castao et al., 2007; Delgado et al.,
2007; Goulding & Smith, 2007;
Meza, 2001; Holm et al., 2008;
Linares et al., 2008; Sampaio et al.,
2008; Manzi & Coomes, 2009
Mauritiella BR GH FP, PS PA Food Fruit Valente & Almeida, 2001
armata
Mauritiella CO AF, AM DH, FM LF FP, PF AT Construction, Handicraft Stem, Spear leaf Pino & Valois, 2004; Torres &
macroclada Avendao, 2009
Oenocarpus CO, VE AM, ME CP, CN, FM LP, TH PF IT Food Fruit Melnyk, 1996; Melnyk &Bell, 1996;
bacaba Zent & Zent, 2002; Galeano &
Table 2 (continued)
Bernal, 2010
Oenocarpus BO, BR, CO, AF, AM, CP, CT, DH, CU, EN, HR, AS, PF, PS AT, ER, IT, Construction, Food Fruit, Leaf, Stem Balick, 1986; Collazos & Meja,
bataua EC, GU, PE, ME FM, GH LP, SH, TH PA 1987; Balick, 1988b; King &
VE Forero, 1988; Peters et al., 1989;
Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Borgtoft
Pedersen & Balslev, 1992; Galeano,
1992; Balick, 1993; Melnyk, 1996;
Melnyk & Bell, 1996;
Stagegaard et al., 2002; Van
Andel, 2000a; Miller, 2002; Castao
et al., 2007; Goulding & Smith,
2007; Aguilar-Mena, 2008; Miranda
et al., 2008a, b; Van Looy et al.,
2008; Flores et al., 2009
Oenocarpus BR* ME LP PF, SF PL Food Fruit Valente & Almeida, 2001
distichus
Oenocarpus BR, CO, PE AF, ME CP, FM CU, LP, WE GP AT, IT, ER Construction, Food, Fruit, Spear leaf, Galeano & Bernal, 1987;
minor Handicraft Stem Vsquez & Gentry, 1989;
de Jong, 2001
Parajubaea EC ME GH CU GP, PL PL Food, Ornamental Wole plant, Fruits Balslev & Barfod, 1987; Moraes &
cocoides Henderson, 1990; Moraes, 2004

Parajubaea BO CU, LP Implements and tools, Fibra foliar, Wole Moraes, 2004; Borchsenius &
sunkha Ornamental plant Moraes, 2006
Parajubaea BO** GH, ND LP PA Animal feed, Construction, Fruit, Leaf, Spear Thompson et al., 2009
torallyi Food, Handicraft, leaf, Seed, Stem
Implements and tools
Phytelephas EC* AF, AM DH, GH CU, LP, SH, AS, PT, SF AT Construction, Handicraft Leaf, Seed Barfod & Balslev, 1988; Velsquez,
aequatorialis TH, WE 1998
Phytelephas CO, PE AF, AM, DH, GH LP, SH, TH, AS, PF AT, ER Construction, Food, Leaf, Seed Vsquez & Gentry, 1989; Kahn,
macrocarpa ME WE Handicraft 1993; Bernal, 1998; IMAFLORA,
2004; Navarro, 2006;
Torres & Perdomo, 2008
R. Bernal et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Phytelephas CO** AF, ME DH, GH LP PF AT, NL Handicraft Seed Torres & Perdomo, 2008
tumacana
Prestoea CO, EC AM, ME FM, SC LP PF PA Food Palm heart Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev, 1990;
acuminata Knudsen, 1995; Gamba Trimio,
2004
Sabal CO AM, ME CP, CT, DH, CU, LP, SH, AS, GP, PT PL Construction Stem, Leaf Moreno et al., 1991; CUDESAC, 2007
mauritiiformis FR SR
Socratea BO, BR, CO, AF, AM, FR LP, SR PF, PT IT, AT Construction, Implements Stem Braun, 1968a, b; Anderson, 1978;
exorrhiza EC, GU, PE, ME and tools Acero, 1979; Jordan, 1970; Bodley
VE* & Benson, 1979; Lpez Parodi,
1988; Meja, 1988; Balslev &
Moraes, 1989; Boom, 1986;
Galeano, 1992; Gunchez &
Romero, 1998; Van Andel, 2000b;
Moreno & Moreno, 2006
Syagrus BR AM, ME FR LP PT IT, PL Food, Construction, Fruit, Stem Balick, 1988a; Lorenzi et al., 2010
cocoides Implements and tools
Syagrus BR AM, ME GH CU, LP PT Food, Ornamental Fruit, Whole plant Howes, 1940; Lima-Rufino et al.,
coronata 2008
Syagrus BR ME FR, GH CU, LP AS,PL Food, Animal feed Spear leaf, Fruit, Leaf Clement et al., 2005; de Almeida
oleracea et al., 2000; Lorenzi et al., 2010

Syagrus BR ME FR CU, LP Food Spear leaf, Stem Bernacci, 2001; Lorenzi et al., 2010;
romanzoffiana Vellard, 1939
Syagrus BO, BR, CO*, AM, ME FR CU, LP PT PL Construction, Implements Stem, Whole palm Bodley & Benson, 1979; Balslev &
sancona EC, PE, VE* and tools, Ornamental Moraes, 1989; Moraes, 2004;
Henderson et al., 1995; Galeano
& Bernal, 2010
Trithrinax BO AM SC HR, SH, SS, Handicraft, Ornamental Spear leaf, Whole Moraes, 2004; Lozano, 2007
schizophylla CU palm
Welfia CO, EC AF, AM DH, FM, FR LP, SR PF AT Construction, Handicraft Stem, Spear leaf Henderson et al., 1995; Torres &
regia Avendao, 2009
Table 2 (continued)
Wettinia CO ME FR HR, LP, SH SF, PT PL Construction Stem Hoyos, 2005

kalbreyeri
Wettinia CO, EC AM FR LP, SH PF, SF AT, IT Construction Stem Barfod & Balslev, 1988; Waldrn,
quinaria 2001; Patio, 2006
R. Bernal et al.

Palm Management in South America

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Palm Management in South America

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Palm Management in South America

Rodrigo Bernal, Claudia Torres, Nstor

Palm Management in South America

# The New York Botanical Garden 2011

Abstract We reviewed information on management of useful palms in South

Resumen Revisamos la informacin sobre manejo de palmas tiles en Suramrica.

Keywords Agroforestry . Arecaceae . Ethnobotany . Harvest Techniques . Sustainable Use

Palabras clave Agroforestera . Arecaceae . Etnobotnica . Tcnicas de Cosecha . Uso

Table 1 Summary of the Most Important Uses of South American Palms

Use category Part used Species Most common level of trade

Food Fruit Aiphanes horrida, Attalea amygdalina, Domestic consumption, local

We searched for information in published sources and, when possible, in

We found information on management for 96 species of palms. The most

encompassing ethnically mixed people, many of whom regard themselves as white.

Palm Products Marketed

Products obtained from palms may be used domestically, with no associated

Associated Land Use

Although information on land ownership is not included in most of the references

Necessary Felling of Stems

Unnecessary Felling of Palms

century by Philippines brought to work on coconut palm plantations (Bruman, 1945;

Nondestructive Harvest of Palms

Management practices associated to palm harvest include elimination of other plants

neighboring plants is often used as a practice to favor development of seedlings or

Conservation Through Use

Although many authors report a negative impact of palm harvest on palm

(Johnson, 1970), Copernicia tectorum (Barrera et al., 2007a), Lepidocaryum tenue

. 1992. Domesticated palms. Prinicipes 36: 7078.

Gamba Trimio, C. 2004. Demografa de Prestoea acuminata (Palmae) en el suroccidente

Miller, R. H. 1964. The versatile sugar palm. Principes 8: 115147.

, B. B. G. Calzavara, C. H. Muller & D. A. Moreira. 1998. Manejo de aaizeiros (Euterpe oleracea

siembra en el cultivo de la granja Montelindo de la Universidad de Caldas y la evaluacin de

1990; Holm Jensen & Balslev, 1995;

Vormisto, 2002; Coomes, 2004; Cruz,

Attalea CO AF DH LP PF AT Food Seed Waldrn, 2001

Attalea PE ME CT Food Fruit Vsquez & Gentry, 1989

coloradonis and tools Bernal, 2010

Implements and tools

polyacanthos Hbschmann et al., 2007

edulis et al., 1994; Orlande et al., 1996;

Anderson et al., 1995; Pollak et al.,

Galeano, 1992; Nepstad et al.,

Geonoma CO ME DH SH PF Ornamental Whole leaf Rodrguez & Orjuela, 2000

Stauffer, 2000; Crizn, 2001;

2001; Varn & Zapata, 2001;

cocoides Henderson, 1990; Moraes, 2004

oleracea et al., 2000; Lorenzi et al., 2010

Wettinia CO ME FR HR, LP, SH SF, PT PL Construction Stem Hoyos, 2005

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