The Effects of Mother Trees

ABSTRACT

Pinus kesiya (Pinus insularis) commonly referred to as Benguet Pine is the predominant
species at Mt. Sto. Tomas Forest Reserve, Tuba Benguet. The study site located at Balacbac
Circumferential Road, Baguio City is located at the mid-mountain of Mt. Sto. Tomas. The mountain
has been facing several environmental issues such as illegal mining, road constructions, logging,
agricultural conversion of mossy and pine forests that endanger the biodiversity of the flora and faunal
species. This study aimed to assess the regeneration potential of P. kesiya as well as the effect of
mother trees and site parameters to the establishment of seedlings and saplings for future ecological
conservation and restoration. The method used was point-quarter sampling, and the trees were
mapped to be able to see the spatial distribution pattern of mother trees with respect to the seedlings
and saplings. Results showed that there is a strong correlation between age and dbh indicating that
mother trees are the older trees supplying seeds for natural regeneration, and elevation and distance of
mother trees. Results from ANCOVA revealed that there are no significant effects of the distance of
mother trees, elevation, site number to the number of seedlings and saplings. However, other studies
have shown that there is a positive correlation between the abundance of mother trees and
saplings/seedlings. The area of study was influenced by human-induced disturbances. Some seedlings
were not assesses because they were not part of the measurement plot, some were also located in
inaccessible areas such as steep slopes. Disturbances such as keeping the trail clear may also remove
the seedlings, also some seeds may be carried to the highway and be destroyed by passersby or by the
vehicles. For future studies, it is recommended that they compare the regeneration potential of P.
kesiya in disturbed and relatively undisturbed areas. The data we gathered can serve as baseline data
for disturbed areas.

Page | 1
 The Effects of Mother Trees

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Mt. Sto. Tomas is facing an environmental problem such as illegal tree cutting, man-made

erosion due to a road opening on the mountain side; deforestation due to expansion of vegetable

gardens and residential areas; and illegal small scale mining activities (Aning, 2014).

The degradation of Mt. Sto. Tomas forest reserve can be mitigated by conserving the

remaining forest patches. Mother trees or relict trees are determined by their diameter at breast height

(dbh). For pine trees, the dbh for mother trees is 23 cm at 4.5 feet above the ground (Dickens, et al.

2007).

The significance of this study is to establish a baseline data on the effect of mother trees to the

regeneration potential of pine trees because there is still insufficient if not up-to-date information and

data with regards to policy making and management of forest reserves such as Mt. Sto. Tomas. The

study aims to determine the abundance and spatial distribution pattern of saplings with respect to

mother trees in Circumferential Road, Balacbac Sto. Tomas Proper. From this information, a map of

abundance and spatial distribution was generated in the area of study. It is a general observation that

vegetation cover maps are usually absent despite elaborate studies on vegetation types (Botkin et al.

1984).

The study was conducted in order to investigate the relationship between the number of

saplings and the number of nearby mother trees. We also aimed to determine the effect of mother

trees and the prevailing site conditions to the abundance of trees for natural regeneration. In addition,

we aimed to contribute for a better understanding of the regeneration dynamics of Pinus kesiya (Pinus

insularis) which can be used for the improvement of restoration activities.

We hypothesize that the abundance and distribution of mother trees along with the site

conditions have a positive correlation with the regeneration potential of saplings.

Page | 2
 The Effects of Mother Trees

CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

Area of Study: The area of study was 14,976 square meters or 1.4976 ha with an elevation of 1382 to

1416 meters above sea level ,and coordinates of 120 35' E and 16 22' N located at Circumferential

Road, Balacbac Sto. Tomas Proper, Baguio City.

Identification of mother trees: In a study conducted by Backlund (2013) the dbh for mother trees of

pine trees is 23 cm at 4.5 feet above the ground (Dickens, et al. 2007).

Determination of Height, DBH and Age of Pine Mother Trees

The heights of the mother pine trees were determined using a clinometer and a transect line

following the procedures outlined in the California Coastal Commission (2015). The equation used to

determine tree height was x= y+z, where x is the height of the tree, y is the distance of the tree and z is

the height of the experimenter.

The circumference at breast height of the mother trees was measured at about 4.5 feet above

the ground using a transect line. The diameter at breast height (dbh) was derived using the

mathematical equation D = C/ adapted from Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department

(2006), where D is the diameter, C is the circumference, and (pi) is a constant with a rounded value

of 3.14.

The growth factor of P. kesiya is not yet available in any scientific literature. According to

Orwa et al. (2009), the annual growth rate of P. kesiya is ranging from 0.8-1.9cm. In order to

calculate the age of the mother trees, we used the available data which was the annual growth rate and

the diameter at breast height (dbh) that we were able to measure from our fieldworks. Since the

growth rings of P. kesiya grow radially, we computed the radius using the equation R= D/2, where R

is the radius and D is the dbh. Using the average of the reported annual growth rate and the radius, we

used the equation A= R/GR to determine the age of mother trees, where A is the age of the mother

trees, R is the radius and GR is the average annual growth rate.

Page | 3
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Mapping of mother trees: The Prezi.com software was used in mapping the mother trees, saplings

and seedlings of P. kesiya.

Point transect method: In the counting of the number of saplings between mother trees, the methods

will be adapted from Brower, et al (1997) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Pine Point Transect. Left: Front view of a mother tree. Right: Top view of a mother tree.

Green circle is 5m in diameter and Blue circle is 10m in diameter for measurements of adjacent

mother tree/s and seedling distances.

Factors affecting the Study Site

Humidity: The humidity will be measured using a psychrometer in an interval of 4 hours

from 8 AM to 4 PM. Three readings for each time interval will be measured.

Edaphic factors (adapted from the protocols of Bureau of Soils, 1976)

Soil Temperature: The soil temperatures were measured using a thermometer in an interval

of 4 hours from 8 AM to 4 PM. Three readings for each time interval will be measured.

Soil pH and Moisture: The soil pH was measured using soil analyzer according to Site 1

elevation: High (0-10), Mid (10-35) and Low (0-10). And another set of measurements from

Site 2 elevations: High (0-20), Mid (20-50) and Low (0-20).

Page | 4
 The Effects of Mother Trees

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

ANCOVA and Correlation analyses were used for the study. ANCOVA (Analysis of

Covariance) determined the relationship of the covariates such as the slope of the soil and edaphic

factors, and the response variables (number of saplings and seedlings). Correlation analysis

determined the correlation of the independent variables such as dbh, tree height, age, distance of

mother trees, site slope, and elevation of the mother trees to the abundance and distribution of

saplings and seedlings. All of the statistical analyses were processed using IBM SPSS (Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences) Statistics version 20.

Page | 5
 The Effects of Mother Trees

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Pinus kesiya (Pinus insularis, Benguet Pine)

Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon (synonymous with Pinus insularis) also known by the

following common names Khasi pine, Benguet pine, Luzon pine (IUCN, 2015; Stuart, 2014; Orwa et

al., 2009, Schmidt and Nguyen, 2004) is a member of Kingdom Plantae, Phylum Tracheophyta, Class

Pinopsida, Order Pinales, Family Pinaceae (IUCN, 2015). Pinus kesiya had been assessed by IUCN

(2015) as in the least concern category because there is no range wide decline and it is increasing is

some parts due to changes in land use and management.

Pine trees are widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia. Pinus kesiya is a native species

to China, India, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines (IUCN, 2015;

Orwa et al., 2009). It occurs in elevation of 800-2000 meters above sea level (asl) where the annual

rainfall is approximately 700mm and there is a distinct dry and wet season (Schmidt and Nguyen,

2004). In Luzon, Philippines, pine trees are found to occur at altitudes 2700-3000m asl in a much

wetter climate. It is common in Baguio City and in the Mountain Province, it is also occasionally seen

in the lowlands although growth is poor (IUCN, 2015). Pine trees can grow up to 45 meters with a

diameter of up to 140 centimeters (Orwa et al., 2009; Stuart, 2014). The annual growth rate of

Benguet pine is 0.8-1.9cm in diameter and 54-142cm in height (Orwa et al., 2009). Pine trees are

pioneer species in deforested secondary forests, especially in recently disturbed areas or after a fire

have disturbed the area (IUCN, 2015; Orwa et al., 2009). In the Philippines, bark beetles (Ips

calligraphus,Ips grandicollis, Dendroctonus terebrans, D. frontalis) may cause problems in pine

stands (Orwa et al., 2009; Comanda, 2014). The bark beetles burrow on the tree bark and eventually

kill the tree. Infestations on Benguet pine trees have been recorded since the American regime. No

cure for infected trees have been developed yet, however the spread of beetle infestations can be

minimized by sanitation pruning and sanitation cutting which includes felling of dead, pest-infected

trees to eliminate breeding grounds for the bark beetles (Dumlao, 2013).

Page | 6
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Mount Santo Tomas, Tuba, Benguet

Mount Sto. Tomas is located 2260 meters above sea level. It is classified by the Philippine

Institute of Volcanology and Seismology as an inactive stratovolcano. So far, no record of eruptions

had been reported for Mt. Sto. Tomas. It was said that the Ibalois referred to the mountain as adagut

which is a term believed to refer to lichens, algae and fungi on rocks (Cosalan, 2014) while

Bengwayan (2011) mentioned that the mountain was formerly called tonglong.

The Mt. Sto. Tomas landscape has several vegetation types and is dominated by pine trees

(Pinus kesiya). The mossy forests of Mt. Sto. Tomas house some rare and endangered flora species

such as the Philippine oak (Lithocarpus spp.), Philippine fig tree (Ficus pseudopalma), petroleum nut

(Pittosporum resineferum), alagau (Premna odorata), dwarf bamboo (Pleiotheblastus variegatus),

anonang (Cordia dichotoma) and threatened fauna species such as the civet cat (Paradoxurus

hermaphroditus) and the bushy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys schadenbergi) (Bengwayan, 2011).

The forest reserve is facing environmental destruction such as excavations due to road

constructions, massive cutting of trees to give way to an ecotourism project headed by the local

legislator of the land, pollution of water sources from the road project (See, 2015), plant diversity is

decreased due to destruction and exploitation of medicinal herbs by vendors and the encroachment of

illegal vegetable gardeners who claim ancestral domain by the power of the Indigenous Peoples

Rights Act (IPRA), endangered animals are hunted for food as evidenced by traps laid on the

animals stamping grounds, (Bengwayan, 2011). In addition to the existing laws on the protection

and preservation of the resources at Mt. Sto. Tomas, the issuance of the Writ of Kalikasan by the

Court of Appeals ordered Tuba, Benguet Mayor Florencio Bentrez to stop people from settling,

faming, mining, as well as filming soap operas at Mt. Sto. Tomas Forest Reserve has helped stop the

flow of tourists at Sitio Pungayan (more popularly known as Sitio La Presa) and the accompanying

solid waste problems (Cruz, 2015).

Logging is considered a disturbance and this can have an impact in the ecosystem. To address

this topic, instead of clear cutting a forest, selective logging has been practiced. In Southeast Asia, the

Page | 7
 The Effects of Mother Trees

cutting of trees is allowed for trees which have dbh of 60 cm or more, trees with dbh of greater than

120 cm are forbidden to be logged (Backlund, 2013). In Mount Sto. Tomas, the cutting of trees is to

give way for agricultural farms of commercial scales while the others are of the swidden or kaingin

type (Bengwayan, 2011).

Site Conditions

Site conditions are variables such as edaphic factors (soil moisture, soil temperature, soil pH

and nutrient status), relative humidity, solar radiation quantity and quality that affect the regeneration

survival and growth of floral species (Ashton, et al., 1995). Edaphic factors or soil factors are

important considerations in taking restoration activities because of the close relationship between

plants and soils established by the root system. Both the plant and soil are strongly influenced by each

other (Chastain, No Date). Site variables and edaphic factors contribute to the recruitment, growth and

survival of trees (Jayakumar and Nair, 2013). According to Backlund (2013), seedling growth and

survival of tropical tree species are increased by higher light intensities.

Regeneration

In natural regeneration, older trees provide seeds to regenerate areas (Duryea, 2000). In a

study conducted by Ashton et al. (1995) as cited by Backlund (2013), it was reported that tropical

species do not aggregate at random. According to Jayakumar and Nair (2013), regeneration of trees is

considered good when seedling density > sapling density > adult tree density. Regeneration is

considered fair when seedling density > sapling density adult density, poor when the species

did not survive the seedling stage, none when only adult trees are present, and new when sapling

or seedling stages are present.

Page | 8
 The Effects of Mother Trees

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mapping of Pinus kesiya Mother Trees

Maps of actual species distribution are required for many phases of environmental research,

resource management and conservation planning. Spatial distribution and ecosystem modelling can be

applied to predict effects of global environmental change on species and ecosystems and further

predict their coping and/or regeneration capacity. Low or poor regeneration capacities might need

assistance to prevent species extinction.

A selected area of 72 meters by 208 meters, encompassing 50 mother trees (>23cm dbh) was

surveyed during this study. Usually, statistical procedures for analyzing spatial patterns of the

completely mapped tree data are used. These procedures, are known as nearest neighbor analysis and

Ripley's K(d) function, considering the cumulative distributions of distances between trees, compared

to a distance distribution for a point pattern generated by a random process. Nearest neighbor uses

tree-to-nearest-tree distances, and Ripley's K(d) considers distances between all pairs of trees. Patterns

for trees in different mortality, size, and competitive classes can be analysed separately. Results from

these analyses yield between-tree competitive interactions that drives forest patterns from clustering

to regularity.

Although, for this study, spatial distribution as seen in the maps (See Appendix) were

generated by using coordinates of site boundaries from a GPS device while the individual mother

trees were mapped on a graphing paper during the actual location survey. It was then reapplied on

online software, Prezi.com, for a much clearer date representation. GIS or geographic information

system was not yet implemented due to lack of knowledge for applying the novel model.

Page | 9
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Table 1. Correlation Analysis among dbh, Height, Age, Distance of Mother Trees, Site Number
and Slope, Number of Saplings and Seedlings, Elevation

The Multiple Correlation Analysis (Pearson Correlation) was used to determine if there is a

relationship between the response variables (dependent variables) and independent variables (number

of seedlings and saplings). From Table 1, there is a strong and positive correlation at p < 0.01 between

dbh and age of mother trees of P. kesiya with p value of 0.000 and a Pearson coefficient of 0.996.

This is due to the radial growth pattern of trees which adds to the girth of the tree as it ages. Thus, we

expect that a tree with a larger dbh is more mature than a tree with a lesser dbh. The elevation and tree

height of mother trees of P. kesiya with p value of 0.005 are negatively correlated. There is a strong

and positive correlation between the site number and the number of mother trees with a p value of

0.000 and a Pearson correlation of 0.866. This may be due to the effect of anthropogenic activities

Page | 10
 The Effects of Mother Trees

observed by the researchers. Both sites 1 and 2 are located by the road side (Circumferential Road,

Balacbac Sto. Tomas Proper, Baguio City), man-made trails were also observed for both sites. In Site

1, there is a trail although it is unkempt as evidenced by the overgrowth of underbrush species. The

trail in Site 2 appeared to be constantly in use because it is clear of any underbrush species and it is

probably used as a way leading to a residential area not far from the study site. The researchers also

observed grazing activity evidenced by the presence of grassland at the low elevation at Site 2, and

trails of cow dung at the same area. For both sites, several stumps of logged saplings and adult trees

were observed. Some stumps were in the way of the trail possibly logged to clear the path, the others

were possibly cut to be used as firewood. In Site 2, several scorched tree trunks were observed. At p <

0.05, there is a positive correlation between the distances of mother trees with each other and the

elevation with a p value of 0.020 and a Pearson coefficient 0.328.

ANCOVA Analysis

Table 2. Summary of Descriptive Statistics (Uncorrected) of the Number of Saplings and

Seedlings in Different Elevation and Site Number without the presence of covariate (Site Slope)
Dependent Variables: Number of Saplings and Seedlings
Site Number Elevation Mean Std Deviation N
Site 1 4.38 3.019 24
Site 2 4.12 5.271 26
High 3.22 2.579 18
Mid 4.20 2.648 20
Low 5.83 7.445 12

Table 3. Estimated Marginal Means (Corrected) of the Number of Saplings and Seedlings in
Different Elevation with the presence of covariate (Site Slope)

Page | 11
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Table 4. Estimated Marginal Means (Corrected) of the Number of Saplings and Seedlings in
Two Site Number with the presence of covariate (Site Slope)

The ANCOVA is the statistical analysis used to tests if there is a significant difference

between the groups after controlling for the variance explained by a covariate. The covariate in this

study was the Site Slope. Based on the analysis, the mean number of seedlings and saplings of Site 1

(4.38) is greater than those found in Site 2 (4.12) not taking into account the effect of the slope (Table

2). In the estimated marginal means from Table 4, the effect of the covariate (site slope) was included

in the statistical analysis and it yielded the result that the mean number of seedlings and saplings of

Site 1 (4.192) is less than those in Site 2 (4.303). Comparison of the means of the number of seedlings

and saplings from the three elevations (high, mid, low) showed that the seedlings and saplings from

low elevation is greater than the mid elevation and the mean number of seedlings and saplings of mid

elevation is greater than the high elevation (low > mid > high). These results were corroborated by

both the descriptive statistics and estimated marginal means as shown in Table 2 and Table 3.

Page | 12
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Table 5 . Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Between-Subjects Effects gives the summary of the ANCOVA in testing if each

of the several independent variables has an effect on the dependent variable (number of seedlings and

saplings) and it determines if the main effects are independent of each other. Based on the analysis

observed as shown in Table 5, at p = 0.05, the slope (p = 0.692), site number (p = 0.191), elevation (p

= 0.800) and the distances of mother trees with each other (p = 0.345) have no significant effect on the

number of saplings and seedlings. The site number and elevation (p = 0.393), site number and

distance of mother trees to other mother trees with p = 0.814, elevation and distance of mother trees to

other mother trees of P. kesiya with p = 0.765 likewise, have no significant effect on the number of

saplings and seedlings. The site number, elevation and distance of mother trees to other mother trees

(p = 0.617) of P. kesiya has no significant effect on the number of saplings and seedlings.

Page | 13
 The Effects of Mother Trees

The natural regeneration of the Pine stand was categorized following Backlund (2013).

Seedlings are 30-130 cm in height, saplings are 0.1-10cm in dbh while adult or mature trees have

more than 10.1cm in dbh. Mature trees are not necessarily mother trees because as mentioned by

Dickens (2007), mother trees have 23 cm dbh. Mother trees provide seeds for natural regeneration

(Duryea, 2000).

Several disturbances attributed to anthropogenic activities such as grazing, logging, burning,

man-made trails and vehicular route were observed by the researchers in the study site. The results

from the statistical analyses showed that there was no significant effect of the distance of the mother

trees to each other, site and elevation to the number of saplings and seedlings. As mentioned by

Backlund (2013), tropical species (such as Pinus kesiya in this case) do not aggregate randomly. The

study could not have encapsulated all the factors that could have contributed to the establishment of

the seedlings and saplings due to the disturbances mentioned above. Seedling establishment from

mother trees near the roadside may not have been properly accounted for in the duration of the data

gathering because the pine cones may have been lodged on the street and may have been damaged by

the passing of vehicles thus preventing the germination of a seedling.

In a similar research conducted by Backlund (2013) in Sabah, Malaysia, it was established

that natural regeneration (seedlings + saplings) was positively correlated with the number of mother

trees per hectare. This was supported by another study conducted by Gebrehiwot (2003) in Ethiopia

wherein a strong relationship was observed between mother trees and the abundance of seedlings and

saplings in the study site. However, at a certain limit, no matter how many mother trees are available

to produce seeds for regeneration, only a certain number of saplings will be able to establish

themselves possibly accounting for crowding effects and competition for resources (Backlund, 2013).

The study site encompassed an area of 14 976m2. Of the 262 Pine trees surveyed for the

study, only 50 mother trees were noted. Of these 50 mother trees, the regeneration capability was low.

Possible saplings and seedlings may not have been included in the survey because they are located

outside the 10m plot for a mother tree, or they are located in inaccessible areas such as very steep

Page | 14
 The Effects of Mother Trees

slopes. Seedlings are more abundant in Site 2 where scorched tree trunks were observed. P. kesiya is

well adapted to fire. Fires help promote natural regeneration by making soil resources available for

use by the seedling as well as eliminating competition with other understory species (Kiianmaa,

2005). In Site 1, saplings were abundant, in Site 2 both saplings and seedlings were abundant. In Site

1, other underbrush species were abundant possibly competing with the pine seedlings if any.

Table 6. Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances

The Levenes Test was used to test whether the variances of groups are significantly different

from each other. From Table 6, Levenes test yielded a p value of 0.004 so that the variances are

significantly different at p = 0.05. In this case, one of the assumptions of analysis of variances was

violated which is the equality of variances where in the variance data in groups should be the same.

To be able to correct it we need to check the corrected analysis as shown below.

Table 7. Pairwise Comparisons of Number Saplings and Seedlings between the two sites

Page | 15
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Table 8. Pairwise Comparisons of Number of Saplings and Seedlings on the Three Elevation

Table 9. Univariate Tests of Number of Saplings and Seedlings in Three Elevation

Table 10. Univariate Tests of Number of Saplings and Seedlings in Two Site

The Pairwise Comparisons was used if there is significant difference between the variables.

Based on the analysis, the number of saplings and seedlings on Site 1 has no significant difference

with Site 2 whose p value is greater than 0.05 (see Table 7). In the case of three elevation, the number

Page | 16
 The Effects of Mother Trees

of saplings and seedlings on mid and high elevation (p = 0.481), high and low elevation (p = 0.054),

and low and mid (p = 0.740) have no significant difference.

In order to rectify the significance value shown by Levenes test which was significantly

different, the Univariate test was used to prove that there is no significant different between variables

and the variances of the groups are the same or homogeneous in nature. The three elevations as shown

in Table 9 observed to have no significant differences with p = 0.141 on the number of saplings and

seedlings when p is 0.05. As shown in Table 10, it was observed that the two sites (p = 0.932) has no

significant differences on the number of saplings and seedlings at p = 0.05.

Regeneration

The establishment and recovery of any forests depends largely on the presence, distribution

and the site conditions of mother (seed) trees (Gebrehiwot, 2003). According to Backlund (2013), up

to a distance of 10 meters, the relationship between seedling density and mother tree is constant.

Beyond 10m, seedling density decreased and at a distance of 30 to 40m from the mother tree, seedling

density was zero. From previous studies, it has been reported that seedlings are usually more abundant

than other life stages (Jayakumar and Nair, 2013). In this study, growth phase ranked according to

increasing population follows the pattern: seedling < mature / adult tree < sapling which fits the fair

regeneration pattern.

50
Tree Density (No. of pine trees/ ha)

48.93
40
33.39
30

20 13.35

10

0
PINE

Seedlings Saplings Mature

Figure 2. Graph of tree density for each growth phase of Pinus kesiya from the two sites
investigated.

Page | 17
 The Effects of Mother Trees

As shown in Figure 2 and Table 11, the most abundant growth phase are those in the sapling

stage whose dbh range from 0.1-10cm. this was followed by mature or adult trees whose dbh are more

than 10cm. The least occurring growth phase is the seedling stage characterized by 30-130cm in

height (Backlund, 2013) including mother trees.

Table 11. Population and density of each growth phase of Pinus kesiya from both sites.
Seedling Sapling Mature Total
Population of Pine
20 73.28 50 262
trees
13.35 Pine trees / 48.93 Pine trees/ 33.39 Pine trees/ 174.95 Pine
Density (no./ha)
ha ha ha trees/ ha
Area of Study Site 1.4976 hectare (14 976m2)

According to Jayakumar and Nairs (2013) study, the rank of growth phases that portrays a

good regeneration pattern should be as follows: Seedling > Sapling > Mature. A fair regeneration

pattern, on the other hand, is portrayed as follows: Seedling > Sapling Mature. While a pattern of

Seedling < Sapling < Mature is perceived as a poor regeneration pattern.

None or minimal count of seedlings in the area indicates low capacity of regeneration and low

stability of the species in the area which can lead to easy take-over of other species. In this study, the

regeneration pattern of the pine stand follows a fair regeneration pattern. Gaps from the canopy cover

allowed the establishment of several underbrush species as they were extensively distributed in Site 1.

Since the predominant matrix species was P. kesiya, it is improbable that there will be an easy take-

over of other species.

From Table 1, there was no significant correlation between site parameters (such as slope,

elevation and the edaphic factors) with the number of seedlings and saplings. The survivability of the

seedlings and saplings can be determined by biological, environmental and human influence. It is

noteworthy to mention that human influence

Page | 18
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Table 12. Regeneration status of a tree species.

Status Relationship between seedling, sapling and mother tree

Good Seedling > Sapling > Mature/ adult tree

Fair Seedling < Sapling Mature/ adult tree

Seedling Sapling Mature/Adult Tree

Poor

None

New

Sorenson-Dice Index of Similarity:

S = 2c / (a + b) where is Sorenson index of similarity, is number of species shared

between growth phases (here mature tree phase and regenerating phase, i.e. saplings + seedlings), is

total number of species in growth phase , and b is total number of species in growth phase b.

S = 2 (262) / (20 + 192) = 524 / 212 = 2.47

The value for Index of Similarity should be within 0 to 1. The obtained value of 2.47 indicates

that the pine tree area selected for this study has a poor regeneration capacity at the time when the

measurements for the study were conducted. This may be due to the influence of different human-

induced disturbances in the area.

Page | 19
 The Effects of Mother Trees

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

From the results of the study, the researchers conclude that the regeneration potential of Pinus

kesiya is fair meaning the density of the saplings exceeded that of the mother trees as well as those of

the saplings. According to literatures, a good regeneration pattern shows higher densities of seedlings.

In the study, seedlings density were few. Seedlings may have been removed from their establishment

near the roadside or near trails, or simply stamped over by the grazing animals. The matrix of Mt. Sto.

Tomas Forest Reserve is composed of P. kesiya also known as Benguet pine.

Site parameters such as edaphic factors, site variables (relative humidity, temperature, light

intensity, elevation, and slope) all influence the growth of the different growth phases of P. kesiya.

Form the ANCOVA, no significant effect of the site parameters to the number of seedlings and

saplings were detected. The survivability and hence, the regeneration potential are then affected by

human influence especially that the site has been disturbed due to anthropogenic activities such as it is

located near a highway, trails were built and some parts of Site 2 (lower elevation) has been used as

grazing and pasture area.

The study was only implemented in a single area; more general conclusions could be made by

performing the study at other locations as well. Especially concerning the results for the amount of

regeneration for different species groups that thrives in areas without too much disturbance, i.e.,

natural forest areas far from roadsides and residential areas. With a study of multiple areas more

general conclusions could also be made about individual species, not only for Pine trees but also for

dipterocarp and underbrush species as well.

Apart from recording seedling and sapling count within 20 meter diameter of a mother tree as

the center, it is also recommended to note and distinguish the number of seedlings and saplings that

survive within the first 10 meter diameter as compared to the second 10 meter diameter. Such values

are of great interest when it comes to evaluating an areas regeneration performance and spatial

distribution.

Page | 20
 The Effects of Mother Trees

In mapping the species and spatial distribution, a quantitative or rule-based model linking

species occurrence to the environmental predictors should be implemented. According to Franklin

(2010), a geographic information system or GIS for applying the model rules to the environmental

variable maps should be used to produce a map of predicted species occurrence and, data and methods

for evaluating the error or uncertainty in the predictions.

The study area had a relatively high degree of disturbance, comparing this study to similar

studies performed in more preserved and intact areas would be of high importance. Another possible

proceeding forward could be a multivariate analysis investigating how mother trees and site edaphic

factors may contribute to the abundance and spatial distribution of natural regeneration of non-pioneer

tree species. Also, future studies may further investigate the difference of abundance and spatial

distribution of natural regeneration between highly disturbed pine areas than that of a more preserved

pine area.

Page | 21
 The Effects of Mother Trees

CHAPTER VI

LITERATURE CITED

Aning, J. (2014) SC stops activities in Mt. Santo Tomas forest. Inquirer. Accessed from
http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/641797/sc-stops-activities-in-mt-santo-tomas-
forest#ixzz3prITdo1T on 28 October 2015.
Ashton, P. M., Gunatilleke, C.V. and Gunatilleke, I.A. (1995) Seedling survival and growth of four
Shorea species in a Sri Lankan rainforest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 11(2): 263-279
Backlund, S. (2013) The effects of mother trees and site conditions on the distribution of natural
regeneration establishment in a Bornean rainforest disturbed by logging and fire. Sveriges
Lantbruks Universitet
Bengwayan, M. (2011) The evil that people do to mountains. Accessed on
https://michaelbengwayan.wordpress.com/2011/05/21/the-evil-that-people-do-to-mountains/
on 13 December 2015.
Brower, J., Zar, J. and von Ende, C. (1997) Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology, 4th
Edition. Boston: WCB McGraw-Hill.
California Coastal Commission (2015).
Chastain, T. (No Date) The Edaphic Factor I. Oregon State University. Accessed from
cropandsoil.oregonstate.edu/system/files/.../Edaphic%20Factor%20I.pdf on 13 December
2015.
Comanda, Z. (2014) Beetle infestation threatening John Hay pine trees. Manila Bulletin. Accessed
from http://www.mb.com.ph/beetle-infestation-threatening-john-hay-pine-trees/ on 09
December 2015.
Cosalan, A. (2014) Mount Sto. Tomas. In City on a Hill, Baguio Midland Courier. Acessed from
http://www.baguiomidlandcourier.com.ph/cityhill.asp?mode=archives/2014/june/6152014/cit
yhill.txt on 10 December 2015.
Cruz, L. (2015) No more filming at Sition La Presa. In Kicker Daily News. Accessed from
http://kickerdaily.com/no-more-filming-at-sitio-la-presa/ on 13 December 2015.
Dickens, D., McElvany, B., Moorhead, D. and Frye, M. (2007) Growing poles in Southern
pinestands. Athens, Georgia: Georgia Forest Productivity Publication, Warnell School of
Forestry and Natural Resources.
Dumlao, A. (2013) DENR Oks felling of 136 dead pine trees in Baguio. Philippine Star. Accessed
from http://www.philstar.com/nation/2013/08/15/1094801/denr-oks-felling-136-dead-pine-
trees-baguio on 09 December 2015.
Duryea, M. (2000) Forest regeneration methods: natural regeneration, direct seeding and planting.
University of Florida: Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Accessed from
http://www.forestproductivity.net/pdfs/regen_methods.pdf on 13 December 2015.
Gebrehiwot, M. (2003) Assessment of natural regeneration diversity and distribution of forest tree
species: a case study in Wondo-Wesha Catchment Awassa Watershed Southern Ethiopia.
Enschede, The Netherlands: Forestry for Sustainable Development, International Institute for
Geo-Formation Science and Earth Observation.
IUCN (2015) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed from
http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/full/42372/0 on 08 December 2015.
Jayakumar, R. and Nair, K. (2013) Species diversity and tree regeneration patterns in tropical forests
of the Western Ghats, India. ISRN Ecology. Hindawi Publishing Corporation. Accessed from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/890862 on 13 December 2015.
Kiianmaa, S. (2005) Natural regeneration and ecological succession in Pinus kesiya watershed
plantations in northern Thailand: implications for plantation management. Helsinki:
University of Helsinki.
Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt R., Jamnadass R. and Anthony, S. (2009) Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon.
In Agroforestry Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Accessed from
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp on 08 December 2015.
Powell, D. (2005) How to measure a big tree. Pendleton: Umatilla National Forest.

Page | 22
 The Effects of Mother Trees

Schmidt, LH. and Nguyen, DTL. (2004) Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon. Seed Leaflet (93). Denmark:
University of Copenhagen
Scout, J. M., Csuti B., Jacobi, J.D. and Estes, J.E. (1987) Species Richness: A geographic approach to
protecting future biological diversity. BioScience (37) 11.
See, D. (2015) Only the president can amend proclamation of Mount Santo Tomas. In Herald
Express. Accessed from http://baguioheraldexpress.com/news/environment/only-the-
president-can-amend-proclamation-of-mount-santo-tomas on 13 December 2015.
Stuart, G. (2014) Baguio Pine: Pinus insularis Endl. In Philippine Medicinal Plants. Accessed from
http://www.stuartxchange.com/BaguioPine.html on 08 December 2015

Page | 23