Pageant

Edited by Dr. Neelam G. Tikkha

Edited by Dr. Neelam G. Tikkha

ISBN : 8186067-15-9

Copyright @CFI 2014. Publishers: CF International,

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Price INR 950/=

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

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 Dedication

I dedicates this work to

my Father Dr. G S Tikkha,
My mother Kanta Tikkha
and
my Daughter Dr. Ishita Tikkha
who motivated me and gave me time for the work.
- Dr. Neelam Tikkha

Mr. Somak Sen dedicates his article to :

Dr. Kamlesh Singh Duggal,

Associate Professor,
Head of the Department,
Department of Journalism and Mass Communication,
Guru Nanak Dev University, Punjab.
 Editorial

CFTRA is a not for profit organization and a knowledge sharing

platform . The platform aims to develop creativity, intellectual growth
and research sensibility. It is oriented towards promoting
interdisciplinary research. It is our endeavor to spread knowledge and
encourage researchers and promote them worldwide. It has become
necessary to update and upgrade ourselves since communication has
become fast and vital and no longer geographical space can limit it.
Communication has developed a local flavor since it no longer remains
within a boundary wall of a particular country. A click of mouse
disseminates knowledge like spores from a sporangium.

Pageant is a multidisciplinary International collection of research

article by learned researchers, who have labored to dish out their ideas
into the world of infinite knowledge creating an ever soaring and
shining balloon. The great researchers are from Turkey, US, Canada,
India and Sri Lanka. The book gets its name Pagent since articles are
beauties of the world of knowledge.

The popularity of other books , The Moment of Truth, Fire

Management of High Rise Building , Soft Intellectual Property and
Indian Entertainment Industry and Where I Met MY Horizon are a
testimony to the ardent and hard work by the research writers of this
book. Cheerful reading!!!

Dr.Neelam Tikkha
 CONTENTS

1. Standard Written English for Science Research: Challenges 1-5

Dr. J. John Sekar

2. Empowering Disabled People through Education and Employment 6-9

Dr. Neelam Tikkha,

3. Encouraging Teacher Participation in Decision Making : The Next 10 - 14

Needed Educational Reform
Dr. Mohamedunni Alias Musthafa MN & Muhammed. K.V

4. Continuous Professional Development of Teachers: Key Issues and Challenges 15 - 21

Dr Sanjay Kumar Singh

5. Faulkners Short Stories and His Depiction of Indians 22 - 30

M. Parvathi

6. Marxism, Naxalism and Indian films 31 - 37

Somak Sen,

7. Partition of Bengal & the Refugee Woman: Ritwik Ghataks Oeuvre 38 - 48

Mr. Rajesh Das

8. Small Arms and Light Weapons Proliferation and its Implication 49 - 59

for West African Regional Security
Mr. Bashir Malam

9. A Critical Reading of Environmental Kuznets Curve: CO2 60 - 66

Emissions in a Developing Country
Onur Tutulmaz

10. Impact of rural to urban temporary labour migration on farming 67 - 84

communities in Sri Lanka
Seetha P. B. Ranathunga

11. Developing Communication Skills 85 - 90

Rajesh Sahadeo Lokhande

12. Motivational Article Build empathy at workplace for better result 91

13. Digital Media And Digital Culture leading us towards a Digital 92 - 98

Society: Lessons from Canada to India
Sarala Devi Manukonda

14. efgyk ojhy ySafxd vR;kpkj vkf.k lektdk;Z e/;LFkh 99 - 106

Dr. Nanda Pangul
..
 Standard Written English for Science Research: Challenges

Dr. J. John Sekar

MA, MPhil, PGDTE (CIEFL), PGDHE (IGNOU), PGDCE (UH), PhD
Head (UG) & Associate Professor
PG & Research Department of English
Dean, Curriculum Development & Research
The American College, MADURAI 625 002 INDIA
jjohnsekar@gmail.com

Abstract
English has now clearly established itself as the main language of international scientific
community pushing its political Euro-Asian rival candidates like German, French, Spanish, Italian,
Japanese, or Chinese to the margin. Certain historical, political, and economic factors have favoured
English for this role. 80% of journals that are indexed in the Scopus (the largest abstract and citation
database of peer-reviewed literature) are published in English. It is presumed that there is no cause
for concern when science adopts one language for publication so that English can make findings
available to developing countries and it can also bring the contributions from these countries to the
global attention. In this context, writing (presenting the research findings to the international
community) assumes importance over the other skills though reading is also indispensable. This
paper analyzes the importance of written English for science research and the difficulties faced by
researchers.

Background to the Study

(Neo) colonization, economic imperialism, epistemological advances, and political stability

have contributed to the rising English-using population in the contemporary world. English is the first
language of about 400 million people in 53 countries and the second language of as many as 1.4
billion people. Hence, English is well positioned as the default language of science. A well-written
scientific paper displays the scientists motivation for doing an experiment and explains the
experimental design and execution. The only purpose of a science paper is to inform the fellow
scientists about an important issue and the approach used in the investigation. Though India is
marching ahead in consumption of western science knowledge, it is lagging behind in the area of
knowledge production. One of the barriers attributed to the dismal performance in science research in
India is lack of documentation skills that largely involve English. A little research done is not even
brought to the attention of global scientific community through publication in international journals.
Contributions made by Indian scientists are not indexed in the Scopus whereas China finds a place to
show case its achievement in research.

Review of the literature

Research Trends (2008) records that English continues to be preferred as the written
language of science research and publication in international journals all over the world. Tardy
(2004) attributes the rise of English as the language of science to four hundred expansion of English
due to colonial projects. Van Weijen (2013) confirms that English is the dominant language of
publications (77%) in Arts and Humanities from UK, US, the Netherlands, Russia, China, Portugal,
Germany, Italy, Spain, & France. Montgomery (2013) explains how the dominance of English
extends beyond formal science publications to international organizations, corporate correspondence,
job & fellowship postings, and Web sites. According to Van Weijen (2012), English clearly
continues to be the preferred language of scientific communication. Englander (2013) explores the
structuring of a science paper and compares Standard English scientific writing style with science
papers written in other languages.

1
Research Design & Results

The aim of the paper is to explore why writing (and reading) is more important for science
research than speaking (and listening). The twin questions for the purpose of investigation were
1. Are all the four English language skills equally indispensable for science research?
2. How and why does writing (and reading) become indispensable for science research globally?
The hypothesis formulated at the beginning of the study was despite the indispensability of LSRW
skills, written English (and therefore Reading) is more important for science research.

A short questionnaire on style & format that involves written English for research and
publication was prepared in consultation with senior science professors who are actively involved in
research and was administered among 36 final year PG & MPhil students of seven science
departments at the American College, Madurai. Each of the 15 statements was considered on a two
point Likert scale with different response expressions. A simple percentage calculation was used for
quantifying the responses.

There is no dispute over the use of English as the sole publication language of science
research internationally since 94% of the subjects endorse English. They recognize Standard Written
English as the lingua franca of the international science community and therefore they dont mix their
love for L1 with the utility value of English as the language of exploration and presentation. While
56% of them find English easy to use in their science research, 67% of them use English for thinking
and executing their projects. It only indicates that those who find English difficult and tough also try
to use it. At the same time, there is a contradiction in their perception when they are equally divided
on English being critical for science research. The researcher strongly feels that the subjects couldnt
understand the term critical whose presence in science research is not unknown. A majority of the
subjects have not understood the relative importance and function of the present and past tense forms
in science research report. 61% of them have a wrong notion about the uses of these two tense forms
and therefore their response indicates confusion over their use. While the present tense form signals
validation of the results of the experiments conducted and shared with science community, the past
tense form is used to describe the results of the present study and it needs to be validated. A huge
majority of them understand the right use of active verb and voice in science research publication. It
is ironical to discover that while a overwhelming majority of the subjects (92%) understand the
definition of the Abstract, 61% think that abstract and proposal are one and the same. 69% of them
are acutely aware of the reality that Indian is lagging behind internationally in science research and
publication. 53% of them attribute to this dismal performance to the fact that critical and creative
thinking skills are not imparted in science education. The hypothesis is validated.

Discussion

Publish or Perish is a classic phrase that summarizes the amount of intense pressure exerted
on researchers. Science research is no longer a luxury. Whenever society confronts a problem like
energy crisis or treatment for the various ailments, it turns to scientists for solutions. Presenting
research findings in a journal is not an easy proposition. A common stumbling block for the budding
scientists in research and publication is their poor quality of Standard Written English. Good English
is critical for science papers. It should conform to the conventions of Standard written English.
Thinking and writing must be practised within it. Poor English dilutes and distracts from the quality
of research, and as a consequence, it may lead to delay in or rejection of papers.

In addition to the science content, writing style and format assume importance because it will
be read by researchers who know about the field in general. Clarity and conciseness are the two
guiding criteria of science writing. Prose should aid the reader to move smoothly from background to
rationale to conclusions. While results described in the paper should be in the past tense, results from
published papers should be described in the present tense. Experiments yet to be carried out shall be
described in the future tense. The text should be written in the third person singular so that the paper
may not sound as the product of either an autobiography or a narcissistic author. First person singular

2
is sparingly used to mean that the researcher did something uniquely. The use of one indicates the
nature of the paper that is non-committal and dry. Moreover, empty phrases (phrases such as the fact
that or so as to) should be avoided or shortened without altering the meaning of a sentence. Active
verbs and active voice are preferred to passive verbs like be & have and passive voice that act as a
spoilsport to effectiveness and clarity of ones presentation. Words that do not make a point have no
place in the article. Brevity is in danger if words that embellish the article are permitted. A critical
function of technical/scientific terminology is to state a lot with a few words. If the same concept is
referred to, the appropriate pronoun like it can be used. If not, the repetition of the concept is
preferable though it amounts to redundancy. It will avoid the reader making guesses. Above all, the
paper should be error-free with sentences being not clumsy.

Science papers are highly structured. It starts with the abstract. Abstract writing (one
paragraph summary of the entire paper), introduction, materials & methods, and results are integral
parts of a science research paper. The abstract should briefly describe the question raised in the
paper, the methods used to answer this question, the results obtained, and the conclusions reached. It
should be possible to determine the major points of a paper by reading the abstract. Although it is
located at the beginning of the paper, it should be and can be written only after the paper has been
written.

The Introduction should state the question interrogated in the experiment that is described in
the paper later, explain why this question is important for investigation, describe the approach adopted
in the study so that readers can easily understand how the experiment was carried out, and briefly
mention the conclusions of the paper.

The Materials & Methods section should state the techniques used so that readers can
decipher what & how experiments were carried out. Though the details of a published protocol need
not be repeated, an appropriate reference should be cited and any change from the published protocol
should be described.

In the Results section, each paragraph should begin with an opening sentence that informs the
readers the question that was investigatedin the experiment. If any result includes multiple data
points, they must be shown in tables or figures. Each paragraph should be brief and clear but synoptic
of the results so that the reader has the benefit of an unambiguous and complete understanding. Not
all results require tables or figures. Instead, if there are a few numerical results, they can be described
in the text. Tables and figures should be presented in a manner that readers could evaluate
information without reading the text. On the whole, the paper should describe what worked and not
things that didnt work.

The Discussion section should not simply restate the results. It should explain the
interpretation of the results and conclusions. It should also compare the results with expected results
and state further predictions.

English enjoys the monopoly of the most referred publication language. Listening
(understanding) and speaking are essentials for participation in international conferences to share the
results of research with fellow scientists. Hence, familiarity with the accent of the international
scientific community is imperative to understand each other without any communication bottlenecks.
At the same time, reading and writing are of paramount importance for the dissemination of
knowledge to a wider audience and for a longer time through publication. Reading helps scientists
update themselves with research undertaken throughout the world in the near and remote past. And it
is a prelude to future research.

No good research is good if it is not properly presented without ambiguity. Final science
paper requires three stages of fine-tuning: Proofreading, copyediting, & substantive editing.
Proofreading is mandatory for a complete and accurate language check by eliminating language errors
that involve spelling, punctuation, grammar, style, and format. Copyediting is equally essential. It

3
ensures correctness of language and rhetoric. Copyediting involves an intensive check of word
choice, style & sentence structure, comprehension and terminologies. Content should be fine-tuned to
achieve native English expression. Substantive editing is required to resolve content ambiguity, to
eliminate language errors, to improve structure, and to enhance the overall comprehension of the
paper.

Many Indian science researchers need to be explicitly exposed to the principles of Standard
Written English for the publication of their research findings in international journals. It is a cause for
concern that articles from Indian science community dont find a place in the Scopus. China has
achieved it though it has been learning English only for over a decade. A healthy understanding and a
vibrant interaction is imperative between the department of English and science departments on the
use of English as the publication language for research papers.

Suggestions

The following are some of the suggestions that could be crystallized as a result of investigation:

1. English language teachers should get trained in research writing skills like proofreading,
copyediting, and substantive editing.

2. English department can function as a service department to science departments with research
potentials.

3. Research skills courses with a thrust on Standard Written English can be devised for young
science researchers as add-on courses.

Conclusions

English for research in S&T has numerous functions: to improve students verbal presentation
and analytical research skills, to help them use logic and critical thinking skills to discuss a variety of
scientific and technological topics with peers, to organize their own ideas, and make effective oral
presentations, and to become aware of issues and concerns of new businesses in emerging
technologies. English language teachers have a vital role to play in imparting English for research at
postgraduate and research level. They should facilitate help researchers to feel confident in using
English that is as close to Standard Written English as possible.

Works cited

Englander, K. 2013. Writing and publishing science research papers in English. New York: Springer.
Tardy, C. 2004. The role of English in scientific communication: lingua franca or Tyrannousaurus rex? Journal of English
for Academic Purposes, 3.3: 247269.
Research Trends. 2008. English as the international language of science. Research Trends, 6 (July).
Van Weijen, D. 2013. Publication languages in Arts & Humanities. Research Trends, 32 (March).
http://www.researchtrends.com/issue-32-march-2013/publication-languages-in- the-arts-humanities-2/(accessed on
Sunday 15 December 2013)
Van Weijen, D. 2012. The Language of (Future) Scientific Communication. Research Trends, 31 (November)
http://www.researchtrends.com/issue-31-november-2012/the- language-of-future-scientific-communication/ (accessed on
Sunday 15 December 2013)
Montgomery, S.L. 2013. Does Science Need a Global Language? English and the Future of Global Research. Chicago:
Chicago Univ. Press.

4
 Questionnaire

Please circle the appropriate response

S.No Variables
1 Are you happy with English as the sole international Happy (32) Unhappy (4)
publication language of science articles? 94%
2 Do you find English difficult to use for writing articles? Difficult (16) Easy (20)
(44%) (56%)
3 Do you think and execute research in English? Yes (24) No (12)
(67%) (33%)
4 Do you think that good English is critical for science Yes (18) No (18)
research papers? (50%) (50%)
5 In which tense should research results be described? Present (22) Past (14) (39%)
(61%)
6 In which tense should results of published articles be Present (14) Past (22) (61%)
stated? (39%)
7 Can researchers write the paper in the first person I? Can (15) Shouldnt (21)
(42%) (58%)
8 Which voice is recommended? Active (29) Passive (7)
(81%) (19%)
9 Which verb is effective for communication? Active (27) Passive (9)
(75%) (25%)
10 Abstract is a one-paragraph summary of the entire paper Yes (33) No (3)
(92%) (8%)
11 Abstract can also be called Proposal Yes (22) No (14)
(61%) (39%)
12 Plain English is preferred to beautified English Yes (22) No (14)
(61%) (39%)
13 Researchers lack documentation skills Yes (18) No (18)
(50%) (50%)
14 India is lagging behind in science research internationally Yes (25) No (11)
(69%) (31%)
15 Creative and critical thinking skills are not imparted in Yes (19) No (17)
Indian science education (53%) (47%)

5
 Empowering Disabled People through Education
and Employment

Dr. Neelam Tikkha,

Professor
RTMNU
Neelam.tikkha@gmail.com,
Cell: + 91- 9422145467
Abstract

Winner of British Councils Award for anecdote writing competition.

Men women and children with disabilities in India suffer poverty, indignity and inequality in
treatment, education, employment and residence. There are many places where the access to disabled
people are denied though there is an ABA (anti barrier act). There are four prior legislations in India
and the watershed decision (PWD) Act, 1995 which recognizes the multi-faceted nature of disability
and provides for education, employment, creation of a barrier-free environment and social security for
them yet the ground zero reality is different.
This paper focuses on the inclusive development in the backdrop of UNCRPD regulations and
how it will alter the lives of Indian disabled men, women and children by providing equal
opportunity.
Key Words: Inclusive development, Anti Barrier Act, UNCRPD

Introduction:

Men, women and children with disabilities in India continue to experience poverty, indignity
and inequality in treatment, education, employment and residence. There are many places where the
access to disabled people are denied though there is an ABA (anti barrier act). There are four prior
legislations in India and the watershed decision (PWD) Act, 1995 which recognizes the multi-
faceted nature of disability and provides for education, employment, creation of a barrier-free
environment and social security for them yet the ground zero reality is different. The policy
environment remains largely focused on medical intervention in the form of treatment and
rehabilitation to cure the disease or the problemi. It was a ground breaking step that India ratified
the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) on October 1,
2007.

This paper focuses on the inclusive development in the backdrop of UNCRPD regulations and
how it will alter the lives of Indian disabled men , women and children.

UNCRPD represented a major transition from considering disabled as objects of charity to

as subjects with rights, who have the agency to claim these rights and make meaningful decisions
for their lives as active members of the society. Although India was one of the first countries to
endorse CRPD, hardly there is any initiative to protect and promote the rights of persons with
disabilities, in accordance with the CRPD provisions. Furthermore, there is a strong need to change
peoples attitude towards disabled people.

Most of the Indian literature, since ancient times, has propogated the importance of the
concept of karma in attitude to disability. Women with disability are more cursed. This attitude of
gender bias is also reflected in Hindu mythology. Dhritrashtra, the blind king of Hastinapur, was a
powerful warrior and gladly Gandhari , the most beautiful princess gets married to him. Whereas,
Lord Vishnu refuses to marry disfigured elder sister of goddess Lakshmi saying that, there is no place
for disabled woman in the heaven. The sister is in turn married to peepal tree. The male are people in
6
power and they have normal family life . Another, example from Mahabharat is of Shakuni. Shakuni
was orthopaedically handicapped but his disability has never been projected as barrier. Both Shakuni
and Dhritrashtra are never refered to as disabled. The disabled female is denied of even human
existence. The disability is a karmic justice. Bacquer and Sharma (1997) calls it a divine justiceii.
Disability was a curse in the past and the disabled person was born with the stigma of having sinned
in the previous birth. The disability reflected the punishment from Godiii to do justice by making
people suffer . This belief was propogated widely by the ancestors since they lived in superstitions.
But, with the advancement in science the perception has been changed. People are progressing
towards inclusive development where in new doors have been opened for disbaled people. UNCRPD
has made baby steps towards inclusive development.

The Preamble to the UNCRPD attempts to formulate guidelines for act on the following
principles:

(f) Recognizing the importance of the principles and policy guidelines contained in
the World Program of Action concerning Disabled Persons and in the Standard
Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities in
influencing the promotion, formulation and evaluation of the policies, plans,
programs and actions at the national, regional and international levels to further
equalize opportunities for persons with disabilities,
(g) Emphasizing the importance of mainstreaming disability issues as an integral
part of relevant strategies of sustainable development,(l) Recognizing the importance
of international cooperation for improving the living conditions of persons with
disabilities in every country, particularly in developing country (m) Recognizing the
valued existing and potential contributions made by persons with disabilities to the
overall well-being and diversity of their communities, and that the promotion of the
full enjoyment by persons with disabilities of their human rights and fundamental
freedoms and of full participation by persons with disabilities will result in their
enhanced sense of belonging and in significant advances in the human, social and
economic development of society and the eradication of poverty.
(n) Recognizing the importance for persons with disabilities of their individual
autonomy and independence, including the freedom to make their own choices, (o)
Considering that persons with disabilities should have the opportunity to be actively
involved in decision-making processes about policies and programs, including those
directly concerning themiv

7
The laws should work towards:
1. Empowering disabled in such a way that they are able to negotiate for their rights themselves.
2. Improving access to information and the built environment.
3. Making the terms and conditions of work and employment fair and favorable for persons with
disabilities.
4. Upscaling efforts for inclusion by documenting them, and creating wider dialogue with various
institutions.
5. Building an emancipatory research agenda to investigate the live experiences of persons with
disabilities in various walks of life, particularly those of womenv

8
 It is seen that implementation of law in India is very poor. Government on paper
sounds good but in actuality delays and implementing mechanism so poor that it is a
matter of shame. If it so much disheartening for normal people then, how difficult it would
be for disabled people.

Many educational institutes do not have access or toilets for disabled people though
there is anti barrier act. The disabled people also suffer from an inferiority that they are not
meant for enjoying life because of the societal attitude towards them. Society has been
instrumental in limiting the powers of disabled. It is time that disabled realize there
potentials and perform wonders like Dhritrashtra, the King of Hastinapur, who was a
powerful warrior or Oscar Pistorius, who was a blade runner. It is not the physicality that
sets limitations but the mind. The development of mind can take place through education
and employment.

The disabled people should get opportunity to get education along with normal
children so inclusive development takes place. The two areas education and employment
when taken care of will transform disabled people into able disabled people and will help
them to enjoy fruitfully their fundamental rights. Once these people rise in position there,
would be a great possibility of normal people marrying disabled people as is the case with
the reserved category people.

i
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities United Nations.
ii
Bacquer and Sharma (1997); Coleridge (1993), Miles (1995), and Erb and Harriss-White (2002).
iii
Rao et al (2003). Such insights are supported by qualitative work in rural AP by Action Aid (200*).
iv
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities United Nations.
v
Unnati, Realizing UNCRPD, Learning from Inclusive Practices -Case Studies in Education and Employment.

9
 Encouraging Teacher Participation in Decision Making :
The Next Needed Educational Reform

Dr. Mohamedunni Alias Musthafa. MN & Muhammed. K.V

Junior Research Fellow, Department of Education
University of Calicut, Kerala
Mob: 09847585258
Email: mohammedoasis@gmail.com

Abstract :

Teachers could play a better part in the overall success of the institution when they put
themselves to become active participants in the decision making process. Teachers should have the feel
that they have more to do for the institution than just teaching. Moreover, the entire system of education
will benefit when teachers render an active and interactive role in their working environment. This paper
aims to explore the value of teachers participation in three domains of decision making, namely
Management, Instructional and co-curricular activities which were analyzed and the result revealed that
teachers were more interested to take decisions in instructional domain compared to the other two. This
further leads the investigators to analyze the reasons behind why teachers are reluctant to participate in
decision making. This submission also suggests some mechanism to empower teachers to develop a self
drive to be part of the decision making process.

Introduction

Teacher participation in decision-making is one of the recommendations of institutional based

management policy. School based management (SBM) is a proposal to decentralize and de- bureaucratize
control of institutions and to promote teacher participation in decision making within institutions
(Guthrie, 1986). An assumption of institution based management is that if decisions are made closer to
the client, better decisions will be made and greater satisfaction and commitment will prevail (Conley,
1991). The extent to which teachers are involved in decision making in institutions, as well as the nature
of the decisions being made, are important indicators of the degree to which institutions have changed
from the previous education system since the introduction of institutional based management.

Objectives of the Study

To explore the value of teachers participation in decision making for institutional effectiveness.
To analyze teachers involvement in different domains of decision making from the perception of
teachers
To find out the reasons for teachers reluctance to participate in decision making from the perception
of teachers

10
Methodology

Design of the study

The study followed a survey method using the technique of semi structured interview based on
three domains of decision making for collecting the data. Percentage analysis was used as statistical
technique.

Sample

The investigator selected 30 college teachers randomly from two districts of Kerala state.

Results:

Value of Teachers Participation in Decision Making for Institutional Effectiveness:

Promoting forms of participation in decision making increase teachers actual involvement in decisions
concerning their duties and opportunities for development and also provide for more sharing on issues
concerning the institutional management. Hence it is noteworthy to highlight the various dimensions of
advantages regarding the participation of teachers in decision making. On reviewing the literature and
based on the reflections of various teachers, the investigators identified those values which are listed
below.

Job satisfaction: shared decision making led to increased job satisfaction and commitment. Several
researchers have indicated that teachers participation in decision-making is positively linked with job
satisfaction (Alutto and Belasco, 1973). Participation in decision making increased teachers levels of
satisfaction in teaching and enthusiasm for the educational system, and created a positive attitude
towards participation. Schneider (1984) found a significant relationship exists between levels of
teacher involvement and job satisfaction.

Job commitment: Hung and Lui (1999) believed that if teachers were involved in the setting of
educational institutional goals and the decision making process, they tend to be committed members
of staff. Involvement in decision making also creates ownership, commitment and a sense of
empowerment, as collaboration leads to new roles.

Self- esteem: Increasing teachers participation in decision making could be an effective management
strategy that could satisfy teachers self-esteem and self- actualization.

Perception of workloads: Decision sharing at the institutional site is time consuming. Workload may
be one of the major costs of participatory decision making. In certain circumstances, in the event of
specific problems, group decisions are superior, but it is a time consuming process. Clune and White
(1989), David (1989), and Raywid (1990) found that when the extra time and energy demanded by
planning and decision making are balanced by real authority, teachers report satisfaction, even
exuberance.

Affective aspects: Critics have said that much participatory management is involvement for the sake
of involvement and that as long as subordinates feel they are participating and are being consulted,
their ego needs will be satisfied and they will be more cooperative (Ritchie, 1974)

Increased educational outcome: There is a direct positive relationship between increased

institutional based decision making and increased educational outcome Chapman (1990). Through
11
 participation in decision making, knowledge and creativity as well as increased feelings of trust and
self control are enhanced through greater commitment.

Analyzing Teacher Involvement in Different Domains of Decision Making:

Results of Teachers willingness to involve in Decision Making is based on three domains:

Domains Subdomains Willingness (%)

Human resource management 19
Management domain Financial management 13
Strategic management organizational design 12
Setting class learning objective 65
Instructional domain Selection of instructional objective 76
Instructional design 48
Institutional based curricular development 16
Curricular domain Subjects and modules offered to each class 20
Setting academic regulations 15

Findings of the study revealed that teachers had greater desire to be involved in instructional
decisions than in curricular domain and managerial decisions. This result was similar to the findings from
Conleys (1991) and Smylies (1992) studies, which reported that teachers tend to express more desire for
participation in decisions that relate to classroom instruction than for participation in administrative and
management decisions. Teachers were less active in decisions in the managerial domain than the
instruction or curricular domain. The study by Jongmans, Biemans and Beijaard (1998) confirms this
finding. It reported that the teachers were unlikely to be involved in educational policy making and were
rarely involved at all in administrative policymaking.

Why Teachers Perceive Themselves as Participitaing less in Decision Making?

Considering the wide advantages of teachers participation in the decision making in various
domains as mentioned earlier there is a need to analyze the major reasons behind why teachers are not
showing willingness to participate in decision making for the proper management of educational
institutions. The major reasons which are identified from the responses of teachers through the technique
of interview are highlighted below
Work load: Findings suggest that teachers did not want more decision making responsibility than
they already had, and that they associated it with a higher workload. This is not surprising, as more
decision making about instructional matters in the classroom must involve a heavier workload.
Issues: In the opinion of most of the teachers they want to be confined with themselves and many of
them believe that telling opinions in decision making lead directly or indirectly to controversial issues
between their colleagues or between themselves and the head of the educational institution.
Lack of collegiality: For a complete and selfless involvement in the decision making process one
should be ready to accept the views of others and one should have that open mind to accept the
criticisms in a healthy way. Lack of collegial interaction among teachers always hinders the teachers
in participating in the decision making process of institutions.
12
 Competing Professional Beliefs: Competition itself is motivating force in the enhancement of
professional development of teachers in one or the other way if it is viewed positively by encouraging
each other. Unhealthy competitions always distort the democratic atmosphere of the educational
institutions and will make the teachers reluctant to participate in institutional based decision making
as opined by the teachers in the interview.
Working Environment: In the opinion of some of the teachers they are exhausted, frustrated and
have no motivation to participate. If you dont have faiths in an idea you will neither make sacrifices
nor take action to further it. A stress free environment is necessary for the participation of teachers in
the decision making process of educational institutions.
Institutional culture: Institutional culture is a barrier as perceived by some of the teachers. There is a
need to cultivate a culture of participation. Top-down institutional decision making approaches wont
do anything good. Decision making bodies are being used by a few heads to dictate instructions rather
than share in decisions in the opinion of some of the teachers.
Time: Teachers for various reasons, especially those related to benefits for teaching and time costs,
may find it difficult to participate fully in the institutional based decision making. The institutional
community may also be confronted with barriers to participation.
Unfamiliarity: Teachers havent been initially trained to express their opinions or to make decisions.
Rather, they have been conditioned to execute instructions without any discussion.
How to overcome ?

The discussion on the identifying constrains lead the investigators to suggest some practical
measures.

More opportunities for teacher participation in planning and policy formulation will facilitate and
commit the teachers to their effective implementation and evaluation.
Educational administrators should engage teachers in all the decision domains, but especially the
decision area of pedagogy.
Teachers prefer to concentrate on teacher related concerns for instance curricular and instructional
issues, and it is through this preference that teachers may be committed to participate in a decision
making process.
It should be in the interest of the administrators to encourage participation, as the intent is to
increase job satisfaction and to enhance greater commitment to institutional policies, thus fostering
adaptation to change.
Create a democratic atmosphere and give opportunities for collegial interaction with entrusted
duties for the teachers.
Conclusion:

As teachers in the sample perceived themselves to be in a state of decision deprivation under the
institutional based management policy, these findings suggest the importance of legitimate, authentic
teacher involvement in decision making. When teachers do not perceive their decision involvement to be
influential, their involvement will decline, as will their overall job satisfaction and commitment. If the
education authority and institutional heads in Hong Kong are committed to implementing institutional
based management policy, they need to know why teachers perceive themselves as participating less in
decision making than they would.

13
References:

1. Alutto, J. A., & Belasco, J. A. (1973).Patterns of Teacher Participation in School System Decision
Making, Educational Administration Quarterly, vol. 9 no. 1, pp.27- 41.
2. Chapman, J. (1990) School Based Decision Making: Retrospect and Prospect. In J. Chapman
(Eds.), School Based Decision Making and Management (p327-345). London, UK: Falmer Press.
Chapman reviews the justification and the requirements for school based decision making
3. Clune, W. H., & White, P. A. (1989). School-based management: Instructional Variation,
Implementation, and issues for further research. New Brunswick, Centerfor Policy Research in
Education, Eagleteton Institute of Politic, Rutgers University
4. Conley, S. C. (1991). Review of research on teacher participation in school decision making,
Review of Research in Education, vol. 17, pp. 225-266
5. David, J. L. (1989). Synthesis of research on school based management. Educational Leadership,
vol. 46.no. 8,pp. 45-53.
6. Guthrie, J. W. (1986). School-based management: The next needed educational reform. Phi Delta
Kappan, vol. 68,pp. 305-309.
7. Hung, A., & Lui, J. (1999). Effects of stay-back on teachers professional commitment. The
International Journal of Educational Management, vol. 13, no.5, pp. 226-240.
8. Jongmans, K., Biemans, H., & Beijaard, D. (1998). Teachers Professional Orientation and their
Involvements inSchool Policy Making: Results of a Dutch Study, Educational Management &
Administration, vol. 26, no.3, pp. 293-304.
9. Raywid, M. (1990). Rethinking school governance, (Quoted in Elmore, R. and Associates.
Restructuring schools: Thenext generation of educational reforms. San Francisco, Jossey Bass, pp.
152-206).
10. Ritchie, J. B. (1974). Supervision, in Strauss, G., Miles, G. R., Snow, C. C. and Tannenbaum, A.
(1974).OrganizationBehavior: Research and Issues. Madison, Wis., Industrial Relationship
Research Association.
11. Schneider, G. T. (1984). Teacher involvement in decision making: Zones of acceptance, decisions
conditions, andjob satisfaction. Journal of Research and Developmentin Education, vol. 18, no. 1,
pp. 25-32.
12. Smylie, M. A. (1992). Teacher participation in schooldecision-making: Assessing willingness to
participate. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 53-67.

14
 Continuous Professional Development of Teachers:
Key Issues and Challenges

Dr Sanjay Kumar Singh

Associate Professor & Head,
Dept. Of Humanities, OPJIT, Raigarh (CG)
Email: drsksingh27@gmail.com, Mob 09827478185

Human beings, are not all built in the same way. They are of different types, reflective,
emotional or active...The true educator should understand the psychological make-up....of the
the people and adapt his teaching to the mind of the people.
-Dr Radhakrishnan

Abstract

Teacher is the architect of the society. The task of the teacher has many dimensions: it
involves the provision of a broad context of knowledge within which students can locate and
understand the reason of them being there. To meet the global challenges, continuous professional
development of teachers is one of the basic requirements. Continuous Professional In India,
beginning with recruitment to discourse, there are many lapses in teachers professional
development. Lack of professionalism and attitude of society has made this profession a secondary
one. The proposed paper will deal with the key issues and challenges in professional development of
teachers in India.

Keywords: Continuous Professional Development (CPD), ICT, Globalization, Professionalism

Introduction

Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru stated that the destiny of the nation is shaped in the class rooms and the
destiny maker is the Teacher. Teachers are the greatest assets of any education system. They stand in
the interface of the transmission of knowledge, skills and values. They are accepted as the backbone
of education system. Teacher quality is therefore crucial and has been globally accepted to be
significantly associated with the quality of education in general and students learning outcomes in
particular. The National Policy on Education in 1986 remarked. The status of the teacher reflects the
socio-cultural ethos of a society. It is said that no people can rise above the level of their teachers.
Teacher have a significant role to play in the society, since they are described as social engineers,
catalytic agents and reformers. The European Commission Report Communication on Teacher
Education (2007) in the very beginning observes research shows that teacher quality is significantly
and positively correlated with pupil attainment and it is the most important within school aspect
explaining students performance(40, p.3). Teachers help in shaping and reshaping the society and
determine the quality of life in the community and the nation. Experiences of various countries reveal
that the most effective way to develop good teachers in a dynamic and changing environment is to
begin with a well developed pre-service teacher education programme and continue with career long
learning opportunities.

Education of teachers in the country has been considered crucial, not only for ensuring greater
professionalism in teachers but also for facilitating school improvement and effectiveness. Teaching
and learning for inclusive quality education requires a minimum standard of qualifications and
competency. There could be generic frameworks for teacher standards; however, global and national
categorizations may need to be refined further to articulate regional, national and provincial
15
specificities. A positive and open attitude towards inclusion is necessary if inclusive quality education
has to succeed. The attitude and behaviour of teachers, school principals and other education
stakeholders with regard to inclusion plays a crucial role. According to UNESCO, negative attitudes
of teachers and adults (parents and other family members) are the major barrier to inclusion.

In India, development of teacher education curriculum framework is mostly an academic

exercise due to the absence of such notified standard for school teachers. Two important documents
that influenced the process of teacher curriculum reform in the country are: the report of the Education
Commission (1964-66), and the National Policy on Education 1986. All subsequent efforts to modify
teacher education curriculum to address the national aspirations for education have tried to integrate
and incorporate various recommendations of these two documents.

Professional Development

Professional development is like a continuous improvement process. It is an ongoing

program, whether formal or informal, undertaken to ensure that we as individuals have the skills
and abilities to undertake our work in a professional, efficient and effective manner.

According to the thesaurus of the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

database, professional development refers to "activities to enhance professional career growth."
Such activities may include individual development, continuing education, and in-service
education, as well as curriculum writing, peer collaboration, study groups, and peer coaching or
mentoring.

"Professional development ... goes beyond the term 'training' with its implications of learning
skills, and encompasses a definition that includes formal and informal means of helping teachers not
only learn new skills but also develop new insights into pedagogy and their own practice, and explore
new or advanced understandings of content and resources. [This] definition of professional
development includes support for teachers as they encounter the challenges that come with putting
into practice their evolving understandings about the use of technology to support inquiry-based
learning.... Current technologies offer resources to meet these challenges and provide teachers with a
cluster of supports that help them continue to grow in their professional skills, understandings, and
interests."

Professional development strengthens teachers knowledge base and supports commitment to

effective teaching and learning. It allows to build and refresh their skills and to participate actively in
career development.

Objectives of Professional Development

Teaching is a multifaceted and specialized activity, and therefore, is housed in single purpose
institutions in majority of countries around the world. In India, the National Policy of Education
(NPE,1986) reflects this commitment by considering pre-service and in-service teacher education as a
continuous process and two ends of a continuum. The concern for quality improvement and
indigenisation of teacher education had been the top priority of educational planners which is reflected
in the concerns expressed, and recommendations made by various commissions and committees
appointed by the government of India from time to time since independence. The University
Education Commission (1948), Secondary Education Commission (1953), Chattopadhyay Committee
Report (1983-85), Acharya Ramamurthy Committee (1990 ) and several seminars and study groups
that were set up to discuss improvements in teacher education, from time to time expressed concern
over the poor quality of teacher education, and its isolation from, both, the mainstream of university
life, and the ground realities of educational institutes.

16
 Globalization has changed the character of higher education to be more meaningful and
productive with avenues for flourishing. The progressive impact of technology on higher education
could be seen clearly. Thus in the Indian context we have to prepare ourselves for such change in the
higher education system. Teachers to be provided with a variety of in-service courses aimed at
addressing their needs in the various teaching subject areas. The objectives of Professional
Development are:

to enhance professional knowledge of teaching.

to improve teachers skills in designing lesson plans.
To improve teachers skills in facilitating student learning utilizing available learning
resources and paying more attention to student learning difficulties.
to improve teachersskills in reflecting the lesson to be followed up for continuous
improvement.
To improve teachers communication skills at both classroom and scientific forums.
To improve the quality of the learning process of prospective teachers.
Need of Continuous Professional Development

Proper knowledge leads to proper action, proper action leads to progress, prosperity, peace
and pleasure. Continuous professional development (CPD) is the means by which people maintain
their knowledge and skills related to their professional lives. Its a linear evolution that covers the
entire career of the teacher: from the very start as a student teacher, via the initial guidance of junior
educators right up to the professional practice of senior teachers. CPD can involve any relevant
learning activity, whether formal and structured or informal and self-directed.

The task of the teacher has many dimensions: it involves the provision of a broad context of
knowledge within which students can locate and understand the reason of them being there. He has to
create a learning environment in which the students are encouraged to think carefully, rationally and
express their thoughts critically.

The teachers professional development process must take into account that the nature of
society changes constantly, as do the pupils and their families. Therefore, new knowledge and
evolving demands must feed into this process its a natural continuation of the teachers own
educational experiences as a child. It will never stop as personal reflection must always continue.

Because the world that teachers are preparing young people to enter is changing so rapidly,
and because the teaching skills required are evolving likewise, no initial course of teacher education
can be sufficient to prepare a teacher for a career of 30 or 40 years. Continuous Professional
Development (CPD) is the process by which teachers (like other professionals) reflect upon their
competences, maintain them up to date, and develop them further.

The extent to which education authorities support this process varies, as does the effectiveness
of the different approaches. A growing research base suggests that to be most effective, CPD activities
should:

be spread over time

be collaborative
use active learning
be delivered to groups of teachers
include periods of practice, coaching, and follow-up
promote reflective practice
encourage experimentation, and
17
 respond to teachers' needs.
Today, as we move toward new forms of schooling and new expectations for results, the teachers
role is far too unpredictable to be scripted. Research shows that teacher knowledge profoundly affects
student achievement. Darling-Hammond says flatly that teachers who lack knowledge of content and/or
teaching strategies cannot offer their students adequate learning opportunities. In todays high stakes
education climate, those students may then be penalizedfor example, held back or not allowed to
graduatewhen, in fact, the problem is the systems failure to provide them with qualified teachers.

Areas of Professional development-

1- Regular reading and publishing in professional journals and periodicals.

2- Attending workshops, conferences and lectures.
3- Regular updating with recent books in specific areas.
4- Authoring books or editing books.
5- Use of videotapes , power points for effective teaching learning styles and writing.
6- Information via Internet.
7- Visits to other universities and colleges.
8- Quarterly self evaluation of teaching effectiveness.
9- Visits to libraries regularly.
10- Proficiency in usinge-learning-teaching strategies.

Continuous Professional development of teachers: Issues and challenges

Teachers knowledge and skills are necessary to be refreshed and updated since science and
technology are growing so fast and the high competitiveness of living in modern society. Without
refreshing or updating teachers knowledge and skills, teachers may not be able to attract students
into learning engagement to provide students with appropriate hard and soft skills for competitive
living in modern society.

It seems that current in-service teacher training did not work well. Most teachers d o n t
have an opportunity to refresh and update their knowledge and skills since their teaching appointment.
In India, the in-service staff training and development courses for teachers and educators are not
planned, executed and documented properly. Only thing available with the in-charges of such in-
service trainings is a list of 'experts' to be invited to deliver 'lectures' or make 'presentations'.

Generally, even at the university level, where in-service development of teacher-educators is

done, no training need analysis is done, no training frame framework is prepared, no training of
trainers is undertaken, no hand-outs and resource material is prepared, no documentation of the
sessions is done, no post-training evaluation is done to identify the emerging training needs.

Furthermore, hardly any follow-up of the training is done. After the training is over, a
compliance report is sent to higher authorities for filing. This implies that the training is not
transferred to classroom since the organizers of the training under play the importance of training
itself.

The major issues with CPD are :

Teachers Experience
Teachers working conditions
Full- time / Part-time practitioner workforce
Lack of exposure and lack of regular interaction.
Lack of training teachers in teaching skills
Lack of training in teaching methods and evaluation practices.
Poor infrastructural facilities.
18
 Inadequate human resource
Implementation of CPD Programme in practice

In many institutes, technology is not easily accessible by teachers. Computers may be located
in labs instead of in each teacher's classroom, and Internet connections may be limited to certain
designated computers. Sometimes administrators may not provide adequate time and resources for
high-quality technology implementation and the associated professional development. They may see
professional development as a one-shot training session to impart skills in using specific equipment.
Instead, professional development should be considered an ongoing process that helps teachers
develop new methods of promoting engaged learning in the classroom using technology. Sometimes
institutes climate may not be supportive of the changes in traditional pedagogy that result from
ongoing professional development in technology. Management may expect significant change too
quickly. In-service teacher and educator development itself needs to be done professionally. It
requires proper development of training module, training of trainers and a follow-up planning.There
are many points which come before as a challenge in implementation of the outcomes of CPD
programmes. Such as,

Assessing the impact of professional development on student achievement is the most

problematic part of the evaluation process. Proving a direct link between student learning and
measures of professional development is always difficult because other school-improvement activities
also may have an impact (Lockwood, 1999).

Teacher quality and effectiveness

Teachers negative attitude about their own teaching profession.
Lack of awareness about CPD.
Conduction of CPD programme without collecting teachers real needs.
Preparation of CPD module in accordance with teachers need and contexts where they are
working.
Building a research-based professional development system.
Executing the training plan and transacting the module with documentation and evaluation
report
.Effectiveness of Professional Development.
Teachers feel that CPD is compulsory than necessary and,
Most importantly, there is lack of conceptual clarity of CPD among practitioners
Based on these voices of teachers on-the-ground, we can say that in real field, whatever the
beneficiary points it has in its literature, the teachers and head teachers have faced myriad challenges
to tackle while grasping the essence of teacher development as outsiders i.e. planners, implementers,
managers, facilitators and so on, expect from them.

How to maintain continuing professional development?

In order to understand the concept of Continuous Professional Development (CPD), it is first

worth looking at the differences between Teacher Training and Teacher Development. Teacher
Training can be seen as the process of equipping an individual with the means to carry out the job of
teaching. This is normally done by means of a course of training that presents the individual with a
series of skills that meet the requirements of different aspects of teaching. For the most part it is fair to
say that Teacher Training is a process that comes from "outside" from a course and from a trainer or

19
group of trainers. Teacher Development, on the other hand, comes from within the individual and
requires a commitment from that individual to move forward in some way as a teacher. Lifelong
learning and continuous professional development are much the same thing.

The ideal activities to pave the way to CPD are as emerged as:

Learning through all the experienced and expert practitioners in the respective field.
Preparing lecture notes.
Preparing subject monographs.
Participation in the respective field short term courses and conferences.
Participation in more intimate (F2F) workshops where there is the opportunity to discuss and
debate ideas and opinions and take away ideas for classroom activities and to reflect on.
Setting-up of self library and updation with the contemporary research & literature.
Seeking the feedback from students on performance and honest implementation on the same.
Borrowing the ideas of other teachers and try them out in classes.
Networking with online communities.
Sharing Programme Action Research with evidence with all fellow teachers.
Sharing of Individual Action Research with all fellow teachers.
Writing articles on adopted models.
Sharing outcomes and experiences with a large audience during conferences and seminars etc.
Doing a formal course.
Membership of professional bodies.
engaging in new professional activities, doing things for the first time
peer observation
trying out different methods/approaches in class (sort of like action research)
reflective and exploratory practice, though not programmed or formally monitored
being trained up as a teacher trainer
completing an online course to be an e-tutor
participating in projects in a group with fellow professionals
forming a local group: to discuss issues and take turns to lead sessions.
Participation in contact programmes
There are a plenty of ways to keep up continuous professional development in any subject If a
number of these activities are combined into a planned, interlinked programme, with monitoring and
evaluation, even if only by the teacher him or herself, there can be real, satisfying results for teachers
wishing to keep.

Professional development is an important continuous improvement process.The pedagogic

reform from this perspective needs to invest on building on teachers capacity to act as autonomous

20
reflective groups of professionals who are sensitive to their social mandate and to the professional
ethics and to the needs of heterogeneous groups of learners.

Conclusion

Teaching involves a wide body of knowledge about the subject being taught, and the most
effective ways to teach a subject to different kind of learners. It requires teachers to spend substantial
time to test out new ideas and approaches, assess their effects, adjust their strategies to reach all
students and thereby make learning more useful. As a result of globalization, information and
communication technology has accelerated teaching and learning process. To meet the global
challenges, continuous professional development of teachers is one of the basic requirements.
Continuous Professional Development is considered to be very significant as they constitute the base,
the basic foundation of the entire education system in terms of its social, economic and individual
enhancement. It is need of the hour and can no longer be viewed as an event that occurs on a
particular day of the academic year, it must rather be embedded in the daily work routine of the
teachers. A teacher has to go through continuous professional development, as the world that teachers
are preparing for global students is changing rapidly. Professionalism needs to be instilled in each and
every phase of teacher preparation starting from conceptualisation to evaluation and appraisal to
prepare professionals and improve the quality of education.

Works Cited

Delors Jacques (1996): Learning: The Treasure Within. Report of the international Commission on Education for
Twenty-first century. UNESCO. Paris.
Darling-Hammond,L.( 2000a): Standard setting in teaching: changes in licensing, certification and assessment. In
V.Richardson (Ed), Handbook of Research on Teaching, (4th
David Megginson and Vivien Whitaker, Continuous Professional Development, Chartered Institute of Personnel &
Development; 2nd edition (2007)
Ghosh B N. Managing Soft Skills for Personality Development,New Delhi: Tata McGraw - Hill Education, 2012
Goldhaber, D.D; and Brewer,D.J.(2000): Does teacher certification matters? High School teacher certification status
and student achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,22(2),pp129-145.
John Lorriman, Continuing Professional Development: A Practical Approach : Managing Your CPD as a Professional
Engineer
MHRD (1985) :Challenges of Education. New Delhi. Govt. of India.
MHRD (1986) :National Policy on Education, new Delhi. Govt. of India.
Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD (993): Learning Without Burden (Yashpal Committee Report).
New Delhi, India.
Ministry of Education (1948-49): Report of the University Education commission. New Delhi, government of India.
Ministry of Education (1953): Report of the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), New Delhi. Government of
India.
Mitra K Barun, Personality Development And Soft Skills, New Delhi : Oxford University Press, 2011
www.k12teacherstaff development.com
www.mesamsamo.wetpaint.com
www.www.tda.gov.uk/
www.vvob.be informative paper. However the suggestions made under CPD seem too simplistic and time tested. More
innovative solutions could have been given.

21
 Faulkners Short Stories and His Depiction of Indians

M. Parvathi
Assistant Professor of English
Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science Madanapalle. (A.P).
Chittoor (dist)-517325 Andhra Pradesh
Affiliated to JNTU, Ananthapur
Email: parvathi.malepati@gmail.com
Mobile: 9492659498

Abstract
My paper intends to present William Faulkner's imaginary world where many Indians are
found either in his short or long stories. It can be said that Faulkner has depicted various types of
Indians with a clear intention of giving them the historical position as the first settlers in his
Yoknapatawpha County courthouse, mentioning the dispossession of Indians and the
commercial exchange between Indians and white people. In starting it discusses on Indians in
Faulkners stories, with two simple questions are instantly raised-what is Faulkners intention of
his Indian stories? as the first question and why does Faulkner depict the vanishing Americans
with a comical touch? This paper will clarify Faulkners intention in depicting Indians with a
comical touch and, in consequence, their significance in his fictional world.

Keywords: comical touch-humour-dipicting-dispossession-imaginaryworld-significance-vanishing Americans.

William Faulkner was born in New Albany, Mississippi, in 1897. One of the twentieth
centurys greatest writers, Faulkner earned his fame from a series of novels that explore the
Souths historical legacy, its fraught and often tensely violent present, and its uncertain future.
This grouping of major works includes The Sound and the Fury (1929), As I Lay Dying (1930),
Light in August (1931), and Absalom, Absalom! (1936), all of which are rooted in Faulkners
fictional Mississippi County, Yoknapatawpha. This imaginary setting is a microcosm of the
South that Faulkner knew so well. It serves as a lens through which he could examine the
practices, folkways, and attitudes that had divided and united the people of the South since the
nations inception.

In terms of ethnicity, Faulkner studies have been drawn to a great degree to African
Americans, but hardly to Native Americans. Compared with a great amount of scholarship on
African Americans in Faulkners stories, there is very little about Native Americans: in book-
form scholarship, The Indians of Yoknapatawpha by Lewis Dabney is the only one, published in
1974, while many scattered short monograms and magazine articles can be found, most of which
incomprehensively discuss only one or two short stories featuring Native Americans.

Turning our eyes to Faulkners world, however, so many Indians can be found either in
his short or long stories that can be said that Faulkner has depicted various types of Indians with a
clear intention of giving them the historical position as the first settlers in his Yoknapatawpha
County.

As Faulkners Indian stories, four short stories are most popular: Red Leaves, A
Justice, Courtship, and Lo!, which are included in the Wilderness section of Collected
Stories of William Faulkner, but Indians are also mentioned in his long stories, such as Go Down,

22
Moses, Requiem for a Nun, the Sound and the Fury, the Town, and the Reivers, and Indians
appear as major characters in such short stories as Mountain Victory, Fox Hunt, and
Hellcreek Crossing. In The Appendix to the Sound and the Fury, for example, Faulkner calls
Ikkemotubbe A dispossessed American king,(225) explaining how the Compsons are closely
connected with Indian families in terms of land2 ; Requiem for a Nun opens with a historical
episode about how Chickasaws trading post is changed into the Yoknapatawpha County
courthouse, mentioning the dispossession of Indians and the commercial exchange between
Indians and white people.

Recollecting the word Yoknapatawpha, in the first place, comes from Indians
language, we can say that Faulkner has a clear intention of locating them as the first people of his
fictional world.

In starting our discussion on Indians in Faulkners stories, two simple questions are
instantly raised. The first question is related with a curious fact that Faulkner is historically and
politically inaccurate in depicting Indians, as many critics point out. Gene Moore, for example,
asserts as follows:

Faulkners Indians are often found to be historically inaccurate and felt to be

politically incorrect. His Choctaws might as well be Chickasaws, and both
cultures are defined chiefly in terms of their ignoble infatuation with the trinkets
and customs of the white man. Worse yet, he paid little attention to the calamities
of Removal and the Trail of Tears.

Asked about this inaccuracy, Faulkner candidly admits this and says, I made them
up(Dabney 11), which seems to mean that the Indians in Faulkners stories are a product of the
authors imagination and that his intention does not lie in an exact reproduction of Indians
history. Then, what is Faulkners intention of his Indian stories? --this is my first question.

The other question I would like to pose about Faulkners depiction of Indians lies in the
fact that they generally look tragic-comic. This is quite unique in the American depiction of
Indians, because it is commonly assumed that Indians are regarded and depicted as either tragic
victims or majestic heroes. The tragic image of Indians is based on historical slaughters in
American history, as is known by the Trail of Tears, the Wounded Knee Massacre, etc. The
majestic image, on the other, is associated with the Romantic creation of Indians as noble
savages, as is shown in many American literary texts made by Washington Irving and James
Fenimore Cooper. Despite these stereotypical images of Indians, why does Faulkner depict the
vanishing Americans with a comical touch?

Focused on these two questions, this paper will clarify Faulkners intention in depicting

Indians with a comical touch and, in consequence, their significance in his fictional world.

I. Comical Touch

In the Introduction to Faulkner and Humour, Doreen Fowler analyzes Faulkners comic
vision as a more balanced perspective from which to view tragic events(xiii). Comic
elements, Fowler explains, function to temper emotionalism(xiii). This is true of Faulkners
depiction of Indians. This section will closely analyze several types of comic images of Indians
and elucidate truths in his Indian stories.

23
 In the Indians in Faulkners stories, there is an undertone of tragedy, but, as Karen
Rhodes and Lothar Hnnighausen assert, they are described as comical and display a humorous
tone. In fact, Courtship can be called a tall tale, and most of these stories contain such typical
elements of South-western humour as exaggeration, violence, and tumult. Let us take a closer
look at comic elements of these Indian stories in three categories---irony, satire, and parody.

I.1. Irony

What white people regard as natural and reasonable looks incomprehensible and even
foolish to the Indians eyes. In Courtship, for example, an Indian gives a deeply sarcastic eye to
white peoples regulations: claiming the land by drawing invisible lines on it to divide it, and
killing their fellows in the name of crime:

Issetibbeha and General Jackson met and burned sticks and signed a paper, and now a
line ran through the woods, although you could not see it. But merely by occurring on the other
side of that line which you couldnt even see, it became what the white men called a crime
punishable by death if they could just have found who did it. Which seemed foolish to us.
this land for which, as Issetibbeha used to say after he had become so old that nothing more
was required of him except to sit in the sun and criticize the degeneration of the People and the
folly and rapacity of politicians, the Great Spirit has done more and man less than for any land he
ever heard of. But it was a free country, and if the white man wished to make a rule even that
foolish in their half of it, it was all right with us. (A Courtship 361-2)

Demarcation in particular is incredible and even ridiculous to Indians, who have no sense
of possession of land by demarcation, believing that land belongs to nobody. They conclude that
America is a free country, so they are doing whatever they wish to according to their principle of
freedom, which gives a very sarcastic comment to America whose motto is freedom. Here we
have to be reminded that an American principle of freedom has deprived Indians of their native
land and freedom. What white people have done according to their principle of freedom is simply
questioned and criticized as absurd by Indians whose lives are based on Nature. The Indians
comment here gives a bitter irony to white peoples egotistic principle and logic. .

The differences in value system can often display a glaring irony. In Red Leaves,
which describes Indians slavery-based lifestyle imitating white peoples, there is a humorous
scene in which they hold a meeting to discuss what to do with the increasing number of black
slaves breeding in the village.

Raise more Negroes by clearing more land to make corn to feed them, then sell them.
We will clear the land and plant it with food and raise Negroes and sell them to the white men
for money.

But what will we do with this money? a third said.

They thought for a while. (Red Leaves 319)

Indians have introduced slavery, as white people did, but no Indians can give a reply to
the fundamental question what will we do with the money they get? It may be because they
have nothing to buy with money. It is not until they confront this question that they realize they
have had no need of slavery. This is quite ironic and, more importantly, this type of irony is
essentially created by the difference in value system between white people and Indians: in
substance, the societies of the two races have depended on completely different value systems, so

24
the insensible conversion into a different value system is likely to lead to the destruction of the
society. In this sense, Karen Rhodes analysis is much to the point:

This incongruity of values provides the basis for the storys humour and its
tragedy, when the three cultures in this story value the same thing differently. and these
economic value systems highlight the processes of irresolvable differences which
form first the grotesque humour and then the grotesque tragedy of Red
Leaves.(70)

Interestingly, the fact that Indians have introduced slavery which is utterly unnecessary to
them makes us find that slavery in the Indians society is a good example of mimicry of a
postcolonial maxim: the ruled will imitate the rulers lifestyle. It is important to point out that
behind the humour lies a postcolonial relation between Indians and white people.

I.2. Satire

The Indians appearing in Red Leaves, and Lo! look grotesque and weird, but they
assume a comical touch. In Red Leaves, the Indians, who depend on slavery, abandoning
physical labour and their original nature-based lifestyle, are now undergoing an irreversible
deterioration. Those Indians are described with a comical and caricatured touch, and Chief
Moketubbe, the symbol of deterioration, presents an ugly, fatty figure:

He wore a broadcloth coat and no shirt, his round, smooth copper balloon of belly
swelling above the bottom piece of a suit of linen underwear. On his feet were the
slippers with the red heels. Behind his chair stood a stripling with a punkah-like fan made of
fringed paper. Moketubbe sat motionless, with his broad, yellow face with its closed eyes and flat
nostrils, his flipper like arms extended. On his face was an expression profound, tragic, and inert.
He did not open his eyes when Basket and Berry came in. (Red Leaves 325)

It should be noticeable that Moketubbe, potbellied and motionless, wearing the slippers
with the red heels, is described with quite a comical touch. The comical depiction of
deteriorating Indians lays bare to us not only a sin of white people who have uprooted Indians
nature-based life by bringing in slavery., but also Indians foolish ease with which to resign their
original lifestyle. It creates a bitter satire aimed at both races. Faulkner discloses truths hidden in
a tragedy by adding a comical touch.

I.3. Parody

Lo! can be classified as a parody of a historical fact6: President Jackson, the ruler, is
described as timid, whereas Indian chief Francis Weddel, the ruled, is stately. In this story, the
ruler and the ruled are depicted in a perfectly reversed position displaying a historical parody, as
Hnnighausen also points out: Lo! is a text thatrewrites a tragic chapter of history as
burlesque. In Lo! the seventh president Andrew Jackson(1767-1845) is a model of the
President, and a Choctaw chief Greenwood Leflore (1800-65), Weddel symbolized for.

comedy and transforms the victim into the victors(339). It is a historical fact that the Indian race
was conquered by the white race, but it is ironic that on the individual level, the Indian chief is
statelier than the white leader. Therefore, though the chief calls themselves poor innocent
Indians,(398) from his true recognition of the reality, he sounds pretty ironic7.

25
 In Lo!, we can find another parody in Indians clothes. The Indians are dressed in a
very humorous fashion; they wear a formal coat, but no trousers, with shoes in one hand and
trousers under their arm:

--in their new beavers and frock coats and woollen drawers. With their neatly rolled
pantaloons under their arms and their virgin shoes in the other hand; dark, timeless, decorous and
serene beneath the astonished faces and golden braid, the swords and ribbons and stars, of
European diplomats. The President said quietly, Damn. Damn. Damn.(Lo! 384)

Their fashion represents a power relation between Indians and white people: therefore, in
order to follow the rulers principle, the Indians try to imitate the white peoples fashion, but the
mimicry here is so incomplete that it injects sharp humour.

It should be noted here that this kind of humour is felt by the reader, not by any
characters in the story. When the white people see those Indians in the White House, the Indians,
especially their clothing, offer irritation and even threat to the white people, as the President
utters many times over his shoulder, Damn!. In this respect, Bruce Johnsons comment is true:
the mimicry in this story is used as a means of communication with the white race, but it creates
a hostile threat against the white people(Bruce 23). Thus, it is interesting to say that mimicry in
Lo! can be used as a parody of the power relation. Nevertheless, the historical fact cannot be
changed, as the story ends with the possibility of military ascendance over the Indians, displaying
a tragic tone behind the humorous atmosphere.

II. Faulkners Voice

The results of the analysis of Faulkners humorous depiction of Indians in the previous
section can be summarized into the following two points:

II.1. A strong reproach against the white people who have depraved the Indians:

The humour of these Indian stories reproaches the white people who have plundered the
Indians land and civilized them. In this respect, we can hear Faulkners reproachful voice. In
1937 when he drove in an Arizona desert and passed a group of Indians sitting by the highway,
Faulkner said to Ben Wasson: This was theirs.all of it. This whole country. We took it from
them and shoved them off onto reservations(Biography 383). Faulkner keenly feels guilty of
white peoples sin of taking their land. With his sense of sin, the Indians in his stories are
depicted.

II.2. Innocence of the Indians who have imitated the white peoples value

The white peoples sin is doubtlessly grave; however, Faulkner thinks the Indians are so innocent
as to accept the white peoples value with no thought of the consequence. Slavery and material
civilization are not what they need, and what is worse, these factors play a destructive role of
uprooting their original lifestyle and value. From a practical viewpoint, when they accepted
heterogeneous values, they should have gained enough knowledge and vision to compete with the
white people on the same ground. On the contrary, they have innocently imitated the white
peoples lifestyle and culture, and in consequence, their innocence has been easily manipulated
and exploited for the white peoples benefits. Faulkner points out Indians innocence which has
led to their loss of culture and identity.

26
 This opinion is supported by the fact that Faulkner creates some Indians who, getting
some knowledge from white peoples culture, still have a dignified pride as Indians. Saucier
Weddel in Mountain Victory, for example, is so educated in white peoples schools that he can
succeed in business, and yet he has a high pride as an Indian and serves in the Civil War as a
Confederate major. He chooses to gain education in the white peoples society instead of
following blindly the Indians hereditary system only to go to ruin with the tide of the times, as
Weddel himself explains:

In the old days The Man was the hereditary title of the head of our clan; but
after we became Europeanised like the white people, we lost the title to the
branch which Refused to become polluted.. (Mountain Victory 333).

Weddels father is Choctaw chief Francis Weddel, who argues fairly and squarely with
President Jackson in Lo! Weddel is as dignified and brave as his father, but he is not innocent,
but realistic: Weddel tries to survive in the white peoples society with the same recognition of
reality that Indians are destined to disappear, as his father shows in Lo!: We are but Indians:
remembered yesterday and forgotten tomorrow.(Lo! 396)

Another dignified and realistic Indian character is Sam Fathers. He is actually a hybrid
descendant of three racesIndian, white and black races, and is forced to live alone as a marginal
man in the white-dominated South, but Faulkner depicts him with a dignified touch and casts him
as a mentor for Ike McCaslin:

It was Sam Fathers, the negro, who bore himself not only toward his cousin McCaslin

and Major de Spain but toward all white men, with gravity and dignity and without

servility or recourse to that impenetrable wall of ready and easy mirth which negroes

sustain between themselves and white men, bearing himself toward his cousin

McCaslin not only as one man to another but as an old man to a younger. (GDM 170)

It is noticeable that these three persons we have found as dignified Indians are all mix-
blooded: both Saucier and Francis are half-Indian and half-French. The Indians conquered have
no choice but to survive as mix-blooded. Mixed-blooded people are oppressed by a cruel fate in
the South, but they retain pride, dignity and humility to endure their cruel fate. This can be shown
as a strong antithesis Faulkner proposes to the pure-blood supremacy in the South.

III. Indian Identity

In this section, we will discuss why Indians encounter the fate of vanishing from an
ethnic viewpoint. The main reason is that the white people have dispossessed the Indians of their
land. For Indians, the land is the basic keystone they have lived on and taken over from
generation to generation. Jean OBrien explains Indians inseparable relation with land:

For the English, land was central to identity and place in society.For Indians, land
was something much more essential. Land also signified identity for Indians, but in
a fundamentally different way than it did for the English. For Indians, land meant

27
 homeland, which conferred identity in a corporate and religious sense, and it
contained the crucial kinship networks that inscribed their relationships on the land.

As English colonization proceeded, land also became a commodity for Indians.

Eventually, it became a source of social welfare, which completed the process of
dispossession. (OBrien 211)

As OBrien points out, land defines Indians identity. It follows that if they lose their
lands, they will lose their identity as Indians. The loss of identity will lead to the vanishing of the
race. Faulkner keenly realizes the white peoples dispossession of Indians land as a capital sin as
follows:

I think the ghost of that ravishment lingers in the land, that the land is inimical to the
white man because of the unjust way in which it was taken from Ikkemotubbe and his people.
That happened by treaty, which President Jackson established with the Chickasaws and the
Choctaws, There are a few of them still in Mississippi, but they are a good deal like animals in
a zoo: they have no place in the culture, in the economy, unless they become white men, and they
have in some cases mixed with white people and their own conditions have vanished, or they
have mixed with Negroes and they have descended into the Negroes condition of semi-peonage.
Faulkner in the University 43)

Faulkner thinks Indians whose lands are lost have no place in the culture, in the economy, and
ghost of that ravishment is lingering in the South. In the same way, in Faulkners fiction, in
which land is one of his major themes, land is regarded as everyones property, not any
individuals, as is shown in Go Down, Moses:

---it belonged to no man. It belonged to all; they had only to use it well, humbly and
with pride.(GDM 354)

As is discussed in the previous section, land is for Indians a fundamental basis for living
and in essence, they have no idea of possessing land, whereas the white people have deprived
them of their land which is exploited for an individuals property and speculation8. As a result for
Indians, they are forced to change their lives from the hunting economy based on land into the
monetary economy preying on land, which makes Indians go to ruin. This is what Ike calls the
curse on the South.

Dont you see? he cried. Dont you see? This whole land, the whole South, is cursed, and all
of us who derive from it, whom it ever suckled, white and black both, lie under the
curse?(GDM 278) Ike decides to relinquish his right to inherit the land to sever such a sinful
chain. In this respect, Toshio Koyamas view is most suitable: Faulkner places Indians destiny
as an important phase in American history by penetrating to the roots of avarice, frailty and other
human fundamental evils in our bosoms(131). Thus, Faulkners Indian stories show that the
white peoples deprivation of Indians land is not merely a problem of the two races, but a
fundamental problem rooted in the South.

Conclusion

Before Faulkner, many other American writers deal with Indians, and in most cases they
depict them either as noble savages or as poor victims. Faulkner, however, depicts them with a
humorous touch in order to reveal some truths behind the vanishing of the Indians.

28
Faulkners comical depiction of Indians reveals a strong irony to both the white race and the
Indian. On one hand, Faulkner gives a strong reproach to the white people who have emasculated
Indians by usurping and speculating their land, Gods possession and their identity. On the other,
he offers a bitter irony in describing Indians innocence of imitating the white peoples lifestyle.
Adding a comical touch, he tries to disclose the objective aspects of Indian problems,
relinquishing too much sympathy and emotionalism.

Faulkner aims to set Indians as pioneering people in the history of Yoknapatawpha.

Faulkner, by inserting Indians minutely in his long and short stories, tries to give a huge ethnic
group of Indians a position in American history--especially in the southern history, considering
why and how they are destined to decline and disappear. Problems related with Indians are found
to be deeply rooted in the South, as Ike and Quentin manage to hand them down from generation
to generation with acute suffering: Indian problems will not end with the disappearance of the
race. Indians play an important role and give historical and thematic consistency in the world of
Faulkners Yoknapatawpha.

References

Dabney, Lewis M. The Indians of Yoknapatawpha: A Study in Literature and History. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
UP, 1974.
Faulkner, William. Collected Stories of William Faulkner. 1950. New York: Vintage, 1977.
---. Go Down, Moses. New York: Random, 1940.
with the idea of owning this ford, having heard tales of his own kind who, after the curious and restless fashion of white
men, find one side of a stream of water superior enough to the other to pay coins of money for the privilege of reaching
it. (Lo! 401)
---. A Courtship. Collected Stories 361-380.
---. A Justice. Collected Stories 343-360.
---. Lo! Collected Stories 381-403.
---. Mountain Victory. Doctor Martino and Other Stories. New York: Harrison Smith, 1934. 212-366.
---. Red Leaves. Collected Stories 313-342.
---. Requiem for a Nun. New York: Random, 1951.
---. The Sound and the Fury: an Authoritative Text, Background and Contexts, Criticism. Ed.David Minter. New York:
Norton, 1987.
Fiedler, Leslie. The Return of the Vanishing American. New York: Stein & Day, 1968.
Fowler, Doreen and Ann J. Abadie, eds. Faulkner and Humor: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, 1984. Jackson: UP of
Mississippi, 1986.
Hamblin, Robert and Ann J. Abadie, eds. Faulkner in the Twenty-First Century: Faulknerand Yoknapatawpha 2000.
Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 2003.
Hnnighausen, Lothar. Faulkner Rewriting the Indian Removal. Rewriting the South: History and Fiction. Eds.
Lothar Hnnighausen and Valeria Gennaro Lerda. Tbingen: Francke, 1993. 335-343.
Horsford, Howard C. Faulkners (Mostly) Unreal Indians in Early Mississippi History. American Literature
64(1992): 311-330.
Johnson, Bruce. Indigenous Doom: Colonial Mimicry in Faulkners Indian Tales. Faulkner
Journal 18(2002-03): 101-127.
Kinney, Arthur. Faulkners Other Others Faulkner at One Hundred: Retrospect and Prospect: Faulkner and
Yoknapatawpha, 1997. Ed. Donald Kartiganer and Ann J. Abadie. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 2000, 195-203.

29
Koyama, Toshio. The World of William Faulkners Short Stories. [William Faulkner-no-tanpen-no-Sekai]. Kyoto:
Yamaguchi-shoten, 1988.
Moore, Gene M. Faulkners Incorrect Indians? Faulkner Journal 18(2002-03): 3-8.
OBrien, Jean M. Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650-1790.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997.Pope, Alexander. An Essay on Man. The Works of Alexander Pope. Vol. II. New
York: Gordian, 1967. 311-375.
Rhodes, Karen. The Grotesque Economics of Tragicomedy: Cultural Colonization in Faulkners Red Leaves.
Faulkner Journal 18(2002-03): 69-80.

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 Marxism, Naxalism and Indian films

Somak Sen
Assistant Professor,
Faculty of Expressive Cultures, Media and Communication,
Himgiri Zee University, Dehradun.
Email:somakishere@gmail.com
Cell: 8755469024

Abstract :

Indias biggest internal security threat is Maoism. Day by day, it has been increasing. Even
the followers of this particular ism have begun to dream to capture the throne of Delhi. Civic society
considers these followers as a negative force. But have they ever thought what compelled this
deprived force to choose the path of extremism? Prakash Jha, in his film Chakravyuh represents
various reasons which give the birth of extremists in our country. Jha is not the beginner of this
genre. Before him, many films have been made by different eminent directors. Old wine is put in a
new bottle with a different look. This article defines every aspect in a detailed format.

Introduction:

Indian films are renowned worldwide because of their amalgamation with different
sociological aspects. Love affairs between unequal classes, riot, police story, war and successive
victory against our neighbouring country, terrorism, mafia raj, political stories all have been
portrayed with vivid colours in Indian films since decades. Portrayal of naxalism in films is one of the
major choices of the Indian directors irrespective of language and region, as it is an alarming threat to
the Indian democracy. It is not less than any other serious threat like cross border terrorism to the
internal security and sovereignty of India. To describe what naxalism is, one should know first about
the Marxism. Until one knows Marxism well, he can never understand naxalism better as the later is
somehow linked with the communist philosophies and ideologies of Marxism.

Marxism:

Marxism is the sociopolitical and economic view of various socio economic policies, and it is
an analysis of sundry class relations present in the society. It offers a dialectical view of social change
as well as criticises the development of capitalism. This renowned socio-political thought has been
named after two famous German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and it dated back to
the mid to late 19th century. Marxism, as a whole defines economic status of a society, analyses the
sociological structure, provides philosophical ideologies and directs revolutionary views of social
change. It is interesting to note that there is no fixed Marxist theory, it is applied to sundry subjects
and has been getting modified over decades by the followers of Marxism. In particular, Marxism is a
materialist interpretation of various sociological objectives over decades.

The economic organisations, since time immemorial, have been considered as the
rudimentary objects of society because all the social phenomena like socio-political systems, socio-
economic relations and overall development of society are based on this basic structure of society i.e.
economic strength. The world has been changing and modifying every day. Technological
development has been taking place every now and then. As a result, the existing forms of economic
organizations face challenge and the overall social development gets vitiated. This is the root cause of
class struggle, opined by the experts, which leads to the birth of proletariat and bourgeoisie. The
proletariats are the ones who are directly engaged with the methods of highly-productive mechanized
31
and socialized production1; whereas the bourgeoisie class belongs to the private ownership and profit
holders. The social division between these two antagonistic classes leads to social unrest, which is
popularly known as Marxian revolution. The result is the establishment of a unique socio-economic
system which is completely based on cooperative ownership and equal distribution of production.
According to Karl Marx, the advanced technology and socialism would give birth to a communist
stage of social development, which underlines a classless society.

Marxism is not centered only on socio-political condition of society. Rather it has developed
into different schools of thought which offers varied study on different aspects of society like mass
media, mass culture, feminism, economic crises, archaeology, anthropology, theater, art
history, art theory, cultural studies, education, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics,
critical psychology and philosophy. 2, 3, 4

Among the different schools of thought who believe in Marxism, the Frankfurt school and the
Birmingham school are most important. Lets have a brief discussion on both of them.

The Frankfurt School:

The Frankfurt School is a group of German-American theorists, who framed a powerful

analysis of the sociological changes in the Western capitalist societies, brought about by the classical
Marxism. Max Horkheimer, T.W. Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Leo Lowenthal, and Erich Fromm are
the notable names who worked at the Institut fur Sozialforschung in Frankfurt, Germany during late
1920s and early 1930s. They invented the necessity of mass culture and communication in social
reproduction and domination based on the critical social theory of Marxism. This school also
produced one of the renowned models of critical cultural studies that specifies various procedures of
cultural production, political economy, politics of cultural texts, audience reception and use of
cultural artifacts (Kellner 1989 and 1995). 5

The school came to know about the alarming growth of media culture which includes film,
music, radio, television and other forms of mass culture (Wiggershaus 1994) 6, while they moved
their visualization from Nazi Germany to American capitalist societies. The media production and its
uses in the USA, according to the Frankfurt school, was a form of commercial entertainment
influenced primarily by giant business houses and media barons.

The Frankfurt School just found themselves in an exile in the USA because of their structural
views, based on Marxism. According to Max Horkheimer and T.W. Adorno, the culture industry
means to call attention to the industrialization and commercialization of culture under capitalist
relations of production (1972). 7 This was explicit in the United States where the film or television
industries received minimum support from the government. Consequently, the media and its
production were completely controlled by large private bodies and other capitalist societies which
gave the birth of highly commercial mass culture. This commercialisation of media and its production
is one of the chief characteristics of the capitalist societies.

The Frankfurt School, in the 1930s also developed the term culture industry which mentions
the overall industrialisation of mass media and its productions, influenced by the private interest of
the media barons. The basic aims of this industrialisation of media content are three
commodification, standardization and massification.8

The Birmingham School:

The Birmingham School supported the radicalism of the first wave of the British cultural
studies. The University of Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in 1963 - 64,
established by Hoggart and Stuart Hall developed a variety of critical approaches regarding media and
its production.
32
 Stuart Hall analysed and stressed over the reciprocity in how cultural texts, focusing on the
idea of encoding / decoding even mass-produced products are used, questioning the valorized division
between "producers" and "consumers" that was evident in cultural theory such as that of Theodor
Adorno and the Frankfurt School.9

The School focussed on subculture, popular culture and media studies. The experts associated
with this School made an interdisciplinary approach to the study of culture, including Marxism, post-
structuralism, feminism and critical race theory. They also emphasised on several traditional
methodologies like sociology and ethnography. The Birmingham School mainly stressed on the
representation of various groups in the mass media and its production and also judged the effects over
the audience and interpreted the final outcome.

Mao Zedong and Maoism:

Maoism, a completely modified view of the Chinese political leader, Mao Zedong (1893
1976), reflects the anti-Revisionist form of Marxism-Leninism. It was considered as the political
hymn of the Communist Party of China (CPC) during 1950-60s. Maoism defines the agrarian class of
the society as the main driving force rather than the working class, which can turn the capitalist
society to a socialist state. Their belief was Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.10

Mao Zedong alias Mao Tse-tung was a renowned Chinese communist revolutionary cum
politician. Also popular as Chairman Mao, (26 December, 1893 9 September, 1976), he is known
to be the founding father of the People's Republic of China. He ruled China since its independence in
1949 as the Chairman of the Communist Party of China (CPC) till the last day of his life. It was
Mao, who transformed China into a single-party cum socialist state, where all major industries and
business houses were being nationalized under state ownership and controlled by the state itself. The
reformation based on socialism was implemented in all strata of society since Maos reign. Chairman
Mao was a believer of Marxism-Leninism and his ideologies reflect the same, but in a more vulgar
way.

Maoism compelled as well as mobilized large volume of rural populations in China and later
in many parts of the world to revolt against the established institutions through the means of guerrilla
warfare. According to this ideology, the division between urban and rural population is caused due to
the industrial development, which is fueled by capitalistic force. The capitalistic power, therefore, has
come to be known as First World societies, which has been ruling over the developing and
underdeveloped Third World nations. The peasantry movement under the tenets of Maoism,
therefore, attempts its best to overthrow the omnipresence of global cities by the global countryside
by means of national liberation movements in the Third World countries.

Maoism, though criticizes the urbanite capitalism, states that the expansion of capitalism to
rural areas would bring the overall economic development of the society as a whole, diminishing the
division between villages and cities. It also refers to the egalitarianism; i.e. equal rights to every strata
of society. The inequalities in society, according to the Maoists, are the brainchild of capitalist and
revisionist Communist party.

Maoism met its climax in China with the introduction of the Reform and Opening economic
policies by Deng Xiaoping. His ideologies opposed the fundamental beliefs of Maoism and greeted,
favoured as well as applied open market principles.

Maoism, widely considered as an antonym to mainstream politics, is practised in various parts

of the Third World nations and other developing nations including India. The naxalite movement in
India is completely influenced by the Maoist principles. The vulgarism and ultra left policies,
enshrined in Maoism, thus, has not at all helped the same to get endeared by the majority throughout

33
the world. Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) is the only political entity of Maoism which came to
power in Nepal through general election.

Naxalism:

The split of the Communist Party of India activists between Communist Party of India
(Marxist) (CPI-M) and Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) (CPI-ML) in the seventies led
to the birth of naxals, a group of people who firmly believes in ultra left communism. The basic of
naxalite philosophies owe to Maoism completely, but in a more turbulent way.

The naxalism movement in India was dated back to 1964 when it was first erupted in the
Naxalbari region of northern part of West Bengal. It is a small village in the Darjeeling district of
West Bengal. The term naxalism was also associated with the name of the place, Naxalbari.
Naxalism is considered by the political experts as a modified ideology taken a lot from Maoism. At
the onset, the naxalites mainly targeted the money lenders and landlords (zamindars). Later, they went
against the establishment of the democracy as well as the administration, based on the Constitution.
They even declared the Indian constitution as invalid and opaque, incapable of bringing equal justice
to all. Apart from that, the naxalites aka Maoists started to establish the so-called liberated areas. In
these areas, only the Maoists laws function at their fullest; which is completely unconstitutional and
illegal as per the Indian Constitution.

The Communist Party of India (Maoist), a naxal organisation was declared as a terrorist outfit
by the Union Government of India on June 22, 2009 after the Communist Party of India (Marxist
Leninist) (CPI-ML) had merged with the Marxist Coordination Committee (MCC).

Portrayal of naxalism in Indian films: A reference to Chakravyuh

Indian films have been portraying social issues since a long period. Dowry system, nexus
between politicians and underworld, social backwardness, eco-political views all these have been
picturised in Indian films. Representation of naxalism, therefore, is also not an exception. Several
Indian movies have been made on naxalism. Here a brief discussion has been made on Chakravyuh
regarding the portrayal of naxalism.

Chakravyuh, a Prakash Jha film, was released in the latter half of 2012. Based on the story
of the naxalite movement in the state of Madhya Pradesh, the film depicted the reasons of the naxalite
movement and the growing support of the tribal population of that region towards naxalism. The film
also provided enough light on the hidden causes of spreading naxalism in the backward and
underdeveloped regions of India. The entire middle and eastern India comprising of Madhya Pradesh,
Chattishgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh are now considered as the Red Zone
by the Indian administration.

The film narrates the story of the tribal uprising against the nexus between industrialists and
politicians which they consider as an attempt to overthrow them from their ancestral land and rights.
Apparently seeming violent, the film explored the root causes of naxalism in the tribal heartland
namely Nandi Ghat. Kabir (Abhay Deol), a simple urban guy, sought to help the police, particularly to
save his childhood friends (Adil aka Arjun Rampal the SSP of Bhopal) life from the Maoists. Kabir
put his life into risk as he joined Maoists keeping the later in a loop that he also belonged to the police
as a source. On the contrary, he was also identified by the local police as a naxal activist after he had
made a brawl with some policemen in the police custody and fled from the lock up. Actually it was a
planned game between Kabir and Adil in order to nab some dreadful Maoist leaders. Kabir, during his
association with the naxals came to know about the police atrocities on the tribal population and also
the violation of the human rights by the administration in the name of curbing naxalism. Rape,
encounter, physical torture, hafta (collection of money from the poor by the police on weekly basis)
- all these turned Kabir to a complete supporter of naxalism from a common man. He came to the
34
forefront of the news while he along with his three comrades blew up the police station inside jungle
and publicly hanged one police officer named Madhav, who was accused of raping the naxal leader
Juhi. While Adil met Kabir and requested him to come back, Kabir refused to join the mainstream
once again; asking his friend to leave the Nandi Ghat and confine within Bhopal city.

The film concludes with a heavy gun battle between the naxalites and police, while the
naxalites were led by Kabir aka Azad and the police team was following the commands of Adil.
Kabir, who refused to put down his gun even after his companion, Juhis death, received a bullet shot
right in his heart from Adils wife, who was also a friend of Kabir. The urbanite turned naxal, Kabir
wished a whole hearted success of the naxalites against all oppression of the administration towards
the tribal population. The film ends with the message that already 170 districts of various Indian states
are now considered as the breeding zone of Red Terror. Even the Prime Minister of India has
declared Maoism as the single largest threat to the India.

Plot analysis:

The film Chakravyuh has been rightly made in such a way so that audience would feel the
real aspects of tribal life right from the inception. The dense forest of sal, teak and bamboo was the
true representation of the hidden heartland of Maoists, hardly traceable by the administration. The
frequent visits of the armed naxalites at late night in the tribal villages and their dictatorship on the
poor tribal population, in real term proletariat, also directs the true message of Tribal-Maoist
connection to the audience. The police atrocities on the tribal population if the later fail to provide
information regarding the Maoists on one hand and the brutal punishment by the Maoists to the
offenders, who supply information to the police as well as administration have rightly reflected the
trap in which the tribals are confined in our country. The chopping of ear and the subsequent hacking
of a tribal character by Manoj Bajpayee, the commander of Maoists in this film portrays the Maoist
violence on the tribal people, for whose rights the Maoists usually claim to struggle against the state.
Police ka kutta, (dog of police) was the expression for those people who wanted to come out from
the naxalite control and finally they were destined to death. The deep relation between the naxalites
and the tribals has been exposed while Manoj Bajpayee announced in a public meeting Humar
movement janta ke liye, aukhor adhikaro ke raksha ke liye human akhir dum tak larbo. (Our
movement is for the tribals, we shall fight till the last drop of our blood to safeguard the peoples
interest.) Apart from that, the press meet of Manoj Bajpayee in a veiled face reminds us of Koteshwar
Rao alias Kishenji, a dreadful naxal leader, who used to meet the press after every successful attack
on security forces or political leaders in West Bengal. Kishenji, however, was killed in an encounter
between the CRPF and naxalites in 2012. Abhay Deols cast name Kabir was changed to Azad by Om
Puri (Professor Govind alias Dharam Prakash) when he joined the movement. This very name of
Azad11 reminds us of another dreadful naxalite politburo member, Cherukuri Rajkumar alias Azad,
who was gunned down by the police in the dense forests of Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh in 2010.

The sloganeering of Lal Salaam after every successful attack on the police force also reflects
the ism of naxalite movement in this film. Besides, the saga of the domestic torture on tribal women,
which compel them to follow the way of extremism, has also been depicted here. The movement of
the naxalites in a decorated troop from one place to another in the jungle world and their olive green
uniform armed with modern arms and ammunitions largely reflect the reality. Besides, the regular
meeting between the members, the formation of peoples court (Janata ki Adalat), the open
punishment, the firing squad and killing of offenders and violators of the said rules of Maoism all
show the right reflection of what is going on in the Maoist hit tribal heartland. The killing of Naga, a
naxalite character in this film because of his regular theft and misuses of funds, is really a horrifying
one.

35
Reference to other Indian films:

Apart from Chakravyuh, the naxalism has been portrayed in various other Hindi films and
regional films. Drohkaal, a film by Govind Nihalini in 1994 also picturised the dark sides of naxalite
movement. It basically expressed the countrys fight against naxalism as a whole. Padatik is a
renowned Bengali movie which was released in 1973 and depicted the life of a naxalite, trapped
between social obligations. This film was directed by Mrinal Sen. Aranyakam, a Malayalam film,
was directed by Hariharan and released in 1988. Hazaar Chaurasi Ki Maa, a Hindi feature film was
released in 1998 which narrated the life of a woman who lost her son, a naxalite in practice. It was
directed by Govind Nihalani. Red Alert: The War Within, is another Indian film which was released
in 2010 and depicted the true story of a person namely Narasimha who was trapped in a clash between
police and naxalites and was compelled to work with the naxals without his consent. It was directed
by Ananth Narayan Mahadevan.

Conclusion:

It has been reported that almost 231 districts of 13 states including 3 districts in the NCR are
now the target of the Red Battalion who dreams to grab the Delhi ka masnad (throne of Delhi) by
2050.12 Film is the mirror of society. It reflects what is going around the society as a whole. Human
life is influenced by the socioeconomic factors and films portray the human life, affected by different
socio-economic factors. In every film, where naxalism has been portrayed, finally ends with a
message of social gap between the rulers and the ruled. All the naxal movies aim to reflect the societal
division between two distinct classes, i.e. proletariat and bourgeoisie; with an attempt by the
government to curb the menace of naxalism. But the final outcome is still pending in films as well as
in reality. Violence can never be the solution of any problem. Sometimes violence claims success, but
it is for a while. Only peaceful steps can bring solution, be it naxalism, terrorism and any other serious
issue. Hope the dawn would come soon with a new serene look.

Notes and References:

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism
2. Wolff and Resnick, Richard and Stephen (August 1987). Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. The Johns
Hopkins University Press. p. 130
3. Bridget O'Laughlin (1975), Marxist Approaches in Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology. Vol. 4: pp. 341
70 (October 1975)
4. Becker, S. L. (1984). "Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience", Critical Studies in Mass
Communication, 1(1): pp. 6680.
5. Kellner, Douglas. (1989). Critical Theory, Marxism, and Modernity. Cambridge and Baltimore: Polity and John
Hopkins University Press. (1995) Media Culture. Cultural Studies, Identity, and Politics Between the Modern and the
Postmodern. London and New York: Routledge.
6. Wiggershaus, Rolf (1994), The Frankfurt School. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
7. Kellner, Douglas. The Frankfurt School. Web link: http://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/papers/fs.htm
8. Kellner, Douglas. The Frankfurt School. Web link: http://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/papers/fs.htm
9. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. Wikipedia. Web link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Centre_for_Contemporary_Cultural_Studies
10. Zedong, Mao. The Little Red Book. (1964). Web link: http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong
11. Ashok Das, Naxal politburo leader Azad gunned down in Andhra Pradesh, Hindustan Times, Hyderabad online
Edition, July 02, 2010.
Web Link: http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/SouthIndia/Naxal-politburo-leader-Azad-gunned-down-in-
Andhra-Pradesh/Article1-566303.aspx
12. Man Mohan, Taking on the Reds, The Tribune, 2nd June edition, 2013. p. 11.

36
Notes:

Guerrilla warfare: A form of irregular warfare. Small group of combatants like armed civilians or protestors, rebel groups
or the state sponsored army or police when use various kinds of military tactics like ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare,
hit-and-run tactics, etc, is known as guerrilla warfare.
First World societies: Countries belonging to G-8, (USA, UK, Russia, Germany, France, Canada, Italy and Japan)
Global cities: Cities of developed and developing countries like Tokyo, New York, Madrid, Cairo, Nairobi, etc. Global
cities mean those cities which are globally renowned because of their advancements in various perspectives.
Liberated Areas: The areas which are considered by the Maoists as their own independent zones for movement as well as
hotbeds in our country.
hafta: This term is originated from local dialect. It means the collection of money from the poor or the oppressed by the
oppressor on weekly basis. The antisocial elements or some political cadres play the role of the oppressor in different parts
of our country. Sometimes the oppressor is found in uniform too.
Proletariat: The class of wage-earners i.e. industrial workers in a capitalist society who can only own their physical labour-
power. The individual of this class is known as a proletarian. Sometimes, it also refers to the group of people who have
nothing left to own or possess.

Bibliography:

1. Gimenez, Martha E. (2001). Marxism and Class, Gender and Race: Rethinking the Trilogy. Race, Gender and Class,
Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 2333.
2. Vattimo, Gianni and Zabala, Santiago. (2011). Hermeneutic Communism: From Heidegger to Marx. Columbia
University Press. p. 122.
3. Badgley, John H. & Lewis, John Wilson. (1974). Peasant Rebellion and Communist Revolution in Asia. Stanford,
California, USA: Stanford University Press, p. 249.
4. Meisner, Maurice. (1999). Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, p. 44.
5. Lowe, Donald M. (1966). The Function of "China" in Marx, Lenin, and Mao. Berkeley: University of California Press,
pp. 118, 119.

37
Partition of Bengal & the Refugee Woman: Ritwik Ghataks Oeuvre

Mr. Rajesh Das

Assistant Professor
Department of Mass Communication
University of Burdwan, Golapbag , Burdwan
Mob: 09051355065
Email: rajesh.das.cal@gmail.com
Introduction

Dr. Pratap Bhanu Mehta, a noted scholar and a former member of National Knowledge
Commission, has commented in his critique of Mr. Jaswant Singhs controversial book viz. Jinnah :
India Partition Independence in Indian Express on August 22, 2009:

Writing about the politics of Partition in the right register seems impossible. Entrenched
ideological commitments, the desire for explanations, the need to apportion blame, and a preoccupation
with subtexts make the history almost impossible to write. Writing on Partition also suffers from a
peculiarly unimaginative take on human agency. How anyone could in the 1930s and 40s have imagined
what the Indian subcontinent would be like? How do such a complicated and brilliant cast of political
characters engage in complex political negotiations? How easy is it to read intentions? What is the
relationship between the negotiations of these characters and the complex movements of self and identity
brewing on the ground? How do we think of possible counterfactuals: if only Nehru had done X or
Mountbatten had done Y? There has always been a false confidence with which so many historians
approach these difficult questions. There is also the wishing away of uncomfortable thoughts. Men acting
in good faith can produce unintended consequences; and often two incompatible lines of argument seem
to have their own internal integrity. It is easy to argue that Hindus and Muslims were not two nations. It is
far more difficult to suggest what framework would have accommodated all possible aspirations. It is far
too easy to take a position on should India have been a strong, central state or a weak federation. But it is
more difficult to make a knockdown argument for one position or the other. Yet, we write and argue as if
all these judgments are so easy. Certainly, none of the characters central to this drama - Jawaharlal Nehru,
Mahatma Gandhi, Vallabhbhai Patel or Mohammed Ali Jinnah - ever thought there were easy answers.
Their moments of self doubt, hesitation and frustration are a tribute to their seriousness, as much as our
encrusted certainties are a reminder of the laziness of our condescension (Mehta, 2009).

The Partition historiography for the Indian subcontinent is still problematized by deliberations of
different schools of thoughts, especially in recent years since the celebration of the 50th anniversary of
Indian independence and also due to the renewed interest of both academics and media after Kargil war. It
is really a difficult task to disentangle the truth from the fiction, or in other words, the facts from their
interpretations. The subject is multidimensional in nature and a multi-layered nuanced study is warranted
for doing justice to it. Partition narratives and its derivative discourses are carried out in conjunction with
political correlatives such as communal riots, independence and formation of nation states, post
colonialism and so on.

Partition can be represented and analysed to its fullest implications from various paradigms viz.
canons of modernist historiography (Daniel Moore) , [including all three schools viz. Nationalist,
Cambridge and Marxist], Subaltern studies, Post colonialism and postmodernism, critical analysis for
literary sources, content analysis of print and electronic media elements, textual analysis of films,
psychoanalysis, transnational and diasporic study, feminism and women study etc. A case study based on
selective elements of some of these methodologies is attempted here to project the representation of
Partition episode in Bengali Films in the post independent era.

38
Scope and Coverage of the Study

The partition of India in general and Bengal in particular is such a catastrophic event in this
Indian subcontinent that its trauma rends all limits of imagination (Pandey, Gyanendra. 2001). Such
characterization may appear to intimate the inability of explication or signification, but the real nature of
psychological trauma, according to Freudian psychology (Freud, Sigmund. 1920), transgress the
Cartesian space-time delineation and seeks to spill over from the collective memory time and again till its
proper resolution. This is evident in post-partition experience of the two and/or three body politics viz.
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The triggering events such as earlier India- Pakistan wars, Bangladesh
Liberation war, Riots following the murder of Indira Gandhi in New Delhi and suburbs around, Babri
Masjid demolition, Kargil war and constant eruptions of cross-border terrorism in Kashmir and Ladakh
areas and the communal clash following Godhara incident in Gujarat in 2002 taken together only
resuscitate the specter of Partition.

With this perspective in mind, the study will dwell on the filmic representation of Partition
episode with reference to the post-independent Bengali cinema to delve into the visual mapping of the
accompanying trauma which eventually seeks to transform the cultural matrix of Bengal. The major
objectives of this study would be as follows:

1. To ascertain in brief the nature of political and cultural separation Bengal was subjected to and
its impact on the Bengali psyche with its idiosyncratic articulation in cultural retrospectives.
2. To differentiate the post-partition scenario of Bengal in comparison with Punjab where the
effigy of partition exists in the border which is hard to burn in. It attends to the status of a trans-
temporal reality.
3. To strive for drawing up a discourse on trauma aesthetics and its necessary canons for
responsible representation of partition discourses after taking into account the underlying ethical
concerns.
4. To engage in the discursive analysis of the narrative history of Partition trauma and about the
newly-developed film genre viz. melodrama as the chosen medium for representing a traumatic
collective reality such as Partition by cascading with it the new realistic music montage and
other cinematic signifiers such as archetypes.

Though there are certain common characteristics as observed by the film critiques on the
exposition of Partition as a theme in cinematic media between all-India movies of Bollywood made in
Hindi and those made in Bengal, there are certain specific characteristics such as regional or so-called sub
national elements in case of Bengali projections which underlay their separate study altogether. The
abiding reason for choosing Bengali Cinema in particular is also due to the fact that pioneering
contribution has been made in this regard by Ritwik Ghatak alone in depiction of socio-economic and
psychological trauma in post-partition Bengali psyche. Owing to the limitation of space and available
archives, the present study is restricted to the evaluation of the stated objectives with respect to the
Bengali film Meghe Dhaka Tara (The Cloud-Capped Star, 1962) by Ritwik Ghatak. There will be passing
references to other films for bringing forth certain salient points they inhere in proximate and contrasting
correlation with my selected film.

Methodology

In the present study on portrayal of Partition in Bengali Film in post-independent era, case study
is considered as the method of analysis. The reason for this is that the underlying subject warrants for a
non-experimental type of research and draws heavily on inter-disciplinary and emerging fields of social
and cultural studies such as diasporic study, transnational cinema and psychoanalysis along with the usual
methodologies recommended in the film study proper such as textual analysis of films.

39
 As Goode & Hatt (1981) suggest in their book viz. Methods in Social Research the case study is
not a specific technique rather it is one way of organising social data for the purpose of viewing social
reality. It tends to examine a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social group, a
social institution or even a community. The case study method in studying a subject such as Partiton of
Bengal is necessitated here as the partition as a historical event is not amenable to ex-post facto field
study but it has acquired a historical nature by collapsing the linear time records due to its trauma
experienced recursively in the post-partition existence of the partitioned selves. Here I have thus utilized
the interviews of Govind Nihalni from published secondary literatures juxtaposing them with the
interview on the basis of a questionnaire prepared by me. I have also drawn inputs from the seminal
works done by scholars and academicians in their published books and research thesis.

Partition and Trauma: A Review of Literature

Sudhir Kakar in The colors of violence ponders as such that partition violence is commonly
agreed to have been the momentous event in the shaping of Hindu-Muslim relations in independent India
(1996, 37-38). Any discourse on culture, representation and identity in South Asia is intertwined with the
Partition and its consequent unprecedented scale of communal violence and migration thus claiming
approximately one million lives and displacing approximately 8-10 million people during the summer of
1947. As Ritu Menon and Kamala Bhasin comment : By the time the migrations were finally over, about
eight million people had crossed the newly created boundaries of Punjab and Bengal, carrying with them
memories of a kind of violence that the three communities had visited upon each other that was
unmatched in scale, brutality and intensity (Butalia, 1998). According to Ashis Nandy (2006), at
midnight between 14 and 15 August 1947, independence in Pakistan and in India dawned with birth
pangs with the partitioned selves violently subjected to a geography of trauma which is delineated by the
indelible scars of trauma inscribed into the landscape of the South Asian identity, both at individual and
collective level.

Some recent Partition scholarship emphasizes the importance of recording oral history or, so to
say, meta-history admitting the fact that previous explorations ignored personal recollections of the
unprecedented violence and mass exodus that marked the summer of 1947. Of note are Jill Didurs
(2006) Unsettling Partition, Gyanendra Pandeys (2001) Remembering Partition, Suvir Kauls (2001)
edited volume The Partitions of Memory, and Sukeshi Kamras (2002) Bearing Witness, to name only a
few that help to unfold the Partitions multi-dimensional history and movingly augment the experiential
dimension of Partition violence as integral to our historical understanding of that event. It has been,
however, the turn to literary representations and criticism and the collection of survivor testimony that has
addressed memory, and specifically memory of the past and its influence on the present, as a crucial
factor in beginning to understand the meaning of Partition history in those who actually lived through that
momentous separation and continue to live it in the stories they hear and the memories that haunt their
waking and sleeping hours [Yusin 2009:454-455].

Urvashi Butalia, author of the famous chronicle of Partition in Punjab viz. The Other Side of
Silence (1998) has thus observed: A serious gap is the omission of experiences in Bengal and East
Pakistan (Bangladesh). But these required detailed attention of their own: better not to pay lip service by
including an interview or two. The one-time exchange of population in Punjab alongside its better and
near total rehabilitation can be contrasted with the state of the people of two Bengals where Partition do
not pertain to a historical past thus ending in 1947, but the continuous flow of population across the
porous borders and the accompanying trauma persists always in the real time as the present. Even
while receding into a past of over half a century, partition remains a reality, more so as it becomes a
concentrated metaphor for violence, fear, domination, difference, separation and the unsatisfactory
resolution of problems; a metaphor, in one word, for the past, one that goes on making the present
inadequate (Samaddar 2001: 22). Keeping such profound anachronistic dimension of the historical

40
rupture based on the Colonial divide and rule strategy using the animadverted notion of two-nation theory
in view, it is also observed that The communal partitioning of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent did not
solve the communal problem in that sub-continent. The Partition left as many persons in communal
minority in the subcontinent as there were earlier. However, the fact of partition added a bitter edge to
Hindu-Muslim antagonism both in India and Pakistan (Naidu, 1980).

It is common to the people residing in a particular territory that they share certain cultural traits
and socio-economic bonds. Partition on the basis of the religious or caste difference rends apart this
shared cultural ethos and disrupts the long-standing socio-economic equilibrium achieved across the
religious or caste lines. The psychological trauma of being evicted from ones homeland and the loss of
kinship causes serious imbalance in the mindset of the affected subjects (Bagchi, J & Dasgupta, S. 2007).

The signifiers such as trauma, disaster, catastrophe often tend to project partition
historiography operating on the outcome/cause binary. The categorization of this historical epoch as the
rupture or adversity also points to the agency of certain historical and sociopolitical forces for bringing
about such outcome. In India, the association of local territory with group is an achievement of partition,
has exemplified this kind of thinking (Jassal and Ben-Ari, 2006). According to Pandey, the partition
historians overarching concern for locating the cause of the cataclysm by following a nuanced distance
created in their discursive space overemphasizes the underlying unity perception of foundations nature
thus undermining the issue of post-partition trauma and suffering of the people as well as the diversity of
the sub-cultures forming the constituent strata of the polity [Pandey 2001: 45]. This undue emphasis on
cause is counterpoised with the result or effect criterion applied to the episode of partition. David
Gilmartin observes that the violence of partition itself has resisted effective integration with the political
narrative of partitions causes.(Gilmartin 1998).

In the early discourses of partition historiography of the Indian sub-continent, the correlation
between testimony, memory and witnessing are not deliberated upon with concomitant underscoring or
significant denial or erasure from collective consciousness of the trauma of partition and the
accompanying communal riots. Such silence as active forgetting contrast with active remembrance
strategy adopted by Arab and Jewish culture needs further deliberation. The one of the reasons for this
apprehension in the scholastic circle is due to the state hegemony over the collective memory which is
thus subservient to the hierarchy of power and also to the legitimization of states claim to represent the
entire Indian mass. At least where partition history was concerned, there was a contradiction in the
history we knew, and that we had learnt, and the history that people remembered (Butalia 1998: 350).
This argument for forgetting is cogent to the extent that we do not delve into the psychology of trauma.
Keeping in view of the restricted scope of our study to Bengal only, it can be said that the never-ending
onslaught of partition in terms of the terrible socioeconomic cost and the ongoing migration of diasporic
group has been the main cause of the initial silence as well as for the relatively less coverage of the actual
political aspects of Partition in Bengali Literature and cultural artefacts. The topos in this period
comprises of allusive references to the historical cataclysm with emphasis on the portrayal of the
aftermath of partition in the psycho-social life of the diaspora. Partition in India in general and Bengal in
particular is still unfinished today (Chatterji 1999: 186) and thus conjures up the several inter-related
discourses such as of caste and religious identities, majority-minority relationships and the diaspora-
migration issues by its extension across time and space to affect the collective conscience and
imagination.

Partition in Bengali Film: Ritwik Ghataks Oeuvre

a. Ritwik and Bengali Cultural Milieu

Bashabi Fraser has thus eulogized Ritwik Ghatak as, Any work on the Bengal Partition seems
incomplete without reference to Ritwik Ghataks work (Fraser 2008, 3). The trauma of partition haunted

41
Ritwiks life and cinematic engagements in the same measure as the Vietnam War in the case of Jean-Luc
Godard. He himself figured out the overarching significance of this event thus, The engulfing
uncertainty the fracture that I see - the roots are in the splintering of Bengal....The present anarchic state
of affairs prevailing in the country is the direct result of the shape of independence we got in 47 (Sarkar
2009: 200).
Ghatak on another conversation projected vividly his intimate engagement with the theme:
I have not been able to break loose from this theme in all the films I have made recently. What I
have found most urgent is to present to the public eye the crumbling appearance of a divided Bengal to
awaken the Bengalis to an awareness of their state and a concern for their past and future(Ghatak 2000:
49). The parallel for this kind of obsession can be located in the works of the famous sculptor
Somnath Hore. Throughout his career he would return to the idea of the wound, as a fissure
which would not heal. This was made manifest in his white on white 'Wound Series' made from paper
pulp. For Hore the process of producing the viscosity of the paper pulp was a simile for the formation of a
wound.
b. Representation of Partition in Meghe Dhaka Tara
Focusing primarily on one work of his Partition trilogy viz. Meghe Dhaka Tara the endeavour
would be to delineate his stylistic signature and fusion of different paradigms of cinematic creation with a
in view to exploring his abiding intention to frame the partitioned psyche and traumatized human
existence. Overarching preoccupation with partition may apparently insinuate the critic to point to his
pensive attitude and reckless lifestyle, but with careful study of his writings and films in the context of
renewed interest on the subject by the recent scholars and academics would only point to the gravity of
his perception. As Prof. Moinak Biswas pointed out, it is possible to address the question of selfhood
and form in his work in connection with the project of remembrance he undertakes, keeping in mind the
essential challenge his films pose: they sound the recall, but on the other hand, they refuse to accept a
chronology that demands submission to its logic of violence. To come to terms with history did not mean
in Ghatak's work accepting it essentially as progress, or accepting the present as the only possible
outcome of its processes. Which is perhaps why the outward journey from the country to the city, figured
as destiny, celebrated as movement towards an envisaged future would make him uncomfortable?
(Biswas 2004)
Here we again indulge in drawing a parallel between Ritwiks constant engagements with the
partition as the theme with the similar oeuvre of Somnath Hore as the latter dwells on the theme of wound
to reflect on the pangs of historical rupture. According to Somnath, Wounds is what I see everywhere
around me. A scarred tree, a road gouged by a truck tyre, a man knifed for no visible or rational reason.

Ritwik Ghataks creative era is preceded by the age of the convulsions of the 1940s - World War II,
the terrible "man-made famine" of 1944, the communal violence that came with independence, and
especially the partition of Bengal, which obsessed him throughout his life. His subjects and discourses are
almost invariably centered round the uprooted and the displaced: parentless children, homeless families,
disoriented refugees, and the petit bourgeoisie, economically broken by their exile. Yet, as in the fatal
vision of Robert Bresson, there is a glimmer of hope in even the darkest moments. As far as his artistic
genius is concerned, one could notice that Ritwik could carve out a niche not only in Bengali parallel
cinema as the film-makers film-maker, an artistes artiste (Sarkar 2009, 205), but hailed as a truly
avant garde impulse within the Indian cultural field(Sarkar 1999, 49). He thus improvised his own
cinematic language by juxtaposing the neorealist strategies and melodramatic cliches, leftist critique and
creative appropriation of Indian folklore/mythology, sentimental excess and avant-garde formalism (e.g.,
Eisensteinian editing techniques, Brechtian alienation effects, an intricate and often contrapuntal layering
of images and sounds), internationalist impulses and local nuances to challenge the conventional norms of
parallel cinema.

42
 According to Prof. Moinak Biswas, Ghatak took one rupture in the history he witnessed as
central - the partition of Bengal. As he went on extending that event into a metaphor for everything that
was alienating and destructive in the experience of his community, and talked about the pervasive
degeneration of his country sometimes solely in terms of it, he faced puzzlement and even
incomprehension from his contemporaries. Wasn't he being obsessed with a single event? Wasn't he
living in the past, cutting himself off from the contemporary? The full irony of the situation is probably
now coming to light: the Partition -a joint treachery committed by the colonial power and the nationalist
leadership -cost millions of lives (mainly in Punjab and Bengal, but also in other provinces as the
communal riots spread) and left millions homeless ..., but had hardly any thematic impact on film or
literature. People forgot to talk about it. In the face of this silence the history model of narration itself had
to be played with, it had to be crossed with elements borrowed from traditional community- centered
forms - epic, chronicle play, allegory, musical theatre. But in the face of historical denial Ghatak would
also resort to a drama where a few hapless characters would say just that we deny it'. These are people
who howl against the rocks that they want to live, who place negation against negation by closing the
circle before violent interdictions of change. A particular kinship relation takes on an acute dimension in
this drama. It works to defeat the melodrama of couple formation even as it destroys the logic of the
other, pre-bourgeois melodrama: the feudal family romance (Biswas, 2004).

Thus Ritwik Ghataks oeuvre was to forge a cinematic idiom capable of not only capturing the
agonizing psychological impact and the resulting trauma of an watershed event of history generated
afterwards posing the limits for its representation in all forms, but also of drawing his viewers attention
into a critical encounter with their contemporary reality. The dual objectives as stated are partially
responsible for the underlying stylistic fusion and complicated nature of his exercise which ultimately
disengages itself from the representational canons of both the humanist realism as well as the purely
affective mechanism of melodrama for such communication. This dialectic mode of articulation marks the
Partition trilogy in which Ritwik has categorically voiced his anger and anguishes over the division of
Bengal. His aesthetic and emotional concern for the fractured polity is thus communicated through these
films in terms of the genre-specific conventions of domestic melodrama and the figurative use of a young
woman of delicate nature yet strong to represent the embodied pathos of contemporary Bengali psyche
with all its predicaments in relation to the partition. All three films have the melancholic theme
underlying the story and the portrayal of the details of the trauma of the uprooted diaspora following
neorealistic canons, but often subverted by the intentional use of melodramatic excess intertwined
visually and aurally with the mythic and folk references and inflexed by the modernist fragmentation
interspersed with marked self-reflexivity.

Meghe Dhaka Tara is a masterpiece in the history of Indian Cinema for several reasons. The most
noticeable one is the socio-political and cultural metamorphosis undergone in the life of the diaspora in
their hostland due to their coerced migration the aftermath of the historical cataclysm is projected on
cinematic space juxtaposing this tense state of affairs with the evocation of mythic allusion apparently
interpreted by the film commentators as returns to the epic But it initiates the trend of new cinema of
grand poetic conscience. Dialogical reference to the epic is significantly meant for the exploration of the
deeper roots of the inherent collective existence which faces existential as well as cultural shock. The film
abstains from any direct engagement with nationality and identity discourse issues with its chosen
cinematic representation of the genre of melodrama in view to enrich the concerned tradition of Indian
films by its creative appropriation of melody for the memory and movements for the mythic type of
gesticulation. It also problematizes the nationalist discourses by challenging their truth-claims in
cinematic idiom. Ritwik willfully breaks from the iconic figuration of a conventional epic by use of the
contra-puntal sound element or the contrast between the melody and dissonance. This kind of creative
distortion and displacement emerges out of the intended state of imbalance that those images are
subjected to for portraying the uprooted psyche of the diaspora. Almost the entire film is shot with a

43
16mm lens. The film has recursive use of uncanny close-ups upto the point they are able to dissolve as the
masks of illumination transcending the topographical and sociopolitical space.

The film has a realistic dimension as it was inspired by a girl on a bus stop. Ritwik peeped at her
and visualized the sorrowful plight of Bengali women leading their battle for the sustenance of their
family in the post-partition milieu. In the opening sequence, across a river, a train is shown moving across
the frame from the right to the left. The use of the train as leitmotif in the other sequences is a signifier of
the distance between the kinships and the distance between the two countries so separated by partition.
The establishing shot of the film frames a pond and a tree. The landscapes made of motifs such as tree
and the water is also appropriated to signify the idea of shelter or refuge and the primal force of creation
respectively. Both are explicated with the role of Nita in this film.

The films basic narrative structure is constructed around eight movements in which Nita is
shown to return home after a days work outside. Through these gradual figurative movements, she is thus
projected to be increasingly involved in her role of sustaining the family facing economic crisis. Each
new movement makes the homeward journey more stressful till the climactic moment when she gets
alienated from the reality and withdraws into the virtual space of myth. Being cast within the paradox of
benevolent and cruel typage of the nurturing mother, she is both exploited by her own mother as well as
her younger sister and brother. As with the turn of the plot, all the younger members of the family quit the
home for a better life outside, the bitter irony of homeward movements poignantly caters to the terminal
illness. No more option remains left for Nita except for her withdrawal as the childhood romance turns
into sheer desperation for survival. The dream for hills signifies the return to ritual nature after the
collapse of the cultural life.

The allegory of Durgas immersion after her stay at fathers place for a fortnight is referred to in
the film. Finally the ritual is reenacted by Nitas father and Shankar, the elder brother under the sheer
stress of melodrama with mythic reference. This is the climactic point in the film where the entire
physical space ceases to accommodate the terminally ill Nita. The cinematic representation parcels her to
the virtual space as she is displaced in her failing relationships with her beau as her younger sister takes
up her position there and her younger brother stay in the factorys guest house for better food. Her elder
brother whom she was most intimate with leaves the house in protest against the injustice delivered on her
by the family. Nitas descent into the abyss is thus complete. Even when she is about to loose her identity
with the indifferent nature, the film restores her in compassion.

Home in this film is a site for captivity, alienation and repression. This is frequently projected
through the twists and the turns of the popular narrative of melodramatic genre in post-partition Indian
scenario both for fiction and film. But the fact is especially treated by Ritwik by framing Nita in repeated
shots behind the bars of window, in some cases looking through them towards the outside world. Captive
framing of Nitas face within the enclosed space of the shot is used at a crucial sequence when she pays a
surprise visit to her boyfriend and finds in turn, to her surprise, that he is now in secret romance with her
own sister due to the indulgence given by her own mother. Stupefied as she is on her exit from Sanats
apartment and while she descends slowly the staircase, we hear the nondiegetic whiplash sound on the
soundtrack and find Nita at the right edge of the frame captured by means of an extremely low angle shot.
The camera lingers on her upward look as she comes down the stairs unceremoniously and then captures
her gently to an extreme close-up shot when she raises her hand to grasp her throat in this crying moment.
The purpose is not only to conjure up a keen awareness of the level of betrayal and the injustice of the
situation, but also to contextualize the larger betrayals and injustices practiced on the socio-political
scenario leading to the Partition. Ultimately in the stair scene, the image of Nita gets obliterated as the
camera focuses on the skyline of Calcutta along with the shadows of the courtyard of Nitas house
signifying Nitas entrapment and self-effacing status. The city of Calcutta and the courtyard, regarded
traditionally as the centre of Bengali home, are both represented here as the site of claustrophobic spaces

44
which signify the microcosmic version of the searing traditional centre linked with the regional/national
binary constructs.

Conclusion

Partition trilogy and Ritwiks representation of Indias holocaust can be viewed thus as an
important addition into the critical discourses between Holocaust historians and those engaged in
recuperating and representing accounts of Holocaust survivors. Conforming to some extent to LaCapras
concerns, Ritwiks film and the specific dynamics of Indias Partition trauma successfully employ the
middle voice and efforts to produce some form of empathic unsettlement in the narrative structure of the
film by focusing on the specifically human dimension around the partition of India, representing a
moment of history that is, on its own accord, highly ambiguous when it comes to assigning guilt.It would
be pertinent to conclude by pointing to a touching scene from Meghe Dhaka Tara as we quote from
Sarkar (2009, 221)

When Neetas father learns of her illness, he shouts out in an automatic reflex: I accuse... The
next shot shows him from behind, his arm outstretched, finger pointing ahead. Neetas brother, who
stands facing the father and the camera, asks nervously, Whom? In response, the father, now in a
frontal medium shot, only manages a feeble no-body as his face quivers and his hand comes trembling
down. The interpretation advanced by Sarkar for this scene reads as such: Not the only family, but also a
wider, inchoate apparatus of exploitation in modern Bengal, is held responsible for Neetas tragedy
[Sarkar 2009, 221].

Does it conform to the LaCapras criteria of empathic unsettlement? The answer to such question
warrants for a serious research and deliberation.

By echoing Bhaskar Sarkars cogent analysis, we sum up to delineate the ethical dilemma as well
as the route to avoid perpetual retraumatization of Partition as the watershed moment of Indian History in
relation to its representation in artistic arena : What emerges from the preceding discussion is an overall
hermeneutic of mourning, its arc running from the halting allusions and fragmentary articulations of the
early years to the more explicit and often totalizing representations of the past two decades. Nevertheless,
the hermeneutic itself remains highly tenuous: full of gaps and recursions, detours and disarticulations, it
embodies the vicissitudes of memory work now further compounded in the context of social suffering
endured in the form of an abiding sense of loss and the periodic, more flagrant outbreaks of violence. If
traumatic experiences produce difficulties of comprehension and narrativization, then shards of memory
continue to be available for myriad interpretations and political appropriations. A Freudian understanding
of mourning work (trauerarbeit) presupposes and promises a process of rationally working through the
experience of loss, whereby subjects come to terms with it. Extending this model to the collective level,
one might argue, following Adorno, that a society must overcome the objective conditions that produced
the trauma in the first place. In post-Partition South Asia, this involves accepting and moving beyond the
territorial truncation and the material and psychic losses it inaugurates.including the loss of an ideal of
unity, and a searing sense of betrayal that puts to question the very future of the community. There is
nothing in the social production of meaning and affective communities that guarantees such outcomes
(Sarkar, 2008).

An Anthology of Bengali Films on Partition and its Subsequent Trauma

Dasgupta, Buddhadeb, Tahader Katha, NFDC Production, 1993.

Dasgupta, Sukumar, Ora Thake Odhare, S.M.Productions 1954.
Ghatak, Ritwik Kumar, Komal Gandhar, Chirakalpa 1961.
Ghatak, Ritwik Kumar, Meghe Dhaka Tara, Chitrakalpa 1960.

45
Ghatak, Ritwik Kumar, Nagarik, Surama Ghatak, 1977.
Ghatak, Ritwik Kumar, Subarnarekha, J.J.Film Corporation, 1965.
Ghosh, Nimai, Chhinnamul, Desha Pictures ,1951.
Tarafdar, Rajen, Palanka, 1976.
Tanvir, Mokammel, Chitra Nadir Pare, 1999.
Sen, Salil, Natun Ihudi, Eastern Artists Ltd, 1953.
Sen, Supriyo, Way Back Home: A Documentary, 2002.

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453-468.

Footnotes

Robert Bresson (1901 1999) was a French film director known for his spiritual, ascetic and aesthetic style. He contributed
notably to the art of film and influenced the French New Wave. He is often referred to as the most highly regarded French
filmmaker after Jean Renoir. Bresson's influence on French cinema was once described by Jean-Luc Godard, quoting "Robert
Bresson is French cinema, as Dostoevsky is the Russian novel and Mozart is the German music.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bresson)Alienation effect, also called a-effect or distancing effect,

47
German Verfremdungseffekt ( in German) or estrangement effect, idea central to the dramatic theory of the German dramatist-
director Bertolt Brecht (1935). It involves the use of techniques designed to distance the audience from emotional involvement in
the play through jolting reminders of the artificiality of the theatrical performance.
Examples of such techniques include explanatory captions or illustrations projected on a screen; actors stepping out of character
to lecture, summarize, or sing songs; and stage designs that do not represent any locality but that, by exposing the lights and
ropes, keep the spectators aware of being in a theatre. The audiences degree of identification with characters and events is
presumably thus controlled, and it can more clearly perceive the real world reflected in the drama.
(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15423/alienation-effect)

Eisensteinian editing techniques offers discontinuity in graphic qualities, violations of the 180 degree rule, and the creation of
impossible spatial matches. It is not concerned with the depiction of a comprehensible spatial or temporal continuity as is found
in the classical Hollywood continuity system. It draws attention to temporal ellipses because changes between shots are obvious,
less fluid, and non-seamless.]
Eisenstein describes five methods of montage in his introductory essay "Word and Image". These varieties of montage build one
upon the other so the "higher" forms also include the approaches of the "simpler" varieties. In addition, the "lower" types of
montage are limited to the complexity of meaning which they can communicate, and as the montage rises in complexity, so will
the meaning it is able to communicate (primal emotions to intellectual ideals). It is easiest to understand these as part of a
spectrum where, at one end, the image content matters very little, while at the other it determines everything about the choices
and combinations of the edited film.
Eisenstein's montage theories are based on the idea that montage originates in the "collision" between different shots in an
illustration of the idea of thesis and antithesis. This basis allowed him to argue that montage is inherently dialectical, thus it
should be considered a demonstration of Marxism and Hegelian philosophy. His collisions of shots were based on conflicts of
scale, volume, rhythm, motion (speed, as well as direction of movement within the frame), as well as more conceptual values such
as class. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_montage_theory)
Dominick LaCapra (born 1939) is an American-born European historian. LaCapra's work has helped to transform intellectual
history and its relations to cultural history as well as other approaches to the past. His goal has been to explore and expand the
nature and limits of theoretically informed historical
understanding.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominick_LaCapra His work explores and elaborates the use in historical
studies of techniques developed in literary studies and aesthetics, including close reading, rhetorical analysis, and the problem of
the interaction between texts or artifacts and their contexts of production and
reception.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominick_LaCapra In addition to its role in the field of history, LaCapra's
work has been widely discussed in other humanities and social science disciplines, notably with respect to trauma theory and
Holocaust studies. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominick_LaCapra)
In 1917, in his famous essay Mourning and Melancholy, Freud recognizes two mutually exclusive responses to loss
mourning [Trauer] and melancholia [Melancholie]. This sharp distinction between the two responses has long since become
almost synonymous with the understanding of a normal versus a pathological reaction to loss, and the clear demarcation
between them. At the outset of Freuds article the two responses would seem closely related, but the question of the acceptance
and acknowledgement of the loss complicates the picture and draws them apart. (http://erea.revues.org/413)

48
Small Arms and Light Weapons Proliferation and its Implication
for West African Regional Security

Mr. Bashir Malam

(PhD, candidate in the Political Science of the Faculty of graduate Studies,
University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka)
Email:bashirpindiga@yahoo.com.
Phone No. +94715467419; +2348036245263

Abstract
One of the fundamental obstacles to peace and security in West Africa is the presence and
continued proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW). The proliferation of small arms
constitutes a major source of destruction to lives and properties and exacerbates inter-communal
tensions leading to full-fledge conflicts. Most of the West African borders are porous, thus, making it
easy for entry and exit of arms, drugs, as well as traffic of humans. More so, the high level of
corruption in most of these countries compounds these security challenges especially face by states
and the regional efforts at large. This study examines the impacts of small arms proliferation on the
West African regional security. It assesses the efforts of the regional body in combating the menace
with a view to proffer suggestions on how to address the menace. The study concludes that, the
debilitating economy, failure of states to deliver the basic necessities of life, insecurity, and rising
rates of unemployment, and above all corruption are some of the major internal factors that serve as
obstacles to meaningful efforts at combating the problem in the region. It therefore posits that all
hands have to be on deck at all levels to address the problem, considering the important role of the
region to the continent, and to the sustainable development of global peace and security.

Key words: Small Arms, Light Weapons, Disarmament, Insurgency, Proliferation

Introduction

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons is adjudged as the most immediate security
challenge to individuals, societies, and states worldwide, fuelling civil wars, organized criminal
violence, insurgency and terrorist activities posing great obstacles to sustainable security and
development. Many a times small insurgencies tend to developed into larger civil wars and possibly
destabilize an entire region. This trend especially in Africa is attributed to the weakness and fragile
nature of the states and their attendant failure to deliver in governance. Small arms and light weapons
are often used to forcibly displace civilians, impede humanitarian assistance, prevent or delay
development projects, and hinder peace-keeping and peace-building efforts. When conflicts end or
subside, small arms often remain in circulation, which may lead to additional violence and suffering
since fighting can resume or conflicts may erupt in neighboring regions. In non-conflict areas small
arms may be used in criminal violence or may be used in homicides, suicides, and accidents. And they
are frequently the primary tools of terrorists bent on sowing chaos and discord (Stohl and
Hogendoorn, 2010).

A vast number of weapons are in public and private hands. According to the Small Arms
Survey there are at least 875 million firearms in the world (Small Arms Survey, 2007). There are
more than 1,200 companies in 90 countries that produce small arms (Small Arms Survey 2004)
SALW kill between 500,000 and 750,000 people annually and are a contributory factor to armed
conflict, the displacement of people, organized crime and terrorism, thereby undermining peace,
reconciliation, safety, security, stability and sustainable social and economic development (Geneva

49
Declaration Secretariat 2011, 12). It is equally responsible for fueling crime and sustain armed
conflicts world over, facilitating terrorism and creating anarchy after civil wars. Burundi, Ghana,
Yemen, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan Sierra Leone, Cote DIvoire, and Guinea are few of many
countries that suffer from this menace (Malhotra, 2011.p.3).

It was established that there are estimated 7 million SALW in the West African Sub-region of
which 77,000 are in the hands of major West African insurgent groups. SALW have particularly
fuelled conflicts in Cte dIvoire, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone and
Togo and the Sub-region is still struggling to survive ongoing conflicts in which small arms play a
central and destabilizing role. The growing proliferation in geometric progression poses a serious
threat and challenge to the region, exacerbating human suffering, threaten peace, security, and
sustainable development. This article examines the effects of small arms proliferation in West Africa
and how the region wakes up or responds to the challenges basing primarily on existing scholarly
works on SALW control.

Conceptual Definitions

The following provide operationalisation of some concepts as used in the research:

Small arms: These include, but not limited to revolvers and self-loading pistols, rifles and carbines,
assault rifles, submachine guns, and light machine guns.

Light weapons: heavy machine guns, hand-held under-barrel and mounted grenade launchers,
portable anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns, recoilless rifles, portable launchers of anti-tank and anti-
aircraft missile systems, and mortars of calibers of less than 100mm. (Report of the Panel of
Governmental Experts on Small Arms, UN document A/52/298, 27 August 1997).

Sources of Small Arms in the West African Sub-region

The proliferation of arms in West Africa could be attributed to a number of factors, prominent
among them were: the surplus arms that were provided during the cold war by the two opposing
super powers, these arms were pumped to serve proxy inter-state conflicts; Massive flow of weapons
from central and Eastern Europe and the loosening control of arms industry as a result of the collapse
of Soviet Union. Following the end of cold war, these arms in circulation lost their way into the hands
of illegal arms dealers, security entrepreneurs, ethnic militia groups, private military companies, and
local smugglers there by fueling on-going wars and facilitating the commencement of new ones in
Africa. Also, the accelerated pace of globalization in the same period facilitated both legal and
illegal cross-border transfers of these weapons, while a sudden upsurge in intra-state conflicts created
an overwhelming demand for the SALW, thereby making them weapons of choice in majority of
recent conflicts and in non-war settings such as sectarian violence (ethnic, religious and chieftaincy
conflicts), suicides, murders, homicides and accidents.

More so, the intractable supplies from current and past conflict zones; other sources are stolen
arms from the state security service, and leakage from government armories in which corrupt law
enforcement and military personnel selling their weapons; and growing domestic artisan production
scattered across the sub-region, Senegal, Guinea, Ghana and Nigeria, which passes down established
trade routes (Musa, 2002; Bah, 2004; Badmus, 2009).

An Overview of the Small Arms Proliferation and its Effects

The fundamental implication of small arms accumulation and circulation is in its tendency to
pave ground for higher risk of armed violence. The supply of arms stimulates violence instead of
dialogue and has many undesirable effects. For example, high levels of armed violence hinder
development, causes diversion of local resources, misuse of public money or imposition of Might is
Right. The interdependence of small arms control, security and development suggests that no

50
meaningful development can take place in an atmosphere which is conducive to the production and
distribution of small arms. It prevents people from conducting business, leading to reduction in trade
and foreign investment. In addition, SALW fuels the illicit trafficking of natural resources such as oil,
minerals and timber.

In West Africa a civil war that started with several hundred insurgents in Liberia in 1989
later triggered fighting in neighboring Sierra Leone, Cote DIvoire, and Guinea. It took more than a
decade of effort by the international communityprincipally through arms embargoes and
peacekeeping operationsto stem the fighting. The fighting caused widespread death and destruction,
triggered huge refugee flows, and undermined development throughout the region. The cost of the
conflict in Liberia alone was enormous. By the time the war ended in 2003 the United States had
spent more than $430 million in Liberia, mostly on food aid. The regional peacekeeping operation,
ECOMOG, cost more than $4 billion. The United Nations observer mission, UNOMIL, cost some
$104 million from 1993 to September 1997. Also, U.N. mission, UNMIL, which peaked at
approximately 15,000 personnel, cost several billion dollars from 2003 to 2007 (Stohl and
Hogendoorn, 2010).

Liberias economy crumbled during the war. The civil war destroyed much of the remaining
infrastructure and caused the flight of almost all Liberian human and financial capital. Between 1989
and 1995 real GDP declined to one-tenth its pre-war level and remained largely flat through 2004.
During the war most formal economic activity ground to a halt, and life in much of the country was
reduced to subsistence existence. Of the countrys infrastructure, most of the road network was badly
damaged, rail road connections were ruined, and the distribution of electricity and safe water was
halted. The impact in the region has been similarly calamitous. The West Africa conflicts killed
hundreds of thousands of people, cost the international community billions of dollars, and caused
massive underdevelopment.

Nigeria has in the past decade witness increased violence and small arms circulation, its
proliferation was attributed to the existence and stagnation of electoral injustice, ethnic bigotry and
religious intolerance coupled with high level of poverty and unemployment. These key elements
where viewed as basis upon which conflicts are fuel. Whereas, fractionalized political system, elite
system, youth bulge, external support for local militia, and easy access of aggrieved groups to surplus
small arms and light weapons serves as triggers. However, of all the triggers, the issue of surplus
arms is believed to be responsible for the violent conflicts in the West African sub-region. The
phenomenon not only encouraged rebel movements to take up arms against their states, it also made
peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention very difficult and even dangerous in the region.

This is especially nowhere explained better in the case of West Africa as Nigerias Niger
Deltas region where the deterioration of security is largely informed by the volume of small arms
reaching and circulating in the region, the implication that seriously undermine Nigerias national
security in both human and economic terms. the escalation of violence, lost of lives and property and
the unabated proliferation of small arms since 2003 have turn the country into a total hopelessness.
Recently, on the 18th of September, 2013, This Day Newspaper reported that Nigerian Customs
impounded a cargo from United State, which smuggled Arms concealed in house hold cargo. It
arrived on the 16th /09/2013. Prior to this incidence on the 13th of April 2013 to be precise Daily trust
News Paper reported that Nigeria Police detectives from Anambra and Delta States have uncovered
arms factories in three communities in Delta State. Similarly, Daily Newswatch (Nigeria) 9 May 2013
has this headline: Police Confirm 1 Million Illegal Guns in Nigeria:

Against the backdrop of mounting security challenges in Nigeria arising from the Boko
Haram insurgency and ethno-religious crisis in the north as well as armed robbery and
kidnapping in the south, it has been estimated that there are about one million illegally held
guns in the country in civilian hands

51
Vanguard News Paper (Lagos, Nigeria) 17 March 2013 has this headline:

39,880 Militants' Firearms, Ammunition Handed Over to Nigerian Army

ENUGU The 39,880 assorted firearms and ammunition recovered from former militants in
the Niger Delta by the inter-agency taskforce set up by the Federal Government have been
handed over to the 82 Division of the Nigerian Army. A breakdown of the arms handed over
on Saturday at the 82 Division's parade ground included the following: 482 automatic arms,
20,132 ammunition, 295 magazines and 18,971 locally made guns. The General Officer
Commanding the 82 Division... (GunPolicy.org)

Reports of this nature are enormous and endless in recent Nigerias security predicament.

In Ghana local manufacturing of guns was identified as central in explaining the proliferation
of illicit SALW. It represents the main source of proliferation of SALW in the country, in particular
for pistols, shotguns and single-barrel guns. One striking feature of local gun production in Ghana is
its relative sophistication; recent research has shown that gun-making, far from being obsolete, is
increasingly elaborated and remains competitive in comparison to those circulating in the region.
That Ghanaian blacksmiths all over the country have the potential to illegally produce over 200,000
weapons annually (Aning, 2003; 2005, p. 83). Increased rate of armed robberies and criminality,
Ethnic conflicts, phenomenon of land guards, where youngsters whose function is to enforce the land
claim(s) of their employer(s) against all rival claimants were manifest indicators of impact of small
arms proliferation in Ghana. Of recent armed gangs are increasingly terrorizing wealthier suburbs of
Accra, this is especially in residential areas, robberies of fuel station and Forex-bureaus, highway-
robberies, and interpersonal and family disputes. According to the Ghana National Commission on
Small Arms 56 percent of a total of 230,000 small arms manufactured in Ghana remains unlicensed,
there are some 100,000 illicit weapons in circulation. Due to the demographic and urban changes in
Ghana multiple ownerships over plots of land and cruel land fights has an issue of great concern, that
despite strict intermission, guards are frequently deployed to protect territory, a development leading
to shootings which regularly injure and kill people.

Studies indicates that people are very sensitive to electoral outcomes and that it is one of the
biggest triggers of armed conflict in many countries in West Africa. Violence in Africas elections
affects between 19-25 percent of elections. The regularity with which electoral violence occurs
suggests that underlying grievances or structural characteristics may be tied to the elections and fuel
the violence (Bekoe, 2010) In recent past West Africa witness some of the worst moments of tension
in Cote d'Ivoire,in (2010), Nigeria in (2003, 2007, and 2011 elections), Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea,
Niger, among others. In many of these conflicts, small arms remain the key instruments used to
unleash violence on innocent people destroying thousands of lives and property, displacing millions
of people. Jones & Hoetu, (2012) underscored that resort to violence serves as a basis for refusal to
accept the outcome of declared elections results, sometimes, supporters of political parties resort to
the use of small arms to protest against their dissatisfaction against the outcome of the votes a
development that resulted in a full blown armed conflict. These are indications that people may
choose to express their frustration, suspicion and dissatisfaction with the outcome of the elections by
resorting to the use of arms as it happened in Cote d'Ivoire in 2010.

Efforts at Combating the Menace by West African Sub-Region

The events that took place especially after the cold war, the outbreak of civil wars in the
1990s in many parts of the world including Somalia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Liberia, Sierra
Leone and Rwanda, all of which were fought primarily with small arms was one of the main
motivations for the development of global and regional initiatives to curb the proliferation and illegal
trade in SALW in the last two decades (Osman, 2010).

52
 In 1993, the then Malian president Alpha Oumar Konare requested the then UN secretary-
general Boutros Boutros-Ghali send a UN mission to observe the effects of uncontrolled SALW
proliferation in his country. By the late 1990s, SALW control became one of the most important
security priorities of a large number of states (Garcia 2006, 1819).

The search for a feasible and sustainable peace to the internal conflict in Mali led to the
adoption in 1998 of the Moratorium on the Importation, Exportation and Manufacture of Small Arms
and Light Weapons in West Africa. The broad aim of the Moratorium is to create an environment
conducive to socio-economic development in the sub-region. The objectives of Moratorium regime
are: It aims at preventing conflicts; post-conflict reconstructions; and stems the increasing wave of
crime and banditry in the sub-region especially with the understanding that easy access and
availability of small arms may lead to violent solutions to problems and their circulation within and
across borders facilitates the formation of new armed groups and new conflicts; it also facilitates the
use of untrained civilian militias, ill-disciplined fighters, and unaccountable mercenaries. Also,
increase in socio-economic development in general and donor supported development projects in
particular is the third objective of the Moratorium (Badmus, 2009).

An operational framework was put in place within the context of the Program for
Coordination and Assistance for Security and Development in Africa (PCASED) to facilitate
implementation of measures associated with the moratorium. (ECOWAS Moratorium 1999)
PCASED is a regional project of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) that is
executed by the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS). PCASED predates the
Moratorium, as it was originally intended to support the implementation of the UN Secretary-
Generals Advisory Mission on the Proliferation of Light Weapons in the Sahel- Sahara sub-region.
However, following the adoption of the Moratorium, the ECOWAS Heads of States and Government
requested that PCASED become the central pillar in its implementation. Over the five-year period
PCASED was expected to support the implementation of the moratorium in nine priority areas, these
are: Establishing a culture of peace; Training programs for military, security, and police forces;
Enhancing weapons controls at border posts; Establishing a database and regional arms register;
Collecting and destroying surplus weapons; Facilitating dialogue with producer suppliers; Reviewing
and harmonizing national legislation and administrative procedures; Mobilizing resources for
PCASED objectives and activities; and Enlarging membership of the Moratorium (ECOWAS Plan of
action, PCASED, 1999).

In order to assist PCASED a summit meeting of ECOWAS Heads of State and Government,
held on 10 December 1999 in the Togolese capital, Lome, adopted a Code of Conduct for the
Implementation of the Moratorium on the Importation, Exportation and Manufacture of Light
Weapons. ECOWAS Moratorium, 1999) the code of conduct outlines the institutional arrangements
for the implementation of the moratorium. The moratorium has three main instruments: the
Moratorium Declaration; the Plan of Action for the Implementation of the Programme for
Coordination and Assistance on Security and Development (PCASED)a UNDP support
programmeapproved in March 1999; lastly, a Code of Conduct, adopted on 10 December 1999,
constitute the main pillars of the ECOWAS strategy to curb the flow of illicit small arms in particular
and disarmament in general.

Although PCASED face a lot of challenges however it was believed to be very instrumental
in the implementation of the West African Moratorium, it was commended by the ECOWAS
Authority concerning Natcoms, training of military and security personnel, enhancement of weapons
controls at border post, particularly, Benin, Niger, Nigeria and Mali, and the enhanced coordination
between PCASED and the ECOWAS Secretariat. More so, the report also gave credit to PCASED in
the areas of arms collection and destruction programs, harmonization of legislations and regional arms
register and dater base (Badmus, 2009). Not withstanding the commendation PCASED was flooded
with a lot of difficulties among others budgetary and financial limitations and technical difficulties
plagued its activities.

53
National Commissions (Natcoms):

National Commissions is one of the key initiatives of the Moratorium to deal with illicit
weapons proliferation by member states. As contain in Article 4 of the Code of Conduct: In order to
promote and ensure co-ordination of concrete measures for effective implementation of the
Moratorium at the national level, Member states shall establish National Commissions, made up of
representatives of the relevant authorities and civil society. (Code of conduct, p.3), National
commissions are meant to serve as a nucleus around which national and regional initiatives revolve.
They are to formulate strategies, policies, and programs to counter the proliferation of small arms;
Sensitize public on the need to turn in illegally held weapons to security forces; Update arms
registers and transmission to ECOWAS Secretariat; Provides appropriate recommendations to
ECOWAS Secretariat on exemptions to be granted to the Moratorium for weapons covered by the
agreement; Mobilize resource for program expenditures; Liaise on a permanent basis with ECOWAS
and PCASED Secretariats on issues relevant to the Moratorium as well as on the proliferation of
SALW in general; Initiate and developed an exchange of information and experience with the other
national commissions (Decision A/DEC13/12/99 Establishing of National Commissions)

Creation of National commissions succeeded in yielding progress especially in terms of

compliance by member nations, however, it could be noted that many of the Natcoms suffer from
weak capacity and a lack of funds and political support. Moreover, on issues that pertain to the
development of a credible regional arms register and database has not materialized; and
harmonization of legislation has also been very slow. There has also been slow progress on a
peacekeeping register, with a stand-off between PCASED and the United Nations Mission in Sierra
Leone (UNAMSIL) in 2003 giving an indication of the difficulties.

The regional body record progress in destroying surplus or seized illegal weapons in at least
two thirds (ten) of the ECOWAS member states in which more than 85,000 small arms have been
collected from armed groups and civilians since 1998. The Moratorium was later transform into a
convention in 2006 following the signing by ECOWAS member States of the Convention on Small
Arms and Light Weapons, Their Ammunition and Other Related Materials, which, inter alia, banned
SALW transfers into, from, and through the territories of states parties in order to prevent and
combat excessive and destabilizing accumulation of [SALW] within ECOWAS (ECOWAS
Executive Secretariat 2006, Article 2.1, 3.1).

The transformation was aimed at shifting the focus from mere 'moral persuasion' in curtailing
the spread of illicit weapons to 'enforcement' of the protocol. This, it seeks to achieve by enhancing
the capacity of member States through their National Committee on Small Arms and Light Weapons,
(NATCOM), for the effective control of SALW in their countries. ECOSAP is also engaging and
building the capacity of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) in the Sub-region for the same purpose
through the West African Action Network on Small Arms (WAANSA) headquartered in Ghana.
ECOSAP is also in a strategic partnership with the Media, (through the West African Network of
Journalists on Security and Development (WANJSD)) which it engages for the purpose of its
advocacy and communication programmes in the fight against SALW.

ECOWAS provides a humanitarian justification for the convention as it links SALW transfers
to international humanitarian law (IHL) and international human rights law (IHRL) (ibid., Article 6;
Garcia 2011, 12223). ECOWAS set the stage for the Nairobi Declaration (2000) and Nairobi
Protocol (2004) for the Great Lakes and Horn of Africa regions, and the Africa-wide Bamako
Declaration (2000), which reinforced the positions of the majority of African states to strengthen
SALW control (ibid., 11617). The Bamako Declaration although politically binding was the result of
a ministerial conference at the end of 2000, which recommended national action including the
coordination of agencies working on small arms issues; destruction of surplus stocks and confiscated
weapons; and conclusion of bilateral arrangements for small arms control along borders. The Bamako
Declaration set a regional precedent for controlling arms transfer and strongly emphasizes the
responsibility of arms supplier countries in preventing the diversion of weapons, among others. The

54
declaration though politically binding had significantly impacted on both continentally and
internationally, it spurred a number of sub-regional legally binding conventions and influenced aspect
of the UN PoA (Kristen and Noel, 2008).

ECOWAS also work in collaboration with and look upon for guidance the United Nations
(UN) Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and
Light Weapons in All its Aspects or United Nation Programme of Action (UN PoA). UN PoA thus
provided the framework for the regional implementation of measures to curtail the proliferation of
small arms and light weapons. It has six identified areas as the basis for policy-making on SALW
control: regulating trade; marking and tracing; brokering; destruction and reduction of surplus stocks;
stockpile; security and information exchange and transparency (Edward Laurence and Rachel Stohl,
2002; in Sears, 2012, 40). It also recognizes the need for a multi-level approach to SALW control by
calling on states to take action at the national, regional, and international levels. However, to date,
implementation has been inconsistent both within and across states and requires continued will and
political engagement. In spite of that, UN PoA has contributed to greater awareness, understanding
and policymaking on SALW control and has led to the formation of other global initiatives, such as
the UN Marking & Tracing Instrument and the promotion of the global arms trade treaty.

From the fore going, it could be argued that in terms of engagement the regional body is
commended given the wider commitments to programmes and policies embarked upon and in
collaboration with partner international and other regional bodies as well as other civil society
organizations in policy formulation and codification. However, given the enormity, veracity, as well
as complexity and dynamism the trend of small arms proliferation is today, necessitate a rethink, in
the level of commitment to the course.

In spite of the existence of regional, continental and international instruments designed to

curb the proliferation of SALWs, Africa features prominently in the global map of regions with a high
circulation of arms. The proliferation is in geometric progression while the effort to convert it is going
in arithmetic progression. As aptly argued Stohl & Hogendoorn, (2010), the fact that there are
numerous international treaties regulating the production, proliferation and most particularly
distribution of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) but no far-reaching, binding and universal
agreements on conventional weapons including SALW only seem to make the situation worse. Some
of the major challenges of illicit SALW control in Nigeria and most of the member countries in the
region reside in addressing the conditions leading to the demand for illicit SALW, and in enhancing
the National Committees capacity to collect, document destroy, and campaign against SALW
proliferation. Adequate financing, staffing, and training of both National Committee and security
officials are of particular relevance to this matter. Most problems arising from systemic failure led to
the escalation of violence and to war in West Africa. Research indicates that on average African
economy contracted by 15% or even more as a result of war, civil war or insurgency that bedeviled
the region loosing an average of around $18 billion a year due to armed conflict. Below are some of
the identified factors that were responsible for the explosion of small arms.

Challenges to Effective control of Small Arms in West Africa

There are several factors that contributed to the proliferation of small arms in the region, these
includes the nature of SALW, internal factors, as well as structural factors. In the first place, there is a
general lack of transparency around the arms trade. Most Sub-Saharan African states consider their
arms policies to be secret, which makes them hard to assess. Similarly, arms dealers promote
corruption by involving some African states in illegal activity. Insecurity in the region also makes it
easy for small arms to enter illicit circulation through theft, leakage or re-sale. Secondly, small arms
and light weapons by virtue of their several characteristics make them very attractive to paramilitary
and irregular forces and even untrained civilians thereby assisting in their proliferation. Apart from
governments increased their demand for SALW to counter political insurgency and suppress domestic
opposition movements, a number of different factors account for their high desirability on the
region. Their simplicity makes them easy to operate even by people who have had very little or no

55
military training. This explains their use by untrained combatants and even child soldiers as it was the
case in many armed conflicts in West Africa Liberia, Sierra Leone, Code dIvoire and now Mali and
Nigeria, among others. Small arms are plentiful, cheap and durable these weapons are highly desired
and profitable commodity and are often sold with little domestic and international regulation by
numerous weapons producers, from surplus military stockpiles, and by private arms dealers.

Other structural factors:

Structural problems such as lack of organizational skills, the necessary infrastructure, funds,
as well as forces of globalization make the control of SALWs very complex. Among other structural
factors are:

Issues of Governance: The failure in governance to provide the needed security was a factor that
compelled citizens to look for an alternative. Studies indicates that, lack confidence in security forces,
understaffing or sometimes simply the inability of security agencies to carry out their duty effectively
in many African countries informed the strong need by citizens to acquire arms in order to protect
themselves and their property from armed violence.

A research conducted in Cte dIvoire in 2010 shows that, contrary to common assumptions,
state security providers do not perform much better than the rebels. Across Cte dIvoire, the
population lacks confidence in its security forces. The report indicate that, the deficiencies of the
security forces combined with the level of insecurity have encouraged the emergence of a wide range
of coping mechanisms, including community self-defence and vigilante groups, which in turn create
new forms of insecurity (Small Arms Survey, 2011).

In Nigeria as observed Onuaha, (2011),

The crude nature of Nigerian politics is one key factor driving the process of SALWs
proliferation. Politics in Nigeria especially electoral politics is defined and approached by
politicians as a do-or-die affair, or warfare. The stake in Nigerian politics is incredibly high, making
politicians desperate in the struggle to win elective positions. As a result, many of them recruit
specialists of violence cultists, gangs and thugs to attain and retain political power (Onuaha,
2012:53).

The failure to provide basics of life, effective and justly sharing of resources ensuring human
security were also responsible for the explosion of small arms and escalation of violence. The
mismanagement of public resources, as well as abuse of public trust resulted in far reaching and
devastating impact ensuing rising poverty level, high unemployment and poor/failed delivery of basic
services, not least security. Due to frustration and deprivation, many have taken to criminal activities
such as piracy, armed robbery, kidnapping and militancy, which contribute to the demand side of
arms penetration and circulation.

Corruption: The vicious cycle of low salaries and corruption creates breeding grounds for the
proliferation of small arms and light weapons among the civilian population. Customs officers are
bribed by weapons dealers, while soldiers, police officers and security forces are known to have sold
government weapons to criminals (Ayissi and Sall, 2005:68).

Porous Borders: another factor is that Africa by virtue of its size, the second largest continent in the
world and population, the second most populated and given the level of its development experience
persistent problem of border control. Also, due to the sheer size of some of its countries, for instance,
Nigeria, has 770 km of shared land border with the Republic of Benin to the west, about 1500 km
with Niger to the north, 1700 km with Cameroon to the east, 90 km with the Republic of Chad to the
north-east and 850 km maritime border on the Atlantic Ocean. Out-stretched these tally up to 4910 km
of borders which have to be controlled. Each of these entry points, along with the airports, has been
used to smuggle arms into the country. One can imagine how tasking it is to effectively control these

56
borders. It is also interesting to observe that all three largest sub-Saharan countries, namely Sudan
(the continents overall largest), the Congo DRC (3rd overall largest) and Chad (5th overall largest)
have been experiencing instability and armed conflict for long. It may well be that their size and their
porous borders make it easy for weapons to be smuggled inflaming and protracting violence (Ngang,
2007).

Globalization: The forces of globalization bring with it opportunities and challenges, the elimination
of state enforced restrictions on exchanges across borders and the increasingly integrated and complex
global system of production and exchange that has emerge as a result further complicate the
challenge of containing SALWs proliferation. The idea of globalization and its advocate for free
market forces with minimum economic barriers and open trade for world development provides
ground for illicit trade in arms by minimizing custom regulations and border control, trafficking of
small arms becomes easier. Malhotra, (2011), stressed that, a miniscule percent of container ships
have cargo checks, therefore making the arms movement smooth. Faking documents bribing officials
and concealing arms as humanitarian aids are common practices.

Malhotra (2011) identified globalization factors that facilitate proliferation of illicit trade in arms:

(a) Political and economic integration are coupled with lesser restrictions in migration and human
movement. This helps the arms dealers to fortify their present business connections and tap new
ones. Dealers migrate to various regions, motivated by business expansion or reduced
operational risks.

(b) Banking reforms and capital mobility have aided the black market to spread its trade
internationally, utilizing every angle of the well linked financial market. This also gives rise to
offshore markets and tax shelters. An illustration of banking innovation is E-money. Banks have
introduced cards bearing microchips, which are able to store large sums of money. These cards
are portable outside conventional channels or can be easily bartered among individuals.

(c) The linkage of banks with the internet has posed a new challenge in combating illegitimate
activities in the financial sector. E-banking has digitized money making it prone to criminality.
Even though, it has numerous benefits for the world at large, it is misused for money
laundering, credit card scams and check-kiting. Adding to this, economic integration among
regions blesses arm brokers with more opportunities to shelter their money, by investing in
different stock exchanges. Numerous other illegal practices are a by-product of a deregulated
financial sector, but money laundering is at the apex. Money Laundering or cleansing of
money is an unlawful practice of concealing the point of origin, identity or destination of the
funds, when performing a particular financial transaction. The criminals maneuver money
across borders gaining from banks in countries with lax anti-laundering policies.

(d) Profound expansion of commercial airline and freight industry (making transport cheaper and
easier) are instrumental in increased penetration of arms in conflict zones. Global merger of
airline companies, supply chains, shipping firms make it tough to supervise unlawful practices
in air and water.

(e) The growth of global communication in the past two decades has been unfathomable. This has
enhanced the ability of arms dealers to communicate internationally through the web at a cheap
rate.

Conclusion

Reading from the above, the challenges are enormous, effort at mitigating those challenges
are indeed very demanding, beyond commitments of the member nations and the ECOWAS body but
also civil society organizations, individuals, and the private hands, importantly, a gigantic stride is
needed from national, regional and the international organization as a whole . Many countries dont

57
go beyond the signing of a treaty or agreement. The policies, agreements suffer lack of
implementation either due to lack of capacity or resources, political will or both; others detest the
small arms agenda or see it as not top priority. The debilitating economy, failure of state to deliver the
basic necessities of life, security, and rising rate of unemployment, and above all corruption are some
of the major internal factors that are obstacles to any meaningful effort at combating proliferation of
small arms in the region.

National governments need to demonstrate commitments not only in policy formulation,

endorsement of agreements and codification, but also practical effort at implementation need be put in
place, and to also, meet their primary responsibility to provide social and economic security and
development for their citizens. It is the bases to addressing arms trade, by tackling the roots causes of
armed violence namely, underdevelopment, insecurity, inequality and corruption. Others entail
preventing arms transfers to regimes that violate UN arms embargoes and cause human rights
violations as well as providing with aid programmes that improve the security of arms storage facili-
ties.

States should lead the development of a legally binding arms trade treaty that would establish
common international standards at the highest level on the export of conventional weapons, including
small arms. The creation and implementation of a clear and coherent national policy on SALW
proliferation control should be done through the organization of national conferences bringing
together all different levels of society such as governmental representatives, community-based
organizations, NGOs and decision-makers. A broad participation would enable the development of
integrated and comprehensive policies in tackling SALW proliferation at various levels and through
various approaches.

Civil Society are at the forefront of promoting localized peace building initiatives, initiating
reconciliation processes, advocating for adherence to peace agreements and building capacities in
peace education. There is therefore need to intensify their involvement in combating small arms.
Especially, civil society need to be strengthened in educating and enlightening public on ECOWAS
convention, the UNPoA, and the UN Firearms Protocol as their crucial role in the control of SALW.
This can be achieved through the provision of necessary resources, ranging from equipment, finance
and training, to stimulate their activities especially in advocacy strategies.

Also, there is need to widen the scope of existing NGOs working on other thematic issues
such as human rights, children and youth, law enforcement, gender to include illicit SALW, and to
locate the phenomenon of illicit SALW proliferation within the broader governance agenda in West
Africa. Lastly, and importantly stricter measures need be taken on issues of corruption, corruption
render fruitless most of the efforts put in place to combat small arms especially in West Africa.
Workable solution must be sought for at the international level so that it would compel adherence at
the regional and national levels just as it was the case with democratic system and military
dictatorship.

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Zuneidu Sham-Un Osman (2010), A look at the efforts of the ECOWAS sub-region towards combating the proliferation of
SALW A thesis from United Nations Peace Support Operations
News Watch (Nigeria) 9th March 2013
This Day Nigeria News Paper, September 18th 2013
Daily Trust Nigeria Newspaper 13th April 2013
Vanguard Nigeria Newspaper 13th (Lagos, Nigeria) 17th/03/2013

59
 Pressure of Economic Development on Environment:
A developing country perspective1
Onur Tutulmaz
Asst. Prof., Department of Economics, Hitit University. otutulmaz@gmail.com
-Visiting Post-Doc Researcher, FES, York University.

Abstract

Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) proposes a non-monotonic relationship between

economic development and the environment. Environmental Kuznets curve also tries to define another
important reduced relationship along with economic development. Therefore it has become a popular
applied area in environmental economics; and it has been referenced for almost all related areas.
EKC evaluates the today and future situations of environmental pressure. Generally the emissions are
taken as a representative of environmental pressure. Being directly connected to energy, the CO2
emissions are generally evaluated differently than other emissions. Our study critically analyzes the
interpretations of EKC applications of developing countries. The estimates for Turkeys CO2
emissions are used primarily as an example developing country. As for reduced form EKC time series
analyses for Turkey, there are just a few statistically robust analyses; and a diversion in estimates is
discussed. As a developing country with lower values that under the turning points of the world
panels, Turkey is very likely to show further environmental pressure increase in terms of carbon
dioxide emission in the short-term. Having said that, we evaluate that the main point need to be
cleared for the EKC of a developing country is the evaluation of the shape of long-run relationship; it
is closely related with the estimations on the data structure of developing countries. We have gone
through the theory, analytic investigation and the inferences of the econometric estimations to
respond critiques raised here. We speculate that the data structure of developing countries makes
similar shapes possible to be detected. These suggestions have important empirical and policy results.

Keywords: environmental Kuznets curve, EKC, environmental pressure, CO2 emissions, developing country emissions. JEL
Codes: Q53, Q56, Q57, R11.

1. Introduction

The world economy has been depending on primarily fossil fuel since the industrial
revolution. Carbon fuels such as petroleum, natural gas and coal are still the only available large scale
energy sources except for nuclear power today. In these circumstances, world economies have ended
up with a great deal of GHG and CO2 emissions. The world encounters various environmental
problems in different areas as technology and industrial activity advance.

The environmental pressure rises through the economic development. The relationship
between economic development and the environmental pressure has become more and more
important issue as environmental problems become more severe. Proposing a non-monotonic relation
between environmental deterioration and economic development, Environmental Kuznets Curve
(EKC) hypothesis has become a center of interest for empirical studies and a small literature
developed for EKC applications (Neumayer, 2010, s.84-85). Some of the reasons of this interest can
be counted as the basic relationship of the theory, the existence of regular emissions data and the
simple atomic structure of the model which is open to different empirical technics.

The evaluations on the hypothesis in the literature are not unanimous. Controversial results
have been proposed for similar models. An important critical point is also the excessive sensitivity of

1
The first version of this paper was presented at the ICSS 2013, The Second International Conference on Social
Sciences, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
60
EKC models to model variation and different econometric methods (e.g. Cole & Neumayer, 2005; De
Bruyn & Heintz., 1999; Ekins, 1997; Galeotti et al., 2009; Selden & Song, 1994; Suri & Chapman,
1998). Also there are some critiques for insufficient econometric methods of especially first term
EKC studies (e.g. Galeotti et al., 2009; Dinda, 2004; Perman & Stern, 2003).
The main motivation of this study is, by going through main contradictions on EKC
applications of Turkey as example country, to make main points clear which can be important in
terms of policy results that come up from the estimations. Important determinations are used for
evaluating EKC structure of developing countries. Section 2 summarizes the EKC theory, section 3
conducts the main analyzes. In section 4 we present the conclusions.
2. Environmental Kuznets Curve

The inverse-U curve became resonating with the well-known Kuznets Curve in economic
literature after the influential propositions of Kuznets (1955) on a relationship between economic
development and the income inequality. Grossman and Krueger, inspired from Kuznets curve,
determined a similar relationship between the income and environmental quality. Panayotou (1993)
called this new relationship as Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and it has reached to a
widespread recognition. Wider form models can reveal N form relationships as well as the originally
defined inverse-U form relationship (Figure 1). Equation (1) is the widest form of the EKC models
(see De Bruyn & Heintz, 1999) which can be estimated for panel and time series data either.

coi ,t = i ,t + 1 y i ,t + 2 y i2,t + 3 y i3,t + 4 i ,t + ei ,t (1)

co: per capita CO2 emission, kg/population
y : gross domestic product per capita, USD/population
Z : non-structural other variables
i,t : country and time index
CO2 emissions which are directly related with fundamental sustainability problems such as climate
change, global warming and energy are assumed as a basic environmental data. CO2 emissions
represent environmental pressure in the Equation 1. GDP per capita represents the economic
development in the model. Eq. 1 represents a reduced form EKC model. Consequently, the Z variable
here represents non-structural other variables like population density etc. It is not included to
represent the main relationship of the hypothesis but it is included to represent physical differences of
the countries. Therefore, it should be represented in the widest EKC model.

Environmental
Environmental pressure

Conservation
Region

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

Per capita income

Source: De Bruyn and Heintz, 1999, figure 46.1

Figure 1. Inverse U and N relationships of Environmental Kuznets Curve

61
 Linear, quadratic and cubic form EKC models are estimated as different special form of the
wide form. Quadratic form (Eq. 2) and cubic form (Eq. 3) EKC specifications are given below:

Quadratic form,
cot = + 1 y t + 2 y t2 + 3 trend t + et (2)
Cubic form,
cot = + 1 y t + 2 y t2 + 3 y t3 + 4 trend t + et (3)
co: per capita CO2 emissions, kg/population
y: GDP per capita, USD/population
trend: time trend
(Shafik and Bandyophadyay, 1992)
Notations are given for the level series in the equations; on the other hand, both level and
logarithmic level series EKC models can be and have been estimated in the literature. De Bruyn and
Heintz (1999) use following EKC models in a wide-form model:
EPi , t = i , t + 1 Yi ,t + 2 Yi ,2t + 3 Yi ,3t + 4 Z i , t + ei , t (4)
EP: environmental pressure
Y: economic development variable (i.e. income)
Z: other variables
i, t: country and time index
, : constant term and coefficient parameters
e : error term
In equation (4), EP can be translated as pressure caused by economic development on the
environment. As explanatory variable, income or per capita income is consistently used in the
literature. Different mathematical forms of the explanatory variable are used to determine the form of
the relationship curve. i and t are used for country index and time index. is constant term, shows
average environmental pressure when there is no important effect of income on the environment k, k
parameters showing relative weight of explanatory variables. As explained before, Zi,t represents
others variable like population intensity, lagged income, income inequality. ei,t normally distributed
residuals. The model is used to examine to 7 different forms related to environmenteconomic
development relationship (De Bruyn & Heintz, 1999, p.659).

Parametric Conditions: (4a)

1. 1>0 and 2=3=0 emission increase monotonically with income

2. 1<0 and 2=3=0 emission decrease monotonically with income
3. 1>0 2<0 and 3=0 inverse Uformed quadratic relationship (EKC relationship)
4. 1<0 2>0 and 3=0 U formed quadratic relationship (inverse of EKC)
5. 1>0 2<0 and 3>0 cubic polynomial N formed relationship
6. 1<0 2>0 and 3<0 cubic polynomial inverse N formed relationship
7. 1=2=3>0 straight line, no relationship between emission and income
There are different forms of relationship and the inverse U form the originally defined as EKC
relation is only one of the possible seven forms. When 3 parameter is insignificant the quadratic form
is confirmed and positive 1 with negative 2 parameter point out the inverse U relationship (De
Bruyn & Heintz, 1999, p.659). Additionally it must be stated that positive 1 must be greater than than
negative 2 in magnitude; in this circumstances the turning point of the inverse U is calculated with
(5):

d/dY (EP)=0=d/dY (+1Y+ 2Y2+Z)

0= 1+22 YTP

TP= - 1 / 2.2 (5)

TP: turning point
62
 For cubic N type curve similar condition can be stated. In addition to De Bruyn&Heintz`s
parameter condition in (4a), | 1|> | 2 |> | 3 | must be complied and turning point can be calculated
by (6):

d/dY (EP)=0=d/dY (+1Y+ 2Y2+.3 Y3+Z)

0= 1+22 YTP+.33 YTP 2 (6)
YTP: turning point income or per capita income (Y) value
The roots of Equation (6) give the first and second turning points of the N type EKC.

3. Critical Evaluation on Suggestion of EKC Analyses and Policy Results

As it is explained above in Part 2, EKC relation is a reduced form relationship which tests the
form of total relationships between economic development and emissions (or environmental
indicators under wider generalization). Therefore, including structural variables diminishes the total or
reduced relationships to specific ones. Hence, including energy we can measure the direct effect of
energy on the emissions but the remaining part is not an EKC relationship anymore. Therefore, these
studies should be evaluated in another class (for example, Soytas and Sar, 2009; Atc ve Kurt, 2007;
Halcolu, 2009).

Two main types of EKC applications are prevalent in the literature. Panel analysis for group
of countries and time series analysis for single country are most common analyses. The panel analyses
that carried out in the literature have wide-range results from no relation to different relation types
including short term and long term relations. Putting aside the no-relation results, if we look the
estimations which found EKC relations, first we see that the turning point results are higher for CO2
emissions from other type of emissions. For example the turning points are more than $30.000 USD
in Tutulmaz et al. (2012), $28000\35000 USD in Holtz-Eakin & Selden (1995) and $26000 in
Luzzatti & Orsini (2010). These values are apparently higher than the GDP p/c values of developing
countries in current state of world. This last point is also valid for Turkey with around $10000 USD
income per capita value (the Figure 3 value is given around $8500 USD in terms of constant 2005
dollars).

Figure 2. Estimated long-rung EKC relationship in Akbostanci et al. (2009)

As for Turkey, the single country time series analyses are rare and the estimates are not
unanimous about their results. Lise (2006) and Basar & Temurlenk (2007) studies found series
stationary determining linear and N-form relationships consecutively. However, these results are not
63
taken into consideration here because their findings of stationary income and emissions series are not
consistent with the current reality that these series are not stationary as well-documented in literature.
As a robust study, though, Akbostanci et al. (2009) found N-form EKC relationship with turning
points values around $1400 and $1600 but with a sample starting after $1500 values gives only the
last rising part of the N-form relation (Figure 2). On the other hand, Tutulmaz (2011) find turning
points between $6000-7000 (in constant $2005 dollars) with similar data and econometric methods2.
Having different level of turning points, it can be said that the common point shows an ongoing rising
path for Turkey. However, the later study shows turning point for a value comparatively above the
sample value. This can be translated as that we can see a turning point in CO2 emissions for seeable
future.

CO2 mt per capita GDP per capita (constant 2005$)

5 9,000

8,000
4
7,000
3 6,000

2 5,000

4,000
1
3,000

0 2,000
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

Figure 3. CO2 emissions and GDP per capita series of Turkey, 1968-2009

(Source: World Development Indicators-WDI, 2013)

If we try to combine the analysis with the result of the panel analysis in the literature, we can
say that the pooling of countries show higher turning points for the world. This implies that the
developing countries are expected to be in the first phases of the relationship given in Figure 1. That
means literally an increasing curve. The CO2 emission values with below 4 kg per capita in Figure 3
are also comparatively lower than developed countries values which are mostly around 10 kg per
capita. At this point it can also be argued that estimated increasing linear relationships for developing
countries (for example see Lise, 2006) cannot be defined as controversy in terms of EKC hypothesis.
But if we turn to Turkey, the emissions of the country are well below the worlds estimated turning
points values. Consequently, it is consistent to find the emissions of the country in the first or second
phase of the Figure 1.

At this point, we want to speculate about the long-run EKC relationship estimation results as
what we summarized in Figure 4. We can see the overall results of the EKC scrutiny are consistent
with the notion of similarity in shapes (especially in terms of statistical estimation) of the long run
EKC relationships for the developing countries which are currently under their turning points. This
last point suggested above is consistent with the estimation results of the later study of Tutulmazs
(2011) as we put above. Moreover, the higher turning points (of around $30000 for CO2) for world
panel data studies are well above Turkeys income levels (e.g. $28000\$35000 turning points in

2
The controversial results for Turkey are exclusively inspected in another study which is not published yet; the
results, briefly, show that the method of determining the cointegration vector and the corresponding model
structure could create this difference for Turkey case.
64
Holtz-Eakin & Selden, 1995; $26000 turning point in Luzzatti & Orsini, 2010a,b; $35000-$50000
turning points in Tutulmaz et al.,2012).

emission

$2000 $5000
Y(income p/c)

Figure 4. EKC long term relations Turkey data may suggest

With low income per capita levels, developing countries have narrow band explanatory variable x-
axis dimension which is also under turning points of EKC (see Figure 4). We speculate in Figure 4
that this data structure makes possible to estimate the similar shapes significantly.

4. Conclusion

Significantly different and arguable features of the estimations in the literature have been
observed throughout the EKC literature. Both panel data and single country time series analyses have
pointed some of these arguments. In this study, the result of EKC estimations for Turkey, as a
developing country, are analyzed and criticized. As stressed before, the first things need to be cleared
is the reduced relationship feature of EKC. Structural variables, such as energy, can alter the
relationship that we try to measure from a reduced relationship as EKC suggests to a more specific
one.

Different results of estimations are noticed analyzing a few statistically robust estimations for
Turkey case. However, as the common point, the emissions are found in the increasing part of the
EKC (Figure 1). Taking account of the result of high turning points for CO2 emissions, Turkeys
results of being in phase 1 or phase 2 are found consistent with the world panel studies in this manner
despite the divided evaluations of the panel data of world countries.

As for the estimated shape of the increasing EKC relationship, a critique is raised here that
estimated increasing linear relationships for developing countries having narrow band, lower income
sample cannot be presented as a clear controversy for the hypothesis itself.

The results we reached have important empirical and policy consequences. First of all, being
under turning points, developing countries have upward trended EKC curves as we investigated in the
Turkey case. Similarity with the trends of other developing countries can be seen together in the panel
data EKC studies (for example see Tutulmaz et al., 2012). Moreover, developing countries with low
GDP per capita values have narrow-band explanatory variable dimensions. As we speculated in
Figure 4, these features make similar shapes highly possible to be estimated as statistically significant
in different estimations. This conclusion means that the linear EKC estimations cannot be assumed as
a controversy to the validity of the EKC hypothesis; on another hand, it means that the developing

65
countries havent yet experienced the de-linking factors which are defined in the literature as the
reason of the non-monotonic changes in real life.

5. References
Akbostanc, E., Trt-Ak, S. and Tun, G. I. (2009). The relationship between income and environment in Turkey: Is there
an environmental Kuznets curve? Energy Policy, 37, 861-867.
Atc, C. and Kurt, F. (2007). Trkiyenin D Ticaretindeki Art evreyi Kirletiyor mu? Gncel Ekonomik Soru(n)lar
Kongresi, 26-28 Ekim 2007, zmir, 257-267.
Neumayer, E. (2010). Weak versus Strong Sustainability (3rd. ed.). Cheltenhem, UK, Northampton, USA: Edward Elgar
Publishing Inc.
Cole, M.A. and Neumayer, E. (2005). Economic Growth and the Environment in Developing Countries: What are the
Implications of the Environmental Kuznets Curve? Peter Dauvergne (ed.). International Handbook of Environmental Politic
(pp. 298-318). Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
De Bruyn, S.M. and Heintz, R.J. (1999). The environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. Van den Bergh, C.J.M. (ed.).
Handbook of Environmental and Resource Economics (pp. 656-677). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Dinda, S. (2004). Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: a survey. Ecological Economics, 49, 431455.
Ekins P. (1997). The Kuznets curve for the environment and economic growth: examining the evidence. Environmental
Planning, 29, 805830.
Galeotti, M., Manera, M. and Lanza, A. (2009). On the Robustness of Robustness Checks of the Environmental Kuznets
Curve Hypothesis. Environmental and Resource Economics, 42 (4), 551-574.
Halcolu, F. (2009). An econometric study of CO2 emissions, energy consumption, income and foreign trade in Turkey.
Energy Policy, 37, 1156-1164.
Lise, W. (2006). Decomposition of CO2 emissions over 1980-2003 in Turkey. Energy Policy, 34, 1841-1852.
Lucas, R.E.B., Wheeler, D. and Hettige, H. (1992). Economic development, environmental regulation and the international
migration of toxic industrial pollution: 1960 1988. P. Low (Ed.). International Trade and the Environment, World Bank
discussion paper 159 (s. 67 87). Washington: World Bank.
Luzzati, T., and Orsini, M. (2010a, 10, 19-21). A robustness exercise on the EKC for CO2 emissions. Advances in Energy
Studies 2010. Eriim: 26, 2, 2011, http://www.societalmetabolism.org/ aes2010/ Proceeds/ DIGITAL PROCIDINGS_files/
PRESENTATIONS/ LuzzatiOrsiniAES2010.pdf.
Neumayer, E., (2010). Weak versus Strong Sustainability (3rd. ed.). Cheltenhem, UK, Northampton, USA: Edward Elgar
Publishing Inc.
Panayotou, T. (1993). Empirical test and policy analysis of environmental degradation at different stages of economic
development. Working Paper, P238. Technology and Employment Programme, International Labour Office. Geneva.
Perman, R. and Stern, D.I. (2003). Evidence from panel unit root and cointegration tests that the Environmental Kuznets
Curve does not exist. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 47 (3), 325347.
Sargan, J.D. and Bhargava, A. (1983). Testing residuals from least squares regression for being generated by the Gaussian
random walk. Econometrica, 51, 153174.
Selden, T.M. and Song, D. (1994). Environmental Quality and Development: Is There a Kuznets Curve for Air Pollution
Emissions? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 27 (2):147-162.
Shafik, N. and Bandyopadhyay, S. (1992). Economic Growth and Environmental Quality: Time Series and Cross-Country
Evidence. Background Paper for the World Development Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Soyta, U. and Sar, R. (2009). Energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon emissions: Challenges faced by an EU
candidate member. Ecological Economics. 68, 1667-1675.
Stern, D.I., Common, M.S. and Barbier, E.B. (1996). Economic growth and environmental degradation: the Environmental
Kuznets Curve and sustainable development. World Development, 24 (7), 11511160.
Suri, V. and Chapman, D. (1998). Economic Growth, Trade andEnergy: Implications for the Environmental Kuznets Curve.
Ecological Economics, Special Issue on the Environmental Kuznets Curve.
Tutulmaz, O. (2011). Economics - Environment Relationship and Sustainable Development: An Empirical Evaluation.
Unpublished thesis, Hacettepe University, Ankara.
Tutulmaz, O., ahinz, A. and aatay, S. (2012). Environmental Pressure Evaluation Using Carbondioxide Emissions: An
Environmental Kuznets Curve Panel Data Application. Iktisat, Iletme ve Finans, 314 (27), 35-72.
WDI (2013). World Development Indicators. Accessed: 24,1,2013, ttp://www.worldbank.org.

66
 Impact of rural to urban temporary labour migration
on farming communities in Sri Lanka

Mrs. Seetha P. B. Ranathunga1

(Department of Economics, University of Kelaniya,
Sri Lanka and Department of Economics,
Waikato Management School,
University of Waikato, NZ.)
Email: seethabandar@yahoo.com spr9@waikato.ac.nz.

Abstract

Temporary labour migration from agricultural/rural sector is considered as a universal

concomitant of economic modernization. Sri Lanka has experienced a large movement of rural labour,
which is predominantly agricultural since economic liberalization in 1977.

This study explores the economic impact of rural to urban labour migration on sending
communities using field survey data in 2011 and employs Tobit, probit and OLS regression models.

In conclusion, altruistic remittances depend positively on migrants monthly income and

negatively on household farm income considering both regular and annual remittances. Monthly
income gain from rural to urban migration varies on average between 3000 to 13000 rupees.
Individual income gain from the urban sector is rewarded by education and work experience. The
choice of remittance depends on the purpose of its usage.

Keywords: Rural to urban labour migration, Remittances, Regression Analysis, Agriculture communities in Sri Lanka.

Introduction

Migration is not a new phenomenon and it is the oldest action against poverty (Galbraith,
1979). However, temporary labour migration from agriculture/rural sector is considered as a universal
concomitant of economic modernization. The increasing attention on rural to urban migration
research among scholars has simultaneously generated different views regarding the pattern of
migration and remittance inflows. Although international labour migration has gained more attention
than rural to urban temporary labour migration2 in the recent debate on migration and development,
migration practices and the remittance3 are coming to the stage as a significant livelihood
development strategy for many poor groups in developing countries across the world.

In Sri Lanka, agriculture remains one of the main sources of employment generation by
employing nearly one third of the population and contributing 12.8% to GDP in 20104. With the

1
Author is gratefully acknowledged Prof. John Gibson, Prof. Anna Strutt and Dr. Steven Lim, Department of
Economics, University of Waikato, NZ for their invaluable comments and suggestions, also gratefully
appreciates the feedback from the NZREC Conference 2011, the Student Research Conference in Waikato
University NZ 2011, and SLERC conference in Sri Lanka 2013.
2
Here onwards labour migration means the temporary labour migration from rural to urban sector.
3
Remittances refer to the money and in-kinds that are transmitted to back homes by the people working away (migrant workers) from their
place of origin.
4
Press release issued by Central Bank of Sri Lanka on 12.07.2011

67
economic liberalization since 1977, the country has experienced shifting huge number of rural labour,
which is predominantly agricultural, seeking employment opportunities in the Export Processing
Zones (EPZ) in the main urban cities in Western Province. EPZs are the main pull factor for rural
urban temporary migration followed by educational opportunities in Sri Lanka in last few decades.
In addition, inadequate of arable land, capital constraints, low productivity5 and personal attitudes
push rural workers to urban sector while FTZs were established with the intension of absorbing
surplus rural labour (Laksman, 2000)

The enormous contribution of Economist, Demographers, Sociologists and Geographers is

being enriching migration literature since 1960s (Greenwood, 1975). Thus, migration emerged as a
debatable global development strategy with profound opportunities and challenges for both sending
and receiving destinations (Todaro, 1980). Theory of migration history starts from the Furrs remark
on migration6 and Revensteins response to that; which is called Laws of Migration (Lee, 1966).
Conceptual framework of migration can be reviewed in a broad range of studies starting from
Ravansteins Laws of migration, to the famous Todaro model, and the New Economics of Labour
Migration(NELM) (De Haan, 1999a). All these studies discuss both internal and international
migration. However, Lewis (1954) initiated the idea of rural urban migration using his two sector
model, emphasizing that the expansion of the modern sector absorbs cheap labour shifting from
agricultural sector.

Although E.G. Revenstein did the first attempt to work on rural urban migration, Sjaaseds
(1962) decisive work on rural urban migration has persuaded economists thinking on this debatable
issue. The New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) emerged in 1980s and 1990s, mainly with
the American research context as a response to both developmentalist theory (the migration optimists)
and structuralist theory ( the migration pessimists) (Taylor, 1999). NELM is pioneered by Stark
(1982) and documented by some micro-econometric studies that have attempted to test it (Lucas &
Stark, 1985; Taylor, 1995). According to the NELM theory, migration is hypothesized to be an effort
by households to overcome market failures that constrain local production.

Todaro (1980) indicated in his study on internal migration in developing countries by

generalizing the findings, migrants typically do not represent a random sample of the overall
population. On the contrary, they tend to be disproportionately young, better educated, less risk-
averse, and more achievement-oriented. Also they have better personal contacts in destination areas
than the general population in the place of origin. Further, his study pointed out both descriptive and
econometric studies on migration show that people migrate primarily for economic reasons. If there
is larger difference in economic opportunities between urban and rural sectors, larger flows of rural to
urban migration can be observed in any country.

Empirical studies show that China has made a huge contribution to the literature on rural to
urban migration. Millions of Chinese farmers have moved to urban areas to seek employment both
temporarily and permanently (Ha et al., 2009; Li & Zahniser, 2002), also rural to urban migration has
been viewed as a positive factor in China. Deshinkar (2006) indicated most of the common factors to
Asian countries such as regional disparities, high unemployment and underemployment in rural sector
and spread of labour intensive industries in urban areas under open market economy, motivate rural
labour to migrate to urban cities. However, the results change according to the time and space. Thus,
the benefits of migration are required to be examined or revaluated.

5
Nearly one third of labour force produces just over 10% of the GDP signal low productivity of agriculture.
6
It was a remark of Farr's to the effect that migration appeared to go on without any definite law.

68
 Either international or internal migration is a decision that impacts the welfare of the
household, the home community, and in the end the whole economy in various ways (Ratha et al.,
2011). The welfare implications of the international migration on the origin country are more often
positive and sizable. However, ample literature is required to judge whether the welfare implications
of the temporary rural to urban migration is positive and sizable in the context of rural development.
Compared to international migration, it is still peripheral to generalize the findings of rural to urban
migration on rural community development.

Although, Sri Lanka entered into the path of industrialization since 1950s, she adopted a
liberal economic model instead of inward looking economic policies in 1977. These economic
reforms transformed Sri Lankan economy from the one based on a colonial export structure to an
economy based on export-led manufacturing, resulting in the emergence of rural to urban migration7
in the country. With the establishment of the Export Processing Zones with highly labour intensive
factories, demand for both skilled and unskilled labour increased tremendously. Hence, there was a
flood of migration from rural communities to the main cities. Thus, majority of young unmarried
females have formed the backbone of an economic shift in Sri Lanka toward export-led
industrialization since 1978. As most of the workers are migrants originated from rural villages, they
contribute through remittances to develop the rural economy in Sri Lanka by supporting households in
the areas of origin. It is noted that high unemployment and youth unrest has caused the inevitable
results where majority of young female take the primary breadwinner role of their households. This
demonstrates that rural to urban migration contributes significantly to the rural communities and it is
worthwhile to examine and quantify the direct impact of internal migration on sending communities.

Sri Lankan internal migration process which this study focuses is rather different from the
classical migration theory which indicates that rural urban labour movements occur due to agrarian
systems and agricultural seasonality. It is quite similar to Zohrys study (2009) which indicated that
Egyptian internal migration is independent of agricultural seasonality as any time surplus labour can
exist. Similar to this Egyptian case, there is no other survival for the majority of Sri Lankan rural
young labour, especially female other than migration locally or internationally. Due to the higher
travel cost for international migration, the alternative way for their survival is rural to urban
migration. Thus, migration and remittances will be more focus area of the survival strategies of the
poor households and this will add diversification to the source of income of the households in Sri
Lanka particularly in the rural sector.

There is no migration survey planned for Sri Lanka yet. The Population Censes8 is the only
reliable source of data on internal migration. Due to the lack of data and statistics, there are dearth of
studies on internal migration and development in the country. Sri Lanka needs to be examined in
micro perspective, focusing the impact of migration and remittance on rural communities and how
migration contributes to transform the rural economy.

Although rural to urban migration has contributed immensely to household poverty reduction9
and income diversification strategies in the rural community in Sri Lanka, there are no systematic

7
Although internal migration exist prior to the market reforms in Sri Lanka ,the rural to urban migration which this study
focuses emerge significantly after establishment of export processing zones in 1978. Especially with the economic reforms
and accompanying changes in socio economic conditions in Sri Lanka, female migration was accelerated through EPZs.
8
The population Census conducted by the Department of the Census and Statistics is the most reliable source of data on
internal migration in Sri Lanka. Although it has been conducted since 1946 detailed information on internal migration was
collected in 1971 and 1981. Then, due to the Civil War no Population Census was conducted until 2001 which was the latest.
Internal remittances data includes in HIES surveys.
9
Please refer to the finding of the Chapter 3 in this thesis.

69
attempts to identify and quantify these impacts. According to the available sources, this is the first
study which attempts to examine the economic impact of rural to urban labour migration in Sri Lanka.
Thus, this study fills the literature gap of rural to urban migration in Sri Lanka indicating the
importance of internal migration on poverty reduction and rural development in Sri Lanka. Further,
this study highlights the timely importance of detailed and systematic survey of rural to urban
migration in Sri Lanka.

Significance of the study

Although migration implies an important contribution for the development of a country, the
potential impact of rural to urban migration on both source and destination areas are still not clear, as
the effects of migration and remittances are expected to vary on the characteristics of the context.

Since Sri Lanka is a country where there are higher regional disparities, rural to urban
migration is a common phenomenon. Limited opportunities for working and the resource constraints
due to a lack of arable land and irrigation water for agriculture activities encourage rural people to
migrate to the cities. Also lack of educational and vocational training opportunities, limited
infrastructure facilities such as electricity and transportation can be identified as push factors for the
rural urban migration process. Further, higher demand for skilled and unskilled labour generated by
the economic liberalization accelerated rural to urban migration in Sri Lanka tremendously.

However, there is no substantial endeavor to identify the amount of migration and to quantify
the impact of rural urban migration and remittances they send back to their communities of origin in
Sri Lanka.

This study aims to examine theoretical framework of rural urban migration in developing
countries and its role on economic development. We examine empirically the rural urban migration
process and its economic impact on Sri Lankan farming communities with a view to propose a
research agenda to address policy implications of rural urban migration for rural development
(poverty alleviation in rural sector) in Sri Lanka. Findings and their implications shed lights to the
literature on rural to urban migration and poverty in Sri Lanka.

Objectives

This study explores the economic impact of rural to urban temporary labour migration on
sending communities paying particular attention to the determinants and usage of remittances on the
development of the wellbeing of the farming communities and income gains through rural to urban
migration in Sri Lanka.

The working objectives are,

1. To quantify the income gains through rural to urban migration?

2. To identify the determinants of urban to rural remittance flows?
3. To scrutinize the choices of remit for different usages by the sending communities?

Methodology

Data for this analysis comes from a distinctive survey conducted by the author from January
to April 2011 in Sri Lanka. The survey comprises 37710 rural to urban migrant workers drown form

10
Although 400 migrants were surveyed, there were incomplete records and we have to reject few.

70
non-randomly11 selected 20 urban factories located in Gampaha District in Sri Lanka. The
respondents were selected using systematic sampling method and were interviewed based on a
structured questionnaire focusing on migration and work history, demographic characteristics of the
worker and the household members, place of origin, purpose of remit and the usage of the remittances
of the household members etc.

The pre-requisites of the survey respondents were one year experience in the factory, living
temporarily outside of the place of origin and coming from farming background. Majority of the
interviews were carried out inside the factories. A few interviews were carried out inside the hostels
and boarding places. Responding rate of the migrant workers was in a very high level.

Analytical Framework

The remittance data in this survey comprises both positive and zero values, as there were
migrants who remit and do not remit are in the sample. Hence, employing OLS regression analysis
for estimating the factors affecting remittances may be inconsistence and bias due to the restrictions
(censored variable) of the dependent variable; amount of remittances. Tobin (1958) pointed out Tobit
model overcomes the nature of this type of data (censored data). Thus, Tobit regression (censored
regression) model is tested using the remittance data of the migrant workers to identify the
determinants of internal remittances in Sri Lanka. The Tobit estimations have the limitation of taking
both effects of determinants of remittances and the magnitude of the remittances are as the same
(Brown, 1997), probit model was also employed to examine the decision of remittances.
Consequently, probit estimations provide the factors influence on the decision of remittances while
Tobit estimates provide the simultaneous decisions of whether to remit or not and how much to remit.
Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression analysis has been used to examine the income gains of the
migrants. Stata software was being used to examine the results of these models.

Results and discussions

Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics shows (Table 05) that 84 % of the rural to urban migrants are below 30
years. Most of the female respondents in this survey emphasized that they intend to work until they
get married. Sri Lankan internal migration process is quite similar to that of China. 70 % of the
Chinese internal migrants are aged between 16 and 35 years. Majority of them migrate between life
stages of leaving middle school and returning home to marry and have children (Deshingkar, 2006).
However, migrants characteristics are depending on the structure of the economy and migrants are
not the exact representation of the different population groups in the economy.

Interestingly, Sri Lankan rural to urban migrants are relatively educated. 80% respondents
have completed ten to twelve years of school education12in this survey. Nearly 15% of the
respondents have more than twelve years of education and majority of them were engaging in a
degree programs while working (Table 05). Although, nearly half of the respondents have completed
ten years of education, 62 percent of the respondents did not have any work experience before

11
Random sampling was not possible due to the factory restrictions. Thus through the BOI contacts, the researcher was able
to get approval to visit theses selected factories.
12
According to Table 09 nearly 50% of the respondents have completed O/L and 30% of the respondents have
completed A/L exams. O/L means completed ten years of education and A/L means completed twelve years of
education in Sri Lankan education system.

71
migration. Majority of them were just school leavers13. However, after migrating to cities majority of
the respondents have gained some kind of skills as a machine operator, technician, and embroider etc.
This is a positive sign of internal migration, as they can use these skills to get promotions or transfer a
better job locally or internationally using the skills and the money they accumulated through rural
urban migration.

Considering the respondents future plans, 33% percent of the respondents need to continue
the same job as they need to get the remunerations by completing five years of the service. Nearly
18% of the respondents stated that they need to go back to village and do some farming or non-farm
activity after accumulating some basic capital for that.

Compare to temporary labour migration of married female, the cost of migration is considered
to be higher for married females than unmarried female migrants. It is because married female have a
higher social cost of leaving behind their children, husbands, parents and duties of household as a
typical Sri Lankan mother and wife. Hence, the benefits of unmarried female migrants are higher than
those married female migrants.

The motives for migration are overwhelmingly economic despite of the context. Both skilled
and unskilled migrants are participated in the migration process not only by an individual decision but
also by the household decision more often. Discussion of the migrants indicates unemployment of the
rural sector leads majority to migrate to the urban sector, and the members of economically fragile
households tend to migrate as it is the only possible alternative (Table 05). Accordingly, more than
70% of the respondents migrated to urban employments due to economic reasons. Also seasonal
unemployment and underdevelopment nature of the rural sector could be indentified under other
reasons.

Although, we explored in this survey that some of the migrants are willing to engage farming
activities and live in rural sector, landlessness, capital constraints, less market access, inconsistency of
income and yield came across as hampering factors for continuation of farming activities.

The most significant motivation for rural to urban migration in Sri Lanka is better
employment opportunities with higher wages and better education opportunities in comparison to
rural sector. This is a common motive for rural to urban migration in many developing economies.

Considering the remit frequencies and the purpose of sending remittance to the household of
origin, 67 % of the respondents remit monthly. 31 % of the remittances go for the daily expenditure
purpose. Although, highest percentage of remittances use for the consumptive purposes, nearly 30%
of remittances use for the investment purpose of education and farm work.

Comparative income gains from rural-urban labour migration in Sri Lanka

Income gain is the most important motivation for both internal and international migration
(Ha et al., 2009). This analysis examine how much of income gain can be achieved through rural to
urban migration in Sri Lanka. Two types of data have been used for income variable (dependent
variable) here due to the lack of continues income data for the migrant workers. The survey was
targeted to have income data as intervals with the purpose of obtaining more reliable data. Thus, this
analysis used midpoint average income data for one model and imputed income data generated by
interval regression estimates for the other model.

13
Nearly 49 % of the respondents have completed ten years of school education (table 9).

72
Table 1: Migrants monthly income gain (Rupees*)

Mean Median

Actual urban income for all respondents ( n=377)

Mid point average income earned by factory job 15300 12500
Imputed** income by factory work (n=376) 15200 14100

Actual rural income for all respondents who

worked before migration ( n=143)
Mid point average income earned by first - 6600 5000
-job in village
Imputed income by first job in village 7200 7000

Actual rural income for all respondents who

engaged in farm work before migration ( n=74)
Mid point average income earned by farm job 6000 5000
Imputed income by farm job (n=74) 7500 7300
** Note: Income data has been collected as in the form of intervals. Using left and right censored
point of each interval imputed values from STATA using INTREG.

*Mean and median values are adjusted to the nearest hundred rupee values.

Table 01 indicates the mean and median income gain by each of the groups. The average
monthly income earned from urban factories is about 12,500 to 15,300 Sri Lankan rupees which are
more than two times of what they have earned in farming or other jobs in the rural sector before
migration. Some scholars have also pointed out that migrants urban income in China is more than
three time higher than the rural farm income they have earned before migration (Ha et al., 2009).

Further, this analysis attempted to calculate monthly income gains for three main groups of
migrants: all respondents, for the respondents who worked before migration and for the respondents
who worked in farms before migration. An overall result shows that row income gain for rural to
urban migration is between 3,672 to 12,978 rupees per month (Table 02). Presumably, some of the
characteristics introduce for the controls such as type of experience, education are highly rewarded in
urban income than rural income. The income of the farming group is more varied than other two
groups. It varies between 4,936 rupees to 11,269 rupees.

In conclusion, rural to urban migrant workers earn almost an additional 5,000 to 15,000
rupees (nearly 45 to 140 US$)14 per month compared to rural income gains before migration. The
migrants who shifted from the farm jobs to factory jobs are enjoying the highest income gain from
rural to urban labour migration process in Sri Lanka.

14
US$ is equal to 109 rupees by the survey period of January to April year 2011.

73
Figure 1: Monthly income gains from rural urban migration

Source: Feild Survey Data

Note: Income data has been collected in the form of intervals for relaibility. Using left and right
censored point of each interval imputed income generated using STATA. Income gain has been
calculated taking income differences.

Table 2: Monthly income gains from rural urban migration

Change in the level of monthly income All Workers employed farm

before
(Rupees) Respondents migration workers
Using midpoint average
Without covariates 12,978 9,843 11,993
(338.98) (604.29) (856.43)
Controlling for work experience 11,312 6441 8010
(552.06) (1265.35) (1492.82)
Controlling for education 6650 2929 3924
(1903.78) (4146.56) (5007.63)
Using imputed Income

Without covariates 8057 8884 9424

(126.22) (219.94) (313.76)
Controlling for work experience 6319 6851 7656
(163.98) (311.69) (483.17)
Controlling for education 3235 2029 1781
(1362.75) (1220.23) (1298.56)

No. of observations 376 142 73

Note: Standard Errors are in Parenthesis
Gender includes male =1, marital includes single =1

Determinants of remittances

Remittances play a very important part of the income in many groups of households in the
place of origin. Determinants of internal migration and remittances are varying and depend on the
characteristics of the economy. The first attempt to elucidate the motivations of remittances was done
by Lucas and Stark (1985) with firm theoretical basis. They have indicated two broad motives for
remitting: altruism and self-interest. Nevertheless, these two motives are inadequate to explain
variations in remittances, since very often migrants and their families in the place of origin benefit

74
from migration through embedded contractual arrangements. Hence, motives can be taken as
combine elements of altruism and self-interest such as insurance and loan repayments (Atamanov &
Van den Berg, 2010). As well as they demonstrated that proximity of the migrant and the left behind
members of the family should influence the choice of remittance. As closer the relationship
strengthens the importance of household in the migrants utility; remittance should increase with the
said proximity.

Although internal migration derives significant economic gains, remittance is the most
tangible direct impact of migration. This study employed Tobit, probit and OLS regression models
for analyzing the survey data to investigate what factors influence for the decision of remit. As all the
migrants do not remit for the left behinds in the place of origin, survey data consist with truncation
problem. Therefore, Tobit regression is well suit for addressing the censored or truncation data.
Nevertheless, Tobit estimations have the limitation of taking both effects of determinants of
remittances and the magnitude of the remittance the same (Brown, 1997). Consequently, this analysis
employed probit model specially for examining the determinants of the purpose of remit. Hence,
probit estimations provide the factors influence on the decision of remittances while Tobit estimation
provide the simultaneous decisions of whether to remit or not and how much to remit. The robustness
of the results has been tested. OLS regression is also used to compare the coefficients.

Table 03 indicates the results of Tobit and OLS analysis regarding factors affecting
remittance decision. The results confirm that altruistic remittances depend positively on migrants
monthly income and negatively on household farm income15 considering both regular and annual
remittances. Because altruism implies that the migrant derives utility from his/her consumption and
the consumption of the household of origin.

Table 3: Determinants of rural to urban worker remittance: Tobit and OLS Results

Determinants Tobit OLS

Regular1 Annual2 Regular1 Annual2
remittance remittance remittance remittance
Average salary 0.174 1.126 0.163 1.142
(3.95)** (1.99)* (2.49)* (2.00)*
Savings -0.048 4.022 -0.034 3.985
(0.75) (4.95)** (0.44) (2.07)*
Seettu -0.049 2.959 -0.013 2.823
(0.39) (1.87) (0.13) (2.01)*
Age2 -0.001 -0.032 -0.000 -0.027
(0.38) (0.88) (0.02) (0.89)
Age 0.081 2.396 -0.007 1.979
(0.40) (0.93) (0.03) (0.97)
Gender(male =1) 0.511 12.440 0.470 12.285
(0.93) (1.77) (1.11) (1.78)
Education (No of years) -0.274 0.368 -0.224 0.417
(2.48)* (0.26) (2.39)* (0.24)
Total land owned by -0.313 -2.538 -0.223 -2.545
family (4.12)** (2.71)** (3.96)** (2.88)**
Bonus 0.150 1.164 0.129 1.146
(4.37)** (2.60)** (1.96) (1.75)
No of students in the 1.064 2.749 0.890 2.507
family (4.22)** (0.84) (4.00)** (0.86)

15
Farmland ownership has been included as a proxy for household income as income data is not much reliable.

75
 Experience 0.089 0.479 0.110 0.575
(1.08) (0.45) (1.65) (0.50)
Marital(single=1) 1.497 0.521 1.013 -0.354
(2.93)** (0.08) (2.51)* (0.05)
In-kind received -0.209 -4.531 -0.160 -4.087
(1.25) (2.15)* (1.26) (1.98)*
Constant 0.253 -22.667 1.972 -16.024
(0.08) (0.53) (0.78) (0.45)
Observations 357 357 357 357
R-squared - - 0.23 0.19
* significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%Robust t statistics in parentheses
Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses

Note :
1. Regular remittance consider monthly or once in three months regular remittances in 1000 rupees
2. Annual remittances include in-kind (1000 rupees) send by the migrants.

Annual bonus of the migrants is a highly significant and positive determinant of sending
remittances. As it is an extra earning, most of the respondents indicated that they use it for housing
purpose, buying durables, or savings in the place of origin. Considering the amount of annual
remittances, it is clear the savings of the migrants and the annual remittances send back home are
positively correlated. Most of the migrants indicated that they send money to households for the
purpose of savings. Single migrants are more likely to remit regularly with the purpose of caring their
parents and young siblings left behind. Households where there are more school children are more
likely to receive regular remittances.

Interestingly, this study shows that education of the migrants has a negative impact on the
decision to remit and the amount of the remittances. It is identified that the respondents those who
have higher education are engaging their higher studies while working and they spend for their own
education expenses. Hence, they would not be able to remit for the left behind members of the
household.

Most of the researchers are trying to estimate only the impact of remittance and in-kind flows
to sending communities in recent history. However, there are in-kind flows (mostly in-kind but rarely
money) also occur from sending communities to working destinations of the migrants. This study
examines for the first time in migration literature whether there is a considerable impact of the in-kind
flows to the migrant worker form the households of origin. According to the results, in-kind variable
shows there is a significant positive impact on the decision of annual remittance flows. However, it
demonstrates negative and insignificant impact regarding regular remittance decision. It is because,
migrants does not receive in-kind monthly but few times a year. However, in-kind flows from rural to
urban also an important factor which determines the annual remittances in the process of rural to
urban labour migration in Sri Lanka.

Use of internal remittances in rural farm communities

The effects of rural to urban labour migration on the development of rural communities
(migrant-sending areas) can also be examined through the usage of remittances by the household of
origin. This study examines the determinants of the usage of remittance using probit regression. We
disaggregated the remittance data according to the purpose of the remittances such as household daily
expenditure, education of the household members, spending on farming activities and spending on
durables and housing (Table 04). However, most of the other studies show more than half of the

76
remittances have been used for the consumptive purposes (De Brauw & Rozelle, 2008; Zhang, 2010),
indicating this is a common phenomenon of the migration in developing countries. Nevertheless, this
study shows that considerable proportion of remittance : nearly one third of the remittances go for the
productive investment which can generate multiplier effects in terms of income and employment.
These are education and farming. Higher the number of students in the family is receiving higher the
amount remittance on the purpose of education and a household that increases farm lands is more
likely to receive remittances on the purpose of farming.

Probit estimates reveal that the choice of annual remittances decrease significantly due to
migrants stays in the city lengths. It is because beginning of the migration process will send more
remittances and for the time being households would get more other channels of income. For
example, some respondents indicated that they do not remit regularly now compare to previous years
as there are other members to spend and take care of the parents. Also some respondents have created
some sort of sources of income such as small shops at the place of origin, or bought vehicles for
hiring; those would generate income for the family members at the place of origin.

The probit results also confirm that in-kind variable have significant positive impact on ever
remit decision (Table 04). However, an in-kind flow to urban sector is also a considerable factor in
determining the remittances. Although 86 percent of the respondents receive their lunch from the
factory, nearly 63 percent of the migrants receive in-kinds from their places of origin. Almost 80 per
cent of these migrant workers who received in-kind are female migrants, because male migrants do
not tend to cook at boarding places and they buy foods from outside when and where necessary and
most of the factories provide free meals or discounted. The respondents reported in-kinds are mostly
row foods such as rice, vegetables and coconuts and they received cooked food items as well. The
types of in-kind depend on what sort of crops have been cultivated by the household and the
frequency of receiving in- kinds depend on the frequency of the visit of the place of origin by the
migrant or the number of visits of the household members in the city.

Although single migrants are more likely to remit, there is a negative impact of remittances on
the purpose of daily expenses. Higher the students in the household lower the remit for daily
expenses but higher the remit for education purpose. None of these determinants impact on the
likelihood of remittances on the purpose of housing, durables and savings. The age variable indicates
that elderly migrants are more likely to remit on the purpose of education. Although, higher the
extent of arable land owned by the household, the likelihood of being remit will be less, as it depend
on the purpose of remitting. If the purpose of remitting is farming activities likelihood of being remit
is higher. This explains that migrants are more likely to remit on the investment purpose in Sri Lanka
as well.

77
 Table 4: Determinants of remittances and usage of remittances in origin household (probit estimates)

Determinants Ever remit1 Daily Education Farm work Housing and Loan savings
expenses durable repayment
Average salary 0.000 -0.001 0.003 0.001 0.004 -0.003 -0.004
(0.84) (0.31) (1.15) (0.37) (1.35) (1.37) (1.53)
Total land owned -0.001 -0.027 0.005 0.016 -0.005 -0.009 -0.001
(2.04)* (2.65)** (1.04) (2.59)** (1.02) (2.25)* (0.10)
No of migrants -0.004 -0.053 0.004 0.029 -0.032 0.019 -0.050
(1.56) (1.29) (0.18) (0.97) (1.41) (1.37) (1.87)
No of years of -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.012 0.019 -0.004 -0.005
schooling (1.97)* (0.27) (0.57) (1.24) (1.67) (0.93) (0.64)
Marital (single=1) 0.049 -0.171 0.052 -0.009 0.032 0.044 0.070
(3.72)** (2.77)** (1.78) (0.20) (0.93) (1.80) (1.94)
In kind received 0.009 -0.070 0.058 0.053 0.013 -0.026 0.053
(1.98)* (1.38) (1.91) (1.35) (0.46) (1.34) (1.73)
Age 0.006 0.005 0.028 0.022 0.019 0.002 -0.007
(3.78)** (0.22) (2.35)* (0.96) (0.91) (0.26) (0.51)
Age2 -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 0.000 0.000
(3.65)** (0.05) (1.92) (1.25) (1.29) (0.06) (0.44)
no of years of -0.001 -0.010 -0.008 0.001 0.010 -0.006 0.002
experience (2.59)** (1.06) (1.40) (0.08) (1.46) (2.06)* (0.34)
No of students of 0.004 -0.070 0.077 -0.004 -0.033 -0.006 0.027
family (1.75) (2.11)* (4.17)** (0.19) (1.44) (0.72) (1.71)
Observations 373 373 373 373 373 373 373

Robust z statistics in parentheses * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%

Note: ever remit dummy variable consider annual remittances including in-kind send by migrants, if the amount is positive the value
takes 1 other wise zero.

78
Conclusion

This paper investigated the process of rural to urban temporary labour migration,
remittances and its impact on rural farm communities/sending communities in Sri Lanka.
Further, this study explored the determinants of remittances and earning differentials of these
migrant workers using survey data which was conducted by the author from January to April
2011 in Gampha District.

Descriptive statistics show that the proportion of remittance flow is account for 21
percent of household income on average in sending destinations. Rural to urban migration
contributes significantly to asset accumulation (including vehicles and land) in the
communities of origin. Twenty five percent of the migrants have built new houses.

The determinants of remittance indicated that single migrants are more likely to remit
regularly for caring parents left behind. The households with larger extent of farmlands are
less likely to receive regular remittances for daily expenses. However, migrants whose
households own more paddy lands tend to remit more on farming purpose as an investment.
Migrants tend to remit more for the purpose of education if there are students in the
household of origin. This confirms that rural urban migration and remittances are not only
for the consumptive purposes but also for the investment purpose in Sri Lanka.

None of the migrants remit monthly for the purpose of buying durables or building
houses, as this may requires large sums of money. However, they do remit for these
purposes annually when they get lump some of money; bonuses or seettu16.

The choice of remit depends on the purpose of using remittance rather than other
factors such as wage or experience. Single migrants are more likely to remit for the daily
expenses in their households of origins as elderly people and/or parents who cannot work and
no proper income in the places of origin.

Individual migrants income gain from migration varies on average between 3,672 to
12,978 rupees. Migrants who shift from agriculture sector jobs to factory jobs are the highest
income gainers in rural urban labour migration. Individual income gain from the urban sector
is rewarded by education and work experience compare to the rural sector.

Finally, based on the empirical literature and the findings of this survey, it can be
concluded that rural to urban temporary labour migration contributes significantly to reduce
poverty by improving the wellbeing of rural farm communities. Although, the chances to
enter international migration process is limited due to affordability of the cost of migration
and other factors, internal migration is an alternative for any households with skilled or
unskilled labour to participate and make their way out of poverty. Hence, relatively rural to
urban temporary labour migration is much supportive in long term as migrants can spend
longer periods in their jobs than international migration. Rural to urban temporary labour
migration will be a better solution for brain drain which developing countries like Sri Lanka

16
Seettu is an informal financial program such as a chit among workers. Few people get together and organize
to collect some fixed amount form all the group members and one will be entitle to have the lump sum for once.
Turns are decided by the raffle.

79
are facing today and it lessens social consequences of families comparatively to the
international migration as migrants visit their families often.

Implications and policy discussion

Although, rural to urban labour migration started since late 1970s, there is no
national count on rural-urban labour labour migration process in Sri Lanka yet. Thus, there is
a dearth of quantitative studies on rural urban labour migration and no significant policy
implication regarding rural to urban labour migration. However, there should have a general
agreement which temporary rural urban migration should be an integral part of the national
policy analysis and planning. Also rural urban migration process should be taken into
account more importantly in designing rural development policies in Sri Lanka.

While the countries like Sri Lanka is benefiting from international migration, it leads
to a problem of brain drain and other social circumstances. Thus, human capital resource
constrain will be a significant hampering factor for the sustainable development of the
country in due course. In that sense, country can adopt internal migration as development
mechanism while motivating more foreign investments in Sri Lanka for providing more
employment opportunities with higher wages as an alternative.

Even though rural urban migrants are contributing immensely to the growth of the
manufacturing sector while supporting the rural communities to improve their livelihoods,
the society does not accept the women who work in the factories with respect hitherto17.
Hence, revolutionary change is needed for the attitude change of the public to respect women
workers who shape up the Sri Lankan economy in terms of rural development and export- led
economic development in Sri Lanka. There should be some programs to admire them. It is a
responsibility of media, academia and other research institutions to create better picture of
them. They can create better environment for young women to come and work in these
factories. This will be a solution for factories which are facing the labour shortage at present
as well18.

Migrants need proper guidance on how to utilize remittances mostly for productive
investment with multiplier effects rather than consumptive purposes. For example, they need
proper guidance to start a small business relating to agriculture or/and non-agriculture using
the particular resources in their areas and remittance.

However, most of the farmers need to have proper guidance for their career
advancement. It is a responsibility of the local government officials in each area to conduct
awareness programs and follow up them. At the same time, they need banking facilities for
initial step to cover the cost. Government should involve by supporting them with easy bank
loans at low interest rates or no interest for particular period. Banks can assure their
repayments of the loans as theses families have migrant works to have a regular income.

17
Since early stages, there was an inexcusable label for women workers in the factories as a Juki girl. This is
very impolite and creating enormous problems in their future, especially marriages.
18
Majority of the factory managers in the field survey indicated that they are facing labour shortage and applying different strategies such as
conducting their interviews in rural areas ( selected villages), giving free accommodation and free meal for three to four months time and supply
free transpiration to absorb labour for their factories.

80
 Migration seems to be a better solution for the poverty reduction and rural
development in Sri Lanka compare to the early poverty reduction strategies. Although Sri
Lanka was adapted various poverty reduction strategies since independence, all most all the
strategies were based on welfare programmes. The programs such as Samurdhi, Janasaviya,
food stamps were compensating poor households to reach the minimum income/expenditure
level of the family. Most of these programs did not motivate poor households to initiate a
new source of income. Although, Samurdhi program made some changes through micro
credit programs and rural banking facilities to start business, there were limitations19 in this
program as well.

Now it is the time to convert these welfare programs to income generating projects
for each household. Rural to urban migration and international migration brings initial capital
to the poor households for starting small business. Government need to interfere and support
for these families to initiate new business by providing necessary loans and know-how.

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19
According to the survey information most of the actually poor people did not receive the benefits while non-poor people are enjoying the
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83
 Table 5: Characteristics of the migrant workers and their families

Variable Percentage /mean n

Individual Characteristics: Age 25.7 377
Migrants below age 30years 84% 315
Marital status: Never Married 71.9% 271
Married 26.5% 100
Separate/divorced/widowe 1.6% 06
Relationship with head of the household
Head 9.3% 35
Spouse 18.8% 71
Children 71.9% 271
Education level
Primary 7.1% 27
O/L (Completed eleven years of education) 48.8% 184
A/L(Completed thirteen years of education) 29.2% 110
A/L+ 14.6% 55
No schooling 0.3% 01
Gender: Male 24.1% 91
Female 75.9% 286
Work History
Job before migration
No Job 62.1% 234
Government/semi government 0.8% 3
Private sector 8.8% 33
Farming 19.6% 74
Non-farm 3.7% 14
Other jobs 5% 19
Experience: Experience before migration 2 .0 years (1.5)
Experience in factory jobs 4.7 years (3.5)
Male 5.1 years (3.4)
Female 4.5 years (3.6)
Type of job in the factory
Machine operator 44% 166
Junior technician 21.8% 82
Supervisor 2.1% 8
Quality checker 14.6% 55
Helper 5.3% 20
Other 30% 113
Way of finding urban jobs
Advertisement 9.3% 35
Relatives 44.7% 168
Migrant network 30.9% 116
Other 15.7% 57
Family Characteristics***
Household size 4.4persons (1.3)
Number of students 0.6 persons (0.8)
Number of members under 16 years old 0.5 persons (0.7)
Number of members over 60 years old 0.3 persons (0.6)
Number of male labour 1.7 persons (0.8)
Number of female labour 2.1 persons (0.7)
Number of migrants 1.4 persons (0.6)
Highest education obtained by the household members
Primary and below 3.7% 14
O/L 50% 188
A/L 40.4% 152
Degree /Diploma 5.8% 22
Assets: Owning farmland or paddy land 92% 347
Farm land (acres) 1.2 (1.8)
Paddy land (acres) 1.7 (1.9)
Total observations 377
Note: Standard deviations are in parenthesis,
***Family characteristics are including migrant workers itself.

84
 Developing Communication Skills

Rajesh Sahadeo Lokhande

Librarian
Dr. Ambedkar College
Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur.
e-mail- rajeshlokhande.2010@rediffmail.com

Abstract -
Communication, derived from the Latin word 'Communicate' which means to share; is
the process of transmitting information and understanding. It is the transference of meaning
between individuals and the means of reaching, understanding and influencing others. There are
multiple communication channels available to us today, for example face-to-face conversations,
telephone calls, text messages, email, the internet, internet related social media as a facebook,
twitter, radio and television, written letters, brochures and reports etc. After hearing, the next
stage is attending the act of paying attention to a signal, then understanding the process of
making sense of a massage. Responding to a message consists of giving observable feedback to
the speaker. The final step in the listening process is remembering. Communication involves a
number of skills and no one is a complete-effective communicator. Conflict is inevitable in times
of rapid change. Effective communication helps one avoid conflict and minimize its adverse
consequences when it does occur.
Keywords Communication, Verbal, Nonverbal, feedback, Listening and Hearing

Introduction -

Communication skills are some of the most important skills that you need to succeed in
the workplace. Communication is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one
person to another, communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings.
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. This
paper discussing communication between human beings. Communication is a continuous,
ongoing process. Effective communication requires paying attention to an entire process, not just
the content of the message. When you are the messenger in this process, you should consider
potential barriers at several stages that can keep your intended audience from receiving your
message. Communication, derived from the Latin word 'Communicare' which means to share; is
the process of transmitting information and understanding. It is the transference of meaning
between individuals and the means of reaching, understanding and influencing others.
Communication is considered effective when it succeeds in evoking a desired response from the
other person. Choose the right medium for the message you want to communicate. E-mail or
phone call? Personal visit? Group discussion at a meeting? Notes in the margin or a typed
review? Sometimes more than one medium is appropriate, such as when you give the patient
written material to reinforce what you have said, or when you follow-up a telephone conversation
with an e-mail beginning, As we discussed.

Objectives of the study

Taking into consideration the aims and objectives of the study, it can be certainly said that the
present study has a significant value in the field of research.

85
 What is Communication ?
Define and understand Communication process
Elements of Communication
Barriers in a communication process
Communication Channels
Practice active Listening and Hearing.
Developing verbal and non verbal communication
For Developing Communication Skill

Communication Process

A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a

receiver, or to multiple receivers. The sender must encode the message (the information being
conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then
decodes the message to understand its meaning and significance.

The fact that communication is a process is reflected in the transactional model

introduced later in this paper.

Whenever you communicate with someone else, you and the other person follow the
steps of the communication process shown below.

Here, the person who is the source of the communication encodes it into a message, and
transmits it through a channel. The receiver decodes the message, and, in one way or another,
feeds back understanding or a lack of understanding to the source. Misunderstanding can occur at
any stage of the communication process. Effective communication involves minimizing potential
misunderstanding and overcoming any barriers to communication at each stage in the
communication process.

Communication Channels

Communication Channels is the concept given to the way in which we communicate.

There are multiple communication channels available to us today, for example face-to-face

86
conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email, the internet, internet related social media as
a facebook, twitter, radio and television, written letters, brochures and reports etc.

Elements of Communication -

Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject
becomes a lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one
may occur at any time. The different categories of communication are:

Verbal Communication

[for example face-to-face, telephone, radio or television or other media.]

Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependant on a number of factors and

cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal
communication, listening skills and clarification. Positive body language is a necessary ingredient
for developing relation with any audience. Solid eye contact, enthusiastic had gestures, smiling on
a regular basis, and nodding ones head occasionally suggest confidence in and enthusiasm for
the message communication. Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and
following some basic rules of etiquette will all aid the process of verbal communication. See our
page: Effective Speaking for more information.

Non-Verbal Communication

[ body language, gestures, how we dress or act - even our scent.]

In Non-Verbal Communication, non means not and verbal means words, then
nonverbal communication appears to mean Communication without word. This is a good
starting point after we distinguish between vocal communication (by mouth) and verbal
communication (with words). After this distinction is made, it becomes clear that some nonverbal
messages are vocal, and some are not.

Types of Communication

Vocal Communication Nonvocal Communication

Verbal Communication Spoken words Written words

Nonverbal Communication Tone of voice, sighs, Gestures, movement, appearance,

screams, vocal facial expression, and so on.
qualities[loudness, pitch, and
so on]

Table 1.1

Many verbal messages are vocal, some arent . Table 1.1 illustrates these differences.
Non-verbal communication consists of a complete package of expressions, hand and eye
movements, postures, and gestures which should be interpreted along with speech. Non-verbal
Messages Allow People To - Convey information about their emotional state, Define or reinforce
the relationship between people, Provide feedback to the other person, Regulate the flow of

87
communication, for example by signaling to others that they have finished speaking or wish to
say something.

Written Communication-

[ Letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.]

Written communication requires background skills such as academic writing, revision

and editing, critical reading and presentation of data. Writing skills are an important part of
communication. Good writing skills allow you to communicate your message with clarity and
ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or telephone conversations. Written
communication is the ability to write effectively in a range of contexts and for a variety of
different audiences and purposes, with a command of the English language. This includes the
ability to tailor your writing to a given audience, using appropriate styles and approaches.

Poor writing skills create poor first impressions and many readers will have an immediate
negative reaction if they spot a spelling or grammatical mistake.

Feedback

Feedback is an excellent tool for learning. There is an art to both giving and receiving
both types of feedback, and it is an art worth developing and refining , as you will be doing both
throughout your career as a social worker. Both situations can be emotionally arousing: in giving
feedback it is therefore often tempting to take refuge in being nice and bland, or, if we are feeling
very critical, bo become hostile and aggressive. Receivers of messages are likely to provide
feedback on how they have understood the messages through both verbal and non-verbal
reactions. Effective communicators should pay close attention to this feedback as it the only way
to assess whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be
corrected. Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will very according to the
communication channel used for example feedback during a face-to face or telephone
conversation will be immediate and direct.

Listening and Hearing

Listening and Hearing are not the same thing. Hearing is the process in which sound
waves strike the eardrum and cause vibrations that are transmitted to the brain. Listening occurs
when the brain reconstructs these electrochemical impulses into a representation of the original
sound and them gives them meaning. After hearing, the next stage is attending the act of
paying attention to a signal, then understanding the process of making sense of a massage.
Responding to a message consists of giving observable feedback to the speaker. The final step in
the listening process is remembering.

Barriers to Effective Communication-

There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many
communications, the message (what is said) may not be received exactly the way the sender
intended.

Common Barriers to Effective Communication: Emotional barriers and taboos,

Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver, Barriers to Effective
Listening, Differences in perception and viewpoint, Physical disabilities such as hearing

88
problems or speech difficulties, Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Language
differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents, Expectations and
prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping, Cultural differences.

Figur 1.2

For Developing Communication Skills

Use gestures. These include gestures with your hands and face. Make your whole body talk.
Use smaller gestures for individuals and small groups.
Avoid communicating in extreme emotional states.
Pronounce your words correctly.
Have confidence when talking, it doesn't matter what other people think.
Try to speak fluently and try to make sure people can hear you when you speak.
Always pay undivided attention to the speaker while listening.
Engage your Audience.
Eye contact should be maintained.
Be aware of what your body is saying.
Use simple words and phrases that are understood by everybody.
Develop your voice A high or whiny voice is not perceived to be one of authority.
While listening, always make notes of important points.
Make the message Attractive Brief & Clear.
Speak clearly and audibly.

89
Conclusion

Communication involves a number of skills and no one is a complete -effective

communicator. Conflict is inevitable in times of rapid change. Effective communication helps one
avoid conflict and minimize its adverse consequences when it does occur. The next issue of
Strategies for Career Success will cover conflict management. Communication skills are some of
the most important skills that you need to succeed in the workplace. Communication is the art of
transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another, communication is the
process of meaningful interaction among human beings. feedback is an excellent tool for
learning. There is an art to both giving and receiving both types of feedback, and it is an art
worth developing and refining, as you will be doing both throughout your career as a social
worker. Both situations can be emotionally arousing; in giving feedback it is therefore often
tempting to take refuge in being nice and bland, or, if we are feeling very critical, to become
hostile and aggressive. There are multiple communication channels available to us today, for
example face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email, the internet, internet
related social media as a facebook, twitter, radio and television, written letters, brochures and
reports etc.

Reference -

Adler, R.B., Understanding human communication, 9ed.Oxford university press,New York,2006.

Burnett, M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies for Success. Houston, Texas: Dane.
Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Berko, R.M., Wolvin, A.D., & Curtis, R. (1986). This Business of Communicating. Dubuque, IO: WCB.
Ivancevich, J.M., Lorenzi, P., Skinner, S.J., & Crosby, P.B. (1994). Management: Quality and Competitiveness.
Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin.
John Stewart and Gary D Angelo, Together. Communicating Interpersonally. 2 nd ed. 9Reading, MA: Addison-
wesley, 1980p.22
Gibson, J.W., & Hodgetts, R.M. (1990). Business Communication: Skills and Strategies. NY, NY: Harper & Row.

90
 Motivational Article
Build Empathy at Workplace for Better Results

Dr. Neelam Tikkha

Tenderness and kindness are not signs of weakness and despair,

but manifestations of strength and resolution.
Kahlil Gibran

A group of Brahmins gathered to sacrifice a goat. A goat was made ready for sacrifice.It was
cleaned, washed and garlanded. When they were about to start the sacred fire ritual ( yagya) . They
heard the goat laughing. They were surprised and asked, Whats the matter? Goat said, What is the
use of these yagyas? Brahmins replied, This yagya is for the well being of our family. Goat again
guffawed and said, The fruits of these yagyas would be destroyed. And it is also the cause of the
vicious chakra of life ( life cycle of birth and death) I did all this in my previous birth and see my
condition now.

People gathered there, were surprised and said, What do you mean by all this; please explain
it to us in detail?

Goat replied, I was a Brahmin in my previous birth. Once, my son fell sick and my wife, to
please God, sacrificed a goat for my childs fast recovery. The mother of the lamb cursed me. She
said, In your next birth, youll be born a goat and would be similarly sacrificed. Moreover, you will
have the memory of previous birth so that you feel guilty for your deeds.

I would like to refer to another famous example of Tulsidas. He was a passionate lover. He
did not bother about the raging storm. He crossed the dangerous river in the dead of the night. He
climbed to the wifes bedroom window, holding the hanging snake, thinking it to be a rope. And lo!
his romanticism and deep love was mistaken for lust by his wife. She could not empathize with him
since she did not love him as much as he did. She thought it to be foolish to take so much risk just to
meet her.

True said! Many a times we do not place ourselves in other peoples shoes and do not know
why and where the shoe pinches. We form our opinion and judgments based on our past experiences
or what we think or feel about that person. We are not able to see the flip side of the coin. If we
develop empathy for others most of our problems will vanish. We will also be rid of 7 sins mentioned
in Christian mythology. The key to empathy is open communication which is a key ingredient of
Emotional Intelligence.. But we are in the era of speed and sms that creates more issues rather than
resolving them. The society is turning sterile and losing human touch and we are getting transformed
into robots. The earth is getting transformed into a wasteland.

People will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how
you made them feel.

Bonnie Jean Wasmund:

References:
Based on a Story from Geeta 9th Chapter

91
Cultural Spaces: Canada and India

Digital Media And Digital Culture leading us towards

a Digital Society: Lessons from Canada to India
Sarala Devi Manukonda,
Lecturer,
SDM Siddartha Mahila Kalasala, Vijayawada

Abstract

Digital Media technologies are playing a central role in culture and society in this 21st
century. They provide the structures in which individual identities form, social relations manifest,
political discourse occurs and economic power flows. These technologies are presently so pervasive
in society that it is difficult to distinguish social structure from forms of digital communication. Not
much research has gone into the theoretical concepts that explain the linkages between Culture and
Technological Constructs. Individual identity formation in digital media, community and audience
construction online and visual culture are all issues that arise due to the influence of Digital media on
the social fabric which is now a networked public sphere. Digital media has also had its effect on
economic, democratic and political spheres. New digital technologies are shaping and are being
shaped by culture, new business models and society in a reciprocal manner. However, availability and
access to digital infrastructure and barriers to equality and quality of use, have led to widening
disparities among digital haves and have-nots. However education and access to culture and digital
media can help in reducing the inequalities and cultural institutions and their partners in education and
social intervention, have a role to play. Canada is a country highly evolved in integrating digital
media technologies into production, distribution and consumption of cultural content and is poised to
be leader in creativity and innovation. Canadian public policies on Digital Media and Digital Culture
are well researched and are positioned to play a leading role in shaping the global digital economy and
India has lessons to learn. For India will then comprehend the enormity of the problems it faces on the
Digital Divide and which are compounded by its multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-lingual social
fabric, in shaping a digital society. This paper attempts to understand the impact of Digital media and
culture on society and brings Canadian perspectives into the Indian realm, as it forges ahead into the
Digital Society of this 21st century.

Key words - Digital media, digital infrastructure, digital skills, digital divide, digital content, digital economy, social media,
digital society, ICT, Massive Open Online Courses, inter-cultural learning spaces and inter-cultural education

Digital Media

India is the third largest internet user after China and the United States, with around 17 Crore
users as per TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India), with three-fourths of them under 35
years of age and seven out of eight accessing the net from their mobile phones. Mobile phone based
usage is a key component of Indian internet usage and the recent growth is being driven by mobile
internet usage, Nilotpal Chakravarti, Internet and Mobile Association of India. 25% of the total time
spent on the net is on social media, especially on Face Book and another 23% on e-mail. Google is the
most popular search engine with 90% and has the most unique visitors. LinkedIn and Twitter the next
most popular. Online reservations on the Indian Railways website are very popular and online
domestic retail and news is picking up in popularity, with Yahoo News on the lead. With 2.7 million
views The Girl and the Autorickshaw an online film is a hit, T-Series is among the top 100 channels
globally on You Tube and 75 million viewers were online to watch IPL last year. Internet and telecom
companies are reaping serious revenues, 27,000 crores in 2012 with 80% of it from entertainment
92
 products online. 227 million Indian were online, however Chinese
online presence outnumbers Indians by a ratio of 5:1 and Brazil
outpaced Indias internet growth last year. If not in volume, US is the
largest revenue generator from digital media with around US $ 37
billion in 2012. "While content is being consumed in Indian
languages, lack of interface at both hardware and software levels,
does create an impediment for a large non-English-speaking
population to adequately utilize video services including YouTube,"
says Sharma of Google India. India ranks third in the world in
watching videos online and fourth in the world in watching videos on
phone, with around 430 minutes per month. The eco-system of the
Rs. 83,000 crore media and entertainment industry is slowly but
surely turning digital.

Digital Divide

A Digital Revolution has taken place and Digital Media technologies are playing a central
role in culture and society in this 21st century. Digital media technologies are a vast landscape of
hardware and software with many different uses and applications- viz. social networking, video
sharing, blogging, digital products and services, retail purchase, banking, enterprise management,
educational learning and content management systems, etc. Social media applications are altering
social behaviour through dialogue, discovery and sharing information.

Digital information or content is becoming the creative infrastructure for the knowledge
economy and educational and cultural activities. But most of the content on the internet is in English,
almost 55% of the total content on the net. This invariably creates multi-layered divides among the
populace, regarding the availability and accessibility to infrastructure, types and quality of usage and
barriers to equal access and use. This is highly accentuated in a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-
lingual country like India, where digital media are fast transforming the social fabric and shaping the
digital society of the 21st century. The disparities between the digital haves and have-nots are not
easy to eliminate and needs much understanding of this Digital Divide before they can be
holistically tackled.

Canada leads in its research into Digital divides a term for many issues viz. infrastructure,
access, use, impediments to use and digital literacy and skills. Digital technologies come in different
forms and provide different services. Hence their pattern of penetration into the society varies
accordingly. Research done for Statistics Canada, Science, Innovation and Electronic information
Division, Govt. of Canada, reveals that there is no single pattern either across groups or overtime.
Technology penetration into society varies based on interests, incomes, education, age, gender,
geographical location, etc. However all new technologies are subject to a divide in their initial years
after introduction, but as the technology reaches saturation, the gap between the haves and have-nots
reduces. With every passing year more people use the internet, there are more haves and less have-
nots. When groups are delineated by income or education or other variable, each group has its own
penetration rate. The relative divide is very big for newer technologies and drops for saturated
technologies. Divides can also regress after a certain level of saturation. Planners, Administrators and
Non-Governmental Organizations require to know, the more pertinent information of whether the gap
is widening or closing and the same can investigated into using analytical techniques like Lorenz
Curve. Canadian findings conclude that the Digital Divide is generally closing, but progress is
mainly made by the upper middle class. The lowest income group continues to lose ground and the
gap appears too big to close easily. However the research also finds that this remains true with many
technologies in their early stages of adoption and it remains true to that the rate of growth of internet
use at lower incomes is higher than that of higher incomes. But the composition of income groups
itself changes over time and it is not the same individuals or the same groups of families that comprise
93
them. It has been found that affordability is critical, but that does not explain the sizeable proportion
of non-users at the highest income levels. Other variables too change over time due to evolution of
technologies, falling prices, social norms and more. Ultimately the Digital Divide is about outcomes
and impacts. The fundamental digital divide is not measured by the number of connections to the
internet, but by the consequences of both connection and lack of connection, Castells, The Internet
Galaxy, 2001.

India has lessons to learn from the progress being made by Canada to understand the digital
divide and find solutions for an inclusive digital society. Canada is bi-lingual, but India being highly
multi-lingual has much to do. Literacy rate is around 75% and basic education is still unavailable to
25% of Indias children. This is compounded by the disparity in male and female child education
82% male but only 65% female children above the age of 7 years are literate. However it is heartening
that the gap is reducing, but the bridge across the digital divide appears at present too far, unless India
gets its act together. Governmental initiatives and efforts towards universalization of digital education
have not progressed much far.

Digital Content

In a digital world content is the king and realizing its importance Canada is investing
heavily in the creation of and access to Canadian creative content made by Canadians, designed to
inform, enlighten and entertain and is reflective of Canadian linguistic and ethno-cultural diversity.
The Government of Canada along with private funding is investing around $450 million a year in
programmes to develop native digital content. These programmes support the creation of content on
multiple platforms and are leading to new partnerships and experiments among various creators, viz.
gamers and producers, software developers and distributors, interactive media producers,
telecommunications companies and broadcasters, book publishers, music producers, technology
developers and consumers. These types of alliances will foster development of new products and
services that will improve prosperity in the digital economy. Government of Canada also invests in
supporting the creation of content for under-represented communities, including official linguistic
minorities, aboriginal and ethno-cultural minorities. The Canada Media Fund, The Canada Interactive
Fund, The Canada Book Fund, The Canada Music Fund and The Canada Periodical Fund are all
initiatives of the Canadian Government to support the creation, production and dissemination of
Canadian digital content. Canada believes that its digital content advantage will position it as a global
destination of choice for creativity and innovation

Canada has only two official languages whereas India has thirteen and this will definitely
have a bearing on the digital divide. In a country like India, one of the faster ways of bridging the
digital divide will be to have digital content available in Indian languages. Governmental efforts at
content creation in Indian languages are mainly for administrative purposes and in some cases
educational. India has to wake up to the fact that unless content development is indigenous, it will
lack appeal and use and will actually widen the digital divide. The Canadian example is surely
enlightening and there sure are many lessons in it for India.

Digital Culture

As with everything else in this digital age, literature, art and culture too are getting digitized.
Books and novels have become e-books and video games, radio and TV have become multimedia
podcasts on You Tube, musical and recoding instruments have become programs and apps on
laptop/smart phone and paintings and printmaking have become computer graphics and design.
Digital media viz. - online communication, digital recording devices and editing tools, social media
like Face book and Twitter, web 2.0 applications like Wikipedia, Flickr, etc. - transform all culture
into an open source. This opening up of cultural techniques, conventions, forms and concepts is the
cultural effect of digital culture. Digital culture permits and requires everyone to be a creator, a
collaborator, and a publisher of digital content.
94
Reliable access to broadband network connectivity has been identified as a significant tool for
creating collaborative relationships within the digital art community. CA*net or CANARIE or
Canadian Network for Advancement of Research, Industry and Education, a Canadian Government
supported non-profit organization, maintains the second fastest national network in the world to
support education and research bodies across Canada. Art organizations and artists too are connected
to CA*net 4, which provides them with infrastructure to a) Strengthen vulnerable project-based
remote collaborations that are distributed across the country, b) Promote transfer of knowledge and
technology between the disciplines and across the country, c) Promote the sharing and distribution of
knowledge and technological resources including tools and human infrastructure, d) Provide the new
media research community across disciplines with increased opportunities and support for inter-
disciplinary research collaboration, e) Provide opportunities to bring innovative Canadian and
international cross-disciplinary new media research to the Canadian public. Documentation and
archiving of digital art then becomes a crucial activity and the Centre for Research and
Documentation (CR+D) along with several independent labs and galleries have taken it up.

India has lessons to learn from Canadas experience in promoting Artistic innovation and
creative collaboration with industry, expanding access to digital skills development through a broad
based approach to accessibility of education and training, across communities, using community-
based organizations too in the delivery system. Leveraging the opportunities provided by the digital
economy, for the development of regional, rural and remote communities, designing policies and
programmes that include local existing networks and organizational resources to increase their
capacity to educate and retain talented creators in their locations, etc are some of the other areas of
expertise India can seek from Canada.

The Indian Council of Cultural Research (ICCR), the apex body for culture in India and helps
formulate and implement policies pertaining to Indias cultural relations, to foster mutual
understanding between India and other countries and promote cultural exchanges with other peoples.
ICCR conducts a number of laudable programmes and festivals across the globe to promote Indian
culture, including Year of India in Canada in 2011, manages many Chairs in universities abroad
and even gives out an annual international award The Jawaharlal Award for International
Understanding. However it had overlooked the importance of promotion and dissemination of the arts
within the country, the training in arts at all levels of society, the digitization of all art forms,
understanding digital culture and the contribution and significance of culture and art to the digital
economy. It is precisely these issues that the Department of

Heritage, Government of Canada (the counterpart of ICCR in Canada), has been working on
to enable their citizens to be successful in the digital economy of the future. ICCR and the
Government of India have much to ponder about, other than providing for digital infrastructure, which
is the least of the worries.

Digital Society

The capacity for production and flow of manufactured goods defined prosperity in the
industrial economy. Similarly, the capacity to create, improve, innovate with, and apply knowledge
will define prosperity in a digital economy. The industrial age was defined by mega-corporations and
mass production, and digital age will be defined by digital tools and connectivity. Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) alone does not alone create the digital economy, but the personal
and networked nature of digital and social media is the key.

Achieving a knowledgeable Internet citizenry is unlikely to be resolved through a solely technical

approach that focuses only on infrastructure without any consideration of the social processes and
institutions in which peoples Internet uses are embedded (Hargittai, 2010).
95
 India is surely progressing towards a digital society, with the kind of ICT infrastructure that is
being built painstakingly by the Government of India. The National Policy on Education NPE-
NCERT, 1986 sensed the need for media support in education, which has only enlarged over the
years. In 2010 Government of India unveiled an Android based tablet computer Aakash Tablet, a
low cost computing device (Starts at Rs. 2,500), and the Aakash-2 tablet in 2012 (Rs.4,500), meant to
be progressively distributed to all school and college students across the country. A tablet based
educational programme called the Aakash iTutor, which combines the best of classroom learning
and self-study has been made available. The programme is smartly defined as a learning amplifier and
provides access to real time high quality videos lectures, self-study materials, self-assessment tools,
feed-back mechanism and many more useful features that help students, including synchronous and
asynchronous learning. The Working Group on Higher Education of the Planning Commission,
Government of India, in its XIth Five Year Plan had decided to spread the coverage of ICT to all the
360 Universities and 17625 colleges in India, with provisions for Access to global, multimedia
educational resources; Collaborative communication networks among faculty and students; Access to
e-journals and e-books; Development and Maintenance of e-libraries; Digitization of all Doctoral
thesis; Development and Maintenance of non-book material catalogues and Video-conferencing
facilities and Training. The frame-work is laid or being laid in a phased manner to digitalize the entire
educational process. This in itself is a herculean task in a society still reeling under 25% illiteracy.
However access and affordability are not the only defining factors for digital literacy and competency,
but nature of use and limitations for use are crucial factors affecting digital competencies.

Research on the uses of ICTs in Canadian schools has yielded incontrovertible evidence that despite
a massive expenditure on the provision of hardware, software, and connectivity, our capacity for
educational innovation mediated by digital tools has proven resistant to development efforts
(Bryson, 2006).

Here again the Government of Canada, takes the lead in developing Strategies for
Sustainable Prosperity Building Digital Skills for tomorrow. It developed a knowledge synthesis
project based on web-based collaborative networks like the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs).
The distributed nature of knowledge, growing prominence of networked learning, need for learning
activities to include both synchronous and synchronous components are some of the aspects taken into
consideration while designing MOOCs. Knowledge creation is through socio-cultural processes, as
per the needs, desires and past experiences of the learners. MOOCs attract participants through their
interest in a topic and their relationships with its facilitators. In many respects a MOOC parallels a
traditional network of scientists and researchers with the exceptions that its membership is much more
open, potentially much larger, and it is much more flexible in its potential to take up and respond to
issues, questions, and problems on an ad-hoc basis.

A MOOC invites open participation in the processes through which that knowledge is created.
That includes an invitation to the skills through which networks are created to apply the knowledge
generated. Developing one's personal knowledge and presenting it through a coherent reflection or

96
contribution, whether by means of blog posts, concept maps, video or another tool, leads to a high-
level digital literacy. The capacity to contribute to and create a productive collaborative network is an
important literacy for navigating MOOCs and the digital economy in general. Learners get more out
of courses when they a) enter with basic digital literacies, and b) are learning within what Vygotsky
(1978) would call their zone of proximal development, rather than delving into an entirely new
discourse or field. Having some pre-existing familiarity with the topic offers points of orientation and
meaning-making within the course, and affords a learner currency in the transactional, networked
interactions of a MOOC.

To a large extent, then, a MOOC is a reflection of a society in which citizens are active agents
in the processes through which knowledge is created and disseminated. They share the processes of
knowledge work and not just the products. Facilitators model and display sense making and way
finding in their disciplines. They respond to critics and challenges from participants in the course.
Instead of sharing only their knowledge as is done in a typical university course, they share their sense
making habits and their thinking processes with participants. A MOOC juxtaposes epistemology with
ontology: the medium is the message, as McLuhan (1964) had famously said. But, The medium is
not the message in a digital world . it is the embodiment of it said Negroponte (1995).

Conclusion

In 2011, 32.7% of the worlds population had access to the internet, for a total of 2.28 billion
individual users. Current forecasts indicate that by 2015 the percentage will rise to slightly over 40%
of the worlds population. However, very less is known about nature and types of technology and
internet usage and their effects on culture and the rise of digital culture. Studies of the practices of
internet users are overwhelmingly focused on the instrumental tasks associated with the
technologies in question, but much more rarely address user aims or social, cognitive, and education
benefits in other words, the creation of social capital.

But these are the variables that would make it possible to measure whether and how computer
use contributes (or not) to individual empowerment. These variables are also much more difficult to
measure than simple functional tasks. While numerous studies have measured the skills required to
perform basic technical or instrumental functions (such as the ability to send a message, use a
peertopeer network, make an online purchase, download films or music, or to create a web page, a
personal website, or a blog), they only rarely and with difficulty measure the qualitative benefits of
computer use for the individual, whether it be finding information that is useful socially or
professionally, getting a job, passing an examination, increasing knowledge and resources in other
words, to measure how technologies increase life chances, and whether individuals are equal with
respect to the uses of technology and its richer functions.

Research shows that the ability to use digital tools is at present very unevenly distributed.
Lack of this ability is perceived psychologically as an obstacle by the more disadvantaged social
groups, and objectively as a barrier to social life and individual empowerment, because there is such a
difference in the practices of the digitally educated, who can make use of the full potential of the
internet, and the digitally marginalized, who utilize computing resources in a much more limited way
for relatively poor types of use, primarily leisure and entertainment.

The Canadian Framework for Culture Statistics (CFCS) establishes a conceptual foundation
for the measurement of both the economic and social dimensions of culture. It goes beyond
recognizing the economic activity of formal or institutionalized culture to include the informal non-
market activity of culture creation and use. The direct and indirect economic effects of culture are
measured by calculating expenditures by consumers on culture goods and services, including
purchases of consumer products or spending at activities that charge fees.

97
There is then the question of understanding, sensitizing, designing and providing inter-cultural
learning spaces in all our schools, colleges and universities for providing inter-cultural education, both
nationally and globally as per the UNESCO guidelines.

Though many changes have taken place in the uses and forms of communication introduced
by technology into the domain of culture, it is remarkable that almost no research programme is
investigating the digital audience and its use of cultural digital technology. Studies of the practices
and profiles of cultural internet users are still rare, or are based on samples that are too small to be
statistically significant. Moreover, to save on costs and simplify the methodology, studies are more
and more often based on self selecting samples from online questionnaires, which are very prone to
bias (over or undercoverage bias, selfselection by respondents, etc.). There are also no studies of
economic models of computer use and of the human, economic, and skills resources associated with
the introduction of these new tools into cultural institutions. Few countries explore the impact of the
spread of computer use on cultural organizations, management, jobs, and professions and Canada is
one. India has surely lessons to learn on Digital Media and Digital Culture, for it to progress towards a
Digital Society.

References

Theme paper on Building a digital media arts culture for Canada, submitted by Independent Media Arts Alliance,
published by Govt. of Canada, URL - http://www.pch.gc.ca
George Sciadas (2002), The digital divide in Canada, Catalogue no. 56F0009XIE, ISBN: 0-662-32945-7, Statistics Canada,
Government of Canada
Theme paper on Digital Media creating Canadas digital content advantage, submitted by Digital economy- planning and
coordination, Industry Canada, published by Govt. of Canada, URL - http://www.pch.gc.ca
Alexander McAuley, Bonnie Stewart, George Siemens and Dave Cormier (2010), Massive Open Online Courses: Digital
ways of knowing and learning, created by Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and University of Prince
Edward Island.
Dr Paul Martin, Richard Morris, Angela Rogers, Dr Viv Martin and Steven Kilgallon (2012), Encouraging Creativity in
Higher Education; The Creativity Centre, University of Brighton, UK.
UNESCO (2006), Guidelines on Inter-cultural Education, Education Sector, United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization.
Anne Krebs, head of studies and research department of the Louvre museum, Chair of the ENCATC - thematic Area -
Museums in Europe (2012), Education and access to digital culture:
The current situation and future directions for European culture, a paper commissioned by the Education & Learning
Working Group, European Commission.
Canadian Conference of the Arts (2010), Arts and Culture in the Canadian National Strategy for a Digital Society, Prepared
for the Department of Canadian Industry: Digital Economy Consultation, Govt. of Canada.
Posted by Sara Morais and Subhashish Panigrahi (2013), Digital Humanities for Indian Higher Education, A multidisciplinary
Consultation paper, hosted by HEIRA, CSCS, Tumkur University, the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai
the Center for Cultural Studies (CCS) and Access To Knowledge Programme of Centre for Internet and Society (CIS),
consultation was held at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, July 13, 2013.
Indian Council for Cultural Relations, link, URL, www.iccrindia.net
Kenneth Keniston and Deepak Kumar (2003), The Four Digital Divides, Sage Publishers, New Delhi.
Canadian Framework for Culture Statistics (CFCS) 2011, Social and Economic benefits of Culture, Conceptual Framework
for Culture Statistics, Statistics Canada, Govt. of Canada

98
 efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkj vkf.k lektdk;Z e/;LFkh
Dr. Nanda Pangul
B.P. National Institute of Social Work,
Hanuman Nagar, Nagpur.
nandabarhate@gmail.com
Mob. No.: 9822304676

Abstract:
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cnyfo.ks xjtsps vkgs ;ke/;s lektdk;Z e/;LFkh vfrk; mi;qDr B: kdrs-

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lkeqfgd cykRdkj >kyk- ;k ?kVusps izfr iMlkn laiw.kZ HkkjrHkj meVys- ;k ?kVusuarj vkk izdkjP;k
?kVuk okjaokj izdkfkr Ogk;yk ykxY;k- yksd R;kn`Vhus tkx`r Ogk;yk ykxys o ?kVukaph uksan
Ogk;yk ykxyh- Hkkjrke/;s izkphu dkGkiklwu fL=;kaoj vR;kpkj gksr vlys rjhgh vk/kqfud dkGkr
R;kr lkrR;kus Hkj iMr vkgs- ;k n`Vhdksukrwu ;koj v/;;u gks.ks ns[khy frrdsp egokps vkgs-
fL=;kaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkps xkaHkh;Z ikgrk ySafxd vR;kpkjkph O;k[;k iq<hyizek.ks dsyh
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99
jkT;fugk; ySafxd vR;kpkj cykRdkj2006-2012
State 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Andhra Pradesh 1049 1070 1257 1118 1362 1442 1341
Arunachal Pradesh 37 48 42 59 47 42 46
Assam 1244 1437 1438 1631 1721 1700 1716
Bihar 1232 1555 1302 929 795 934 927
Chhattisgarh 995 982 978 976 1012 1053 1034
Goa 21 20 30 47 36 29 55
Gujarat 354 316 374 433 408 439 473
Haryana 608 488 631 603 720 733 668
Himachal Pradesh 113 159 157 183 160 168 183
Jammu & Kashmir 250 288 219 237 245 277 303
Jharkhand 799 855 791 719 773 784 812
Karnataka 400 436 446 509 586 636 624
Keral 601 512 568 568 634 1132 1019
Madhya Pradesh 2900 3010 2937 2998 3135 3406 3425
Maharashtra 1500 1451 1558 1483 1599 1701 1839
Manipur 40 20 38 31 34 53 63
Meghalaya 74 82 88 112 149 130 164
Mizoram 72 83 77 83 92 77 103
Nagaland 23 13 19 22 16 23 21
Orissa 985 939 1113 1023 1025 1112 1458
Panjab 442 519 517 511 546 479 680
Rajasthan 1085 1238 1355 1519 1571 1800 2049
Sikkim 20 24 20 18 18 16 34
Tamil Nadu 457 523 573 596 686 677 737
Tripura 189 157 204 190 238 205 229
Uttar Pradesh 1314 1648 1871 1759 1563 2042 1963
Uttarakhand 147 117 87 111 121 129 148
West Bengal 1731 2106 2263 2336 2311 2363 2046
Total 18682 20096 20953 20804 21603 23582 24157
3
Source: NCRB ; PRS

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2012%
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100
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101
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ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k ?kVuk ;k ,dk O;Drhlkscr ok vusd O;Drhlkscr ns[khy ?kMw kdrkr-
fMlsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k dkyko/kh e/;s ,dq.k fdrh fiMhrk ySafxd vR;kpkjkyk cGh iMY;k
o ySafxd vR;kpkjkpk vijk/k djrkuk d/kh ,d O;Drh vlrks rj d/kh tkLrlq)k vlrkr- R;keqGs
vkjksihaph efgU;kuqlkj la[;k o VDdsokjhlq)k izLrqr vkys[kk}kjs nkZfo.;kr vkyh vkgs-
87
90
80 70
70
60
50 fifMr
40 32 vkjksih
24
30 16 19 17 18
20 13 6
7
10 3 4 5
0
lIVsacj vkDVksacj uksOgsacj fMlscj tkusokjh Qsczqokjh ekpZ
o;%
fifMrk vkjksih
o; okjaokfjrk o; okjaokfjrk
5 okki;r 6 5-71 VDds 16 & 18 100-05 VDds
6 & 10 1211-43 VDds 19 & 21 2111-29 VDds
11 & 15 4845-71 VDds 22 & 25 2714-56 VDds
16 & 18 2019-04 VDds 26 & 30 6032-26 VDds
19 & 21 2422-85 VDds 31 & 35 3729-39 VDds
22 & 25 1211-43 VDds 36 & 40 1306-99 VDds
26 & 30 76-66 VDds 41 & 45 52-69 VDds
31 & 35 43-8 VDds 46 & 50 52-69 VDds
36 & 40 21-91 VDds 51 & 55 52-69 VDds
56 & 60 10-95 VDds 56 & 60 31-61 VDds
,dq.k 136100 VDds ,dq.k 186100 VDds
lIVsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k dkyko/khr ukxiwjo:u nSfud o`=i=kr izdkkhr >kysY;k
,dq.k ?kVukae/;s ihfMrkaP;k o;kpk fopkj dsyk vlrk tkLrhr tkLr 11 rs 15 o;ksxVkrhy 48 45-
71 VDds fdkksjo;hu ckfydkaoj cykRdkj >kysys vkgsr-
vkjksihaP;k o;kpk fopkj dsyk vlrk 31 rs 35 o;ksxVkrhy 3729-39 VDds vkjksih
vkgsr-
102
 ySdeu ;kauh vijk/kkps dWysaMj cufoys R;kr R;kauh ;qodkadMwu cykRdkj tqu e/;s tkLr
gksrkr rj izkS<kadMwu tqyS vkf.k vkWxLV efgU;kr cykRdkj gksrkr vls lkafxrys-6

fudkZ%

lIVsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k lkr efgU;kr >kysY;k ySafxd vR;kpkjkaP;k ?kVukapk
vkdMsokjhP;k n`Vhus vk<kok ?ksrk vls y{kkr ;srs dh] fMlsacjiklwu ySafxd vR;kpkjke/;s ok<
>kY;kps fnlwu ;srs- lokZr tkLr ?kVuk ekpZ efgU;kr ?kMysY;k vkgsr-

ukxiwj e/kwu izdkfkr >kysY;k o`ki=karhy vkdMsokjhuqlkj ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k lanHkkZr kgjkauqlkj
fopkj djrk lokZr tkLr ?kVuk ukxiwje/;s 418-18 VDds ?kMY;kps fnlwu ;srs-

lIVsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k lkr efgU;krhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k ,dq.k ?kVukae/khy osGsph
uksan ?ksryh vlrk ekpZ efgU;kr osGsps Hkku u Bsork lrr 3] fnolk 35] jk=h 10] ldkGh 3
vkk lokZr tkLr Eg.kts 51 ?kVuk ?kMY;k vkgsr-

lIVsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k dkyko/khr ukxiwjo:u nSfud o`=i=kr izdkfkr >kysY;k ,dq.k
?kVukae/;s ihfMrkaP;k la[;spk fopkj dsyk vlrk lokZr tkLr ekpZ efgU;kr 70 51-85 VDds
ihfMrkauk vR;kpkjkyk lkeksjs tkos ykxys- rlsp vkjksihP;k la[;spk fopkj djrk lokZr tkLr
ekpZ efgU;kr 87 46-77 VDds O;Drhauh ySafxd vR;kpkjkpk xqUgk dsyk vkgs-

ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k Lo:ikpk fopkj djrk 15 fMlsacj uarj lkeqfgd cykRdkjke/;s ok< >kyh
vkgs- lIVsacj 2012 rs 15 fMlsacj2012 ;k dkyko/khe/;s ySafxd vR;kpkjkaP;k ,dq.k ?kVukae/;s
7975-23 VDds ?kVuk lkeqfgd cykRdkjkP;k rj 15 fMlsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k
dkyko/khe/;s ySafxd vR;kpkjkaP;k ,dq.k ?kVukae/;s lokZf/kd 5047-61 VDds ?kVuk lkeqfgd
cykRdkjkP;k vkgsr-

lIVsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k lkr efgU;kP;k dkyko/khrhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k ?kVukae/;s]
ySafxd vR;kpkjkps cykRdkjkps izek.k 64 Eg.kts 60-95 VDds brds vkgs- 16 fMlsacj uarj
cykRdkjkP;k ?kVukae/;s ok< >kyh vkgs-
osVysV rlsp Xosjh ;kauh xehZP;k fnolkr O;Drhizrh vijk/k tkLr gksrkr vls lkafxrys-7

lIVsacj 2012 rs ekpZ 2013 ;k lkr efgU;kP;k dkyko/khr ukxiwje/kwu izdkfkr >kysY;k nSfud
o`ki=krhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k ?kVukae/;s 82 78-09 VDds ?kVukae/;s ihfMrk vfookfgr
vlY;kps vk<Gwu vkys ek= 16 fMlsacj uarj vfookfgrkacjkscj fookfgrkaoj cykRdkjkP;k
?kVukae/;s ok< >kyh vkgs-

vkjksihP;k vksG[khP;k lanHkkZr fopkj djrk ?kMysY;k ?kVukae/;s 62 59-05 VDds vkjksih gs
vuksG[kh gksrs ek= 16 fMlsacjP;k ?kVusuarj vksG[khP;k vkjksihae/;s ukR;krhy O;DrhadMwu
vR;kpkj ?kMY;kP;k izek.kkr ok< >kyh vkgs-

103
iksyhlkaph Hkwfedk%
lektke/;s ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k ?kVuk ?kMw u;sr ;klkBh iksyhlkauh lrdZ jkgkos o vkiys
drZO; izkekf.kdi.ks ikj ikMkos rlsp ukxjhd o izkklukl lgdk;Z djkos-

lektdk;Z e/;LFkh%
efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k lanHkkZr lektdk;Z e/;LFkh ns[khy frrdhp egokph vkgs-
lektdk;ZdR;kZps dk;Z gs lektkP;k izR;sd ?kVdkakh fuxMhr vlrs- R;keqGs lektdk;ZdrkZ
izfrca/kkRed] iquoZlukRed o lakks/kukRed ;k frUgh ikrGhoj dk;Z d: kdrks-
izfrca/kkRed dk;Z%
fnolsafnol efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkps izek.k ok<r vlY;kps fnlwu ;srs- R;klkBh vusd
?kVd tckcnkj vkgsr- rs tckcnkj ?kVd vksG[kwu R;klanHkkZr izfrca/k ?kky.;kps dk;Z lektdk;ZdrkZ
d: kdrks- ;k izfrca/kklkBh kkGk] egkfo|ky;s] efgyk eaMGs] tsB ukxfjd eaMGs] fofo/k
kklfd; laLFkk o Lo;alsoh laLFkk] ;kaP;k ek/;ekus O;k[;ku] pyfp=iV] u`R;] ukVd] iFkukVk]
iznkZuh] lsfeukj] dk;ZkkGk] ifjlaokn] ppkZ l=] o`ki=] ekfld] iqLrdk}kjs ys[ku ;k}kjk yksdkae/;s
tutkx`rh d: kdrks- eqykae/;s pkaxys laLdkj :tfo.;klkBh kkGk] egkfo|ky;] ckyokMh]
vax.kokMh vkk fBdk.kh fofo/k dk;Zekps vk;kstu d: kdrks- ;klkBh fofo/k laLFkkaph ns[khy
enr R;kyk ?ksrk ;sbZy- R;kpcjkscj R;klanHkkZr ikydkauk ns[khy tkx`r djsy- eqyk&eqyhauk ;ksX;
dk; o v;ksX; dk; ;kfok;hph tk.k] LikZ dls vksG[kk;ps] T;k}kjk vkk ?kVuk ?kMw kdrkr
R;kiklwu cpko dlk djk;pk ;kfok;hps izkR;f{kd] lektkP;k l|fLFkrhph tk.kho lektdk;kZps
fofo/k ra=&dkSkY; oki:u lektdk;ZdrkZ d:u ns kdrks-
fdkksjo;hu eqykauk lektdk;kZP;k fofo/k i)rhpk okij d:u fofo/k ra=s] dkSkY;s oki:u
,d vknkZ ukxfjd cufo.;kpk iz;Ru lektdk;ZdrkZ djsy-
efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjklkBh izlkjek/;e gk lokZr tkLr tckcnkj ?kVd vlY;kps
lakks/kuke/;s vk<Gwu vkys vkgs- R;klkBh lektdk;kZrhy lkekftd f;k ;k i)rhpk okij d:u
izlkjek/;ekoj vyhy n`;s izlkjhr dj.;koj o yksdkauh vkk ckch ikg.;koj vkGk ?kkyw kdrks-
lektke/;s rkh tutkx`rh d: kdrks ts.ks d:u efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkl vkGk clsy-
ukxfjdj.k] ikP;kkhdj.k] vk/kqfudhdj.k ;kapk Qkj eksBk izHkko r:.k fi<hoj vkgs- ;klkBh pkaxY;k
o okbZVkph let r:.kkauk lektdk;ZdrkZ nsow kdrks- rks vkiY;k laiw.kZ dyk] dkSkY;] ra=]
i)rh}kjs efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjkoj izfrca/k ?kky.;kps dk;Z d: kdrks-
iquoZlukRed dk;Z%
efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjke/;s fiMhrkaps iquoZlu gh ckc ns[khy vfrk; egokph vkgs-
tsOgk ,[kk|k O;Drhoj vkh ifjfLFkrh mn~Hkors rsOgk rh ekufld o kkjhfjd n`Vkk vfrk; [kpwu
xsysyh vlrs- frps euks/kS;Z mapko.;klkBh fryk vk/kkjkph xjt vlrs- cjsp osGk ;k lanHkkZrhy xqUgs
nk[ky ns[khy dsys tkr ukgh- vczq tkbZy ;k fHkrhus ikyd xqUgk uksanfo.;kl VkGkVkG djrkr fdaok
104
kD;rks vkk ?kVukaph okP;rk ns[khy dsyh tkr ukgh- xqUgkkph uksan.kh dj.;klkBh R;k O;Drhyk
r;kj dj.;kiklqu rs laiw.kZ izf;k ikj iMsi;r R;k fiMhrsph dqBsgh ekugkuh gks.kkj ukgh ;kph dkGth
?ksowu vko;d R;k fBdk.kh lektdk;ZdrkZ enr djsy- vko;d laLFkk] O;Drhi;r iksgp.;klkBh
rlsp enr dj.kk;k laLFksi;r R;k fiMhrkauk iksgp.;klkBh lektdk;ZdrkZ enr djsy- fiMhrslkscrp
fiMhrsP;k dqVqafc;kalkBh ns[khy lektdk;ZdrkZ enr djsy- iquoZlukph izf;k iw.kZ gksbZi;r vkf.k
R;kuarjgh lektdk;ZdrkZ lkrR;kus R;k O;DrhP;k laidkZr jkgwu ;ksX; rh enr djsy-
lakks/kukRed%
efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkjklanHkkZr osxosxGh vkdMsokjh xksGk d:u tursP;k izfrf;k ?ksowu
rlsp ySafxd vR;kpkjkP;k fofo/k iSywaps vH;kliw.kZ lakks/ku d:u rks vgoky osGksosGh kklukyk
iksgpfors- ts.ks d:u kklukyk /kksj.k Bjfo.ks kD; gksbZy fkok; osxosxGkk lakks/kukps ifj{k.k
ns[khy d: kdrks-
vkk fjrhus lektdk;ZdrkZ vkiY;k ra=] i)rh] dkSkY; o vH;klk}kjk efgykaojhy ySafxd
vR;kpkjklanHkkZr iquoZlukRed] izfrca/kkRed o lakks/kukRed ;k frugh ikrGhoj dk;Z d: kdrks o
lektke/;s ldkjkRed cny ?kMowu vk.kw kdrks-
rGfVik
rGfVik%
1- Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013. Wikipedia.
2- vkIVs fo|k] 2013] dkVkkdqikVkkaP;k okVsoj] vktpk lq/kkjd] okZ 24] vad 5- P-2-
3- Wikipedia, Rape statistics in India-
4- Wikipedia, Crime Against Women in India-
5- lsBh uferk] 2005] efgykvksa ds izrh fgalk ij ,d fjiksVZ] dfB.k ifjfLFkrh;ksa esa efgyk,] P-85-
6- MkW- diwj ch-,l-] 1987] vijk/k kkL=% vijk/kh O;ogkj ,oa vijk/kh lq/kkj] ekuork izdkku
okjk.kkh] uoh fnYyh- P-51-
7- MkW- diwj ch-,l-] 1987] vijk/k kkL=% vijk/kh O;ogkj ,oa vijk/kh lq/kkj] ekuork izdkku
okjk.kkh] uoh fnYyh- P-51-
Keyword: efgykaojhy ySafxd vR;kpkj
lanHkZxzxaFz klwph%h%

vkIVs izHkk] 1998] ^Hkkjrh; lekt es ukjh*] Dykfld ifCyfkax gkml] t;iqj i`- 155-

vkIVs fo|k] ^dkVkk dqikVkkaP;k okVsoj* vktpk lq/kkjd] okZ 24] vad 5-

Harpal Kour, (1982), Sexual Crime Against Women: A Study of the Indian law on Rape
law, Journal of Gurunanak University, Amrutsar, Vol.-10, (March) Pp 72-73.

Karmarkar S., (2001), Red Light Area-Social Invironment Social of Sex Workers, Dominant
Publishers & Destributors, New Delhi.

Katre Prakash,(2007),Commercil sex workers and their children in marathawada regin of
Maharashtra,Participetive Development-Centre for Social Research Development, Pune,
January-June, Vol-7, No. 1.

Rajan Ajaykumar, Crime Against Women in India, www.countercurrents.org,
www.slideshare.net-crimeagainstwomen. Articals.timesof india.indiatime.com-crime against
women in the past one month, team NT, TNN July 2012.

105

jko e`.kky] ^cky ySafxd vR;kpkj vkf.k dkgh lkekftd iSyw*] vktpk lq/kkjd] okZ 24] vad 5-

Tiwari R.P, Shukla D.P., (1999) Indian Women, Current Problems and Future Prospects, P.
19, A.P.H. Publishing Corporation Violence Agency Women in India 2010 Statistics.
www.blogs4aid.com/index/php/statistics

Virani Pinki (2000), Bitter Chocolate, Penguin Books.

World Report on Violence & Health, WHO, 2002.

106