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Approach Answer: General Studies Mains Mock Test 935 (2017)

1. Explain the reasons for the following: (a) Erosional forms dominate in the west coast while
depositional forms dominate in the east coast of India. (b) Western Ghats in Karnataka receive more
monsoon rainfall than Maharashtra and Kerala.
Approach:
While briefly mentioning the erosional and depositional landforms at coasts, explain the reasons
behind the two coasts having different features.
Elaborate the reasons for Karnataka getting more rainfall.
Answer:
a) Western coast of our country is a high rocky retreating coast while the east coast is a low
sedimentary coast. This is the main reason behind erosional forms dominating in the west coast
while depositional forms dominate in the east coast of India. This can be understood from the
following points:
Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear to have been drowned with highly irregular
Coastline. The coastline appears highly indented with extension of water into land. The hill sides
drop off sharply into the water. Shores do not show any depositional landforms initially. Erosion
features dominate.
Along low sedimentary coasts rivers appear to extend their length by building coastal plains and
deltas. Coastline appears smooth and occasional incursions of water in the form of lagoons and
tidal creeks. Land slopes gently into water. Marshes and swamps may be abounding along coasts.
Depositional features dominate.
b) During the monsoon, average rainfall in Karnataka is more than Maharashtra and Kerala. This is due
to the following reasons:
Mountain topography in Karnataka is broader than the narrow topography of Maharashtra. Due
to greater width of mountains, rain bearing winds have to necessarily travel a longer distance
and have more time for the drops to coalesce and precipitate as rainfall, resulting in higher
rainfall.
In contrast, narrow width of the Ghats in Maharashtra allows rain-bearing wind to cross over to
leeward side rapidly before precipitation can occur.
In Kerala, the Ghats are in form of isolated mountains, where rain-bearing winds can easily cross
over to leeward side through gaps in between without precipitation occurring.
Ghats of Karnataka have gentle sloping mountains, compared to steep slopes of the Ghats in
Maharashtra and Kerala. Air parcel will retain its energy and speed for a longer time when slope
is gradual. This will provide sufficient vertical motion to cloud droplets to grow by collision
coalescence process and hence form precipitation.

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2. What do you mean by bad ozone and what are the causes for its formation? Explain the reasons for
the depletion of ozone, with special reference to formation of Ozone hole over Antarctica.
Approach:
Briefly discuss the concept of bad ozone.
Then try to bring out the reasons for its formation.
Then explain the reasons for the depletion of ozone.
Also give an account of formation of ozone hole over Antarctica and the reasons behind it.

Answer:
Ozone occurs in two layers,
stratospheric layer and in tropospheric
layer. While ozone in stratosphere is
essential for the survival of human
beings, tropospheric ozone is
considered as bad Ozone. It is formed
near to the earths surface due to
anthropogenic causes mostly. It is
considers called Bad Ozone due to
following reasons:
It can trigger a variety of health
problems including chest pain,
worsening bronchitis, asthma etc.
Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissues.
It also damages vegetation and ecosystem.
It leads to reduced agricultural and commercial forests yield.

Reasons for formation of Bad Ozone (Tropospheric Ozone)

Ground level or bad ozone is not emitted directly into the air and is a secondary pollutant, created by
chemical reactions between oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in the
presence of sunlight especially during summers.
Emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapour and
chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC.
Reasons for ozone depletion (Stratospheric Ozone)
Natural causes- Certain natural phenomena like sunspot, stratospheric winds and volcanic eruptions
cause ozone depletion. But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of ozone
layer and effects are also thought to be only temporary.
Anthropogenic causes- The main cause for depletion of ozone layer is excessive release of chlorine
and bromine from man-made compounds such as CFCs, Methyl chloroform, Carbon Tetrachloride,
HCFCs etc. These ozone depleting substances are stable in atmosphere and remain there for long
time. They are carried to stratosphere where UV rays from sun break them to release chlorine and
bromine. The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with ozone molecules and destroy their
molecular structure.
Formation of Ozone hole over Antarctica: The severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer known as
ozone hole occurs because of the special weather conditions that exist there and nowhere else on the
globe. The very low temperature of the Antarctic stratosphere creates ice clouds called polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs). Special reactions that occur on PSCs and the relative isolation of Polar
Stratospheric air due to Polar Vortex allow Chlorine and Bromine reactions to produce the ozone hole in
Antarctica.

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3. Weather and climate information plays a significant role in increasing agricultural productivity as well
as minimising crop losses. Comment. In light of the increasing instances of extreme weather events,
examine the ways in which forecasting system can be made more effective and inclusive.
Approach:
In the first part, discuss the importance of weather and climate information in agricultural
productivity as well minimising crop losses.
In the second part, discuss examples of extreme weather events and how the forecasting system can
be more effective and accessible to more.
Answer:
Weather and climatic information plays a major role in the entire crop cycle right from selecting the
most suitable crop/variety upto post-harvest operations and marketing. It helps farmers in the following
manner:
It helps in devising agronomic strategies to cope with the effects of erratic and adverse weather on
agricultural production. For example, delay in the start of crop season can be countered by using
short duration varieties of crops.
Soil moisture can be exactly determined from climatic water balance method. This can be used to
diagnose the soil moisture stress, drought and necessary protective measures such as irrigation can
be undertaken.
Management of crop involves various farm operations such as, sowing fertilizer application. Plant
protection, irrigation scheduling, harvesting etc. can be carried out on the basis of specially tailored
weather support. For this the use of operational forecasts, available from agro met advisories, is
made. Example-
o Weeding harrowing, mulching etc. are undertaken during dry spells forecasted.
o Fertilizer application is advisable when rainfall is not heavy and soil moisture is between 30 to
80%.
Suitable crop models, devised for the purpose can provide information or predict the results about
the growth and yield when the current and past weather data is used. This can lead to better land
and water management.
Hence, meteorological information may help the farmer make the most efficient use of natural
resources, with the aim of improving quality agricultural production.
Farmers are ill-prepared for the consequences of climate change. In this context it becomes important
for the forecasting system to be effective and inclusive for climate smart agriculture. The following steps
can be taken:
Use of Dynamic Model in forecasting along with the current statistical model: It puts more emphasis
on physics of atmospheric flows and processes. These are more objective in nature. Statistical model
is based on correlation of various global and local parameters.
Recently, scientists have suggested adding new variables such as temperature in northern and
central Pacific Ocean for better forecasting.
To make the information more effective, it needs to be combined and provided along with other
environmental information such as ground cover, soil type, soil organic matter, soil radiation, soil
temperature, soil moisture and long-term drought conditions.
More investment by government and private sector to strengthen the agriculture extension services
and information system of the country.
To make the forecasting system more inclusive following steps can be taken:
o Increasing the flow of information between national and local levels through institutions such
as extension and weather information services.
o Local knowledge, as well as the capacity to link research and local activities should be
strengthened.
o Supporting effective risk management at the farm level through coordinated actions that may
include insurance, safety nets, income diversification and storage capacity.
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4. India's first National Disaster Management Plan may fulfill the legal requirement of having a plan but
it may not be very effective in achieving its objective of building resilience. Critically analyse.
Approach:
Outline the salient provisions of the NDMP.
Critically assess the plan and its effectiveness in addressing needs arising out of disasters.
Suggest way forward.
Answer:
The NDMA, 2005 required to have disaster management plans at the district, state and the National
levels. Each ministry is also required to prepare separate plans in accordance with the National level
plan. The first National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) has been introduced by the government to
make the country disaster resilient and ensure minimization of loss of lives and assets during disasters. It
has been aligned with the objectives set by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. It closes a
critical gap in our disaster management system- while most states and districts have prepared their
plans; the national plan that was supposed to guide this process at the sub-national level was missing.
Salient features of the plan:
It gives a comprehensive definition of disaster. It covers 15 natural and man-made disasters, giving
responsibility to different ministries for different disasters. For e.g., Tsunamis and Cyclones under M
o Earth Sciences.
Planning for short (5), medium (10), and long (15 years) terms to deal with disasters.
Integrated approach with clarity: Provisions for vertical and horizontal integration among
government agencies have been stated, including the roles of Urban Local Bodies, Panchayats and
district agencies to ensure that response during disasters is initiated at the regional level.
It is designed in a way that it can be implemented in a scalable manner during all phases of DM.
Community participation and building of resilience has been recognised.
It also states ethical guidelines for the media for coverage of disasters and self-regulation to respect
the dignity and privacy of the affected people.
It is a dynamic document, which will be periodically improved keeping up with emerging global
practices.
However, the plan may fall short of its stated objective of building resilience.
Unlike the Sendai framework, it does not set targets and goals and there is no framework for
monitoring and evaluation of the plan.
A generic roadmap has been adopted for disaster management, but, division of work among tiers of
government has not been specifically stated. It can lead to overlap of jurisdiction during disasters.
Similarly, inter-ministerial coordination should be specified.
Source and means of mobilization of funds have not been stated. Further, there is no avenue for pre-
estimation of expenditure. Both need to be appraised for proper planning.
Additionally, the plan does not focus on specific problems faced by women, children, elderly,
disabled people etc., vulnerable groups worst hit by disasters.
A properly demarcated time frame should be provided for undertaking the stated activities instead of
a vague prescription of short, medium and long-term basis.
While it is a step forward in tackling multifarious disasters, the drawbacks need to be addressed for
coordinated response of authorities and fewer casualties during disasters.
Many of the issues mentioned above should be tackled at the state and district level. However, due to
paucity of resources at these levels, the responsibility falls on the central government. Therefore, it
would be better to incorporate a framework or to give guidelines to states regarding issues such as
sources of funds (like CSR), care for special needs of different sections, a long term plan for providing
alternative livelihoods, etc. Also, clearly mentioning the goals would help evaluation of term plans.

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5. A better prepared community is key to effective disaster risk reduction. Citing specific examples,
examine the importance of the role of local government and community in dealing with disasters.
Approach:
Briefly discuss the importance of local government and community in disaster management.
Bring out specifically role of community and local government in disaster risk reduction.
Cite examples, wherever required, to elaborate.
Answer:
Every hazard is unique in terms of local socio-environment factors that control it, social response it
generates and the way each social group deals with it. The way a community responds to a hazard is one
of the key determinants whether it will turn to a disaster or not. Being the closest institution of the state
to the people, local governments have a greater responsibility to take all possible efforts in order to
prepare for a disaster or to respond to it.
Its efforts clubbed with local knowledge about resources, facilities and support systems and capacity
possessed by local community are crucial in disaster management.
Role of the local community and local bodies
Pre-Disaster Phase:
Mapping of Resources and Facilities. Identifying temporary locations for keeping evacuated
persons, storage of food, drinking water, medicines, etc., availability of necessary equipment
and its status like tractors, trolleys etc., list of professionals like doctors, nurses, electricians,
plumbers, etc., and, list of emergency items to be procured.
Vulnerability Mapping of locality and update vulnerability profile of area at regular intervals.
Evacuation Plan with priority for children, women, sick, aged and differently abled.
Directory of blood donors and youth volunteers, with contact address and ensure their status at
regular intervals.
Disaster Management Cell (DMC) at local level. Each member of DMC assigned with specific
responsibilities.
Capacity building of different stakeholders at regular intervals. In Ahmednagar, in Maharashtra in
several talukas, training programme conducted in May 2006 for Panchayati Raj Members, helped
them to understand nuances of disaster management especially, flood management. Importance of
coordination, two-way communication, pre-flood planning, identification of safe shelters, usage of
local resources, toll free district control room number, etc. This came to great use in saving lives
during floods later that year.
Awareness about risks through folk programmes, displays at community gatherings, slides in cinemas
etc. For e.g. auto rickshaws are being used in Maharashtra as carriers for disaster awareness
messages.
Disaster Phase:
24 x 7 emergency control rooms.
Collect field data from nodal persons, verify the information, collate them and communicate the same
to Block and District administration.
All communications, incoming and out-going, channelized through a single point at DMC.
Convene an emergency meeting of functionaries of all political, non-political and community
based organisations.
Community kitchen at an appropriate place for ensuring food to all those affected.
Co-ordinate efforts and activities of government institutions, NGOs, private sector and community
based organisations.
In the coastal villages of Nallavadu and Veerampattinam in the Union Territory of Pondicherry, a Public
Address System (PAS) installed in their Rural Knowledge Centres saved thousands of lives when the
tsunami struck on 26th December, 2004.

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 Post-Disaster Phase:
Provision of basic needs like drinking water, food, clothes, utensils, etc.
Construction of temporary shelters and sanitary facilities at suitable sites.
Regular visits by Health workers to all parts of the locality.
Restoring livelihood assets like roads and infrastructure in locality.
Co-ordinate activities of government departments, NGOs and community based organisations for
providing livelihood support for affected families.
Provide psycho-social care to needy, to enable them to get over traumatic period.
Restoring education and other basic services to citizens.
NDMP, 2016 especially emphasises on building community resilience and capacity building of local
government to effectively deal with disaster.

6. Oceanic crustal rocks are much younger than the continental crust rocks. Explain with the help of the
concept of sea floor spreading.
Approach:
First of all try to establish the fact that oceanic crustal rocks are much younger than the continental
crust rocks.
Then give the theoretical understanding of sea floor spreading for explanation.
Answer:
The oceanic crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of rocks in the oceanic
crust is nowhere more than 200 million years whereas some of the continental rock formations are as old
as 3200 million years.
Also the sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin. Earlier, it was expected that if the
ocean floors were as old as the continent, it would also have a complete sequence of old to young
sediments. However, nowhere was the
sediment column found to be older than
200 million years.
This fact of ocean crust being much
younger than the continental crust is best
explained by the concept of sea floor
spreading propounded by Hess. According
to Hess, the ocean floor moves laterally
under the influence of spreading magma
plumes beneath it. These plumes rise
below the Mid-Oceanic ridges and spread Sea floor spreading concept
in opposite directions, giving force to the
oceanic crust to move. Divergence generates new oceanic crust. Plumes descend beneath the trenches,
where the oceanic plate undergoes subduction and is melted at a depth due to heat, completing the
cycle of ocean floor formation and destruction. He illustrated it with the analogy of a conveyor belt
system.
The evidence of spreading boundaries can be concluded from the fact that along the ridge there is
formation of paired rocks- referred in context of the time of formation and composition. This means that
rocks equidistant from the MOR are similar in their age and composition. Also the concept of zebra strip,
i.e. similar magnetic polarity in these paired rocks confirms the sea floor spread. As newly formed
oceanic crust cooled, the magnetic elements gained the prevailing polarity of earths magnetic field.
These were cited as further evidences to explain the young age of oceanic crust as compared to the
continents.

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7. One of the ways to classify volcanoes is by the composition of lava material. Explain with examples.
Also give an account of intrusive landform formations due to volcanic activities.
Approach:
Give brief detail of constituents of lava material and explain how these constituents affect the
characteristics of moving magma.
Illustrate with example how these constituent determine different types of volcanoes.
Give a detailed account of intrusive landforms formation due to volcanic activities.

Answer:
The major constituent of the ejected material from volcanism is molten magma. It is generally classified
into two categories based on the compositional share of silica.
Basic magma or basaltic lava which is less in silica and in accordance is mobile magma type.
Eruptions of basaltic lava are usually quiet.
Acidic magma or andesitic lava with higher silica content forms the viscous magma developing early
solidification. It is usually accompanied by violent eruptions.
The gaseous constituent of ejected matters relates to the intensity of ejection. Since the type of
volcanoes formed entirely depends upon the way lava gets ejected through the vent, the composition of
lava material plays a predominant role. Structural classification of volcanoes is also related to magma
characteristics:
Shield Volcanoes- These are broad, gently sloping volcanoes which are mostly made up of basaltic
lava. It is very fluid when erupted and thus makes these volcanoes less steep. E.g. Hawaiian
volcanoes.
Strato or Composite volcanoes- These are conical shaped volcanoes formed when the lava is more
viscous, cooler and consisting of large quantities of pyroclastic materials and ashes. Because of this,
it accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of layers.
Caldera- These are usually so explosive owing to trapped gasses that when they erupt they tend to
collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure.
Flood Basalt Provinces- These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distance
forming sheets of lava. Deccan trap is prominent example.
Intrusive Volcanic landforms- The lava that cools in the crust itself is also called as plutonic rocks and
they assume different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms. Some of them are:
Batholiths- These are the large domes
formed by the cooling of a large body
of magmatic material at the deeper
depth of the crust. They cover large
areas, and at times, assume depth that
may be several kms.
Lacoliths- These are large dome-
shaped intrusive bodies with a level
base and connected by a pipe-like
conduit from below and are located at
deeper depth.
Lapolith, Phacolith and sills- While
moving upwards, a portion of the lava may tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a
weak plane. In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith. A
wavy mass of intrusive form are phacoliths. The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks
are called sill.
Dykes- When lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land. It solidifies
almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled to develop a wall-like structure called dykes.

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8. What do you understand by sea farming? Analyse its prospects and potential to provide sustainable
livelihood within the country. Also bring out the challenges in adoption of this technique.
Approach:
First bring out the concept of sea farming.
Then analyse its prospects and potential along with its feasibility in providing sustainable livelihood
within the country.
Then bring out the challenges in adoption of this technique.
Answer:
Sea farming refers to aquaculture of organisms for food or other products in Open Ocean, an enclosed
section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds which are filled with seawater. The choice of a particular cultural
system for sea farming depends on several factors such as existing natural conditions, availability of
financial support and education/training level of fishermen. Several cultural systems commonly adopted
include:
Pond Culture in marine and brackish waters (Ponds are fed sea water either as tidal ponds or by
pumping)
Floating Raft Culture -using floating rafts for shallow-sea farming
Pen Culture- in intertidal areas where low fences and water gates are built
Mud Flat Culture- especially suitable for farming benthic species
Inshore cage culture very popular world-wide, especially in Asia. (cage is usually made of wood or
steel and covered with net or meshes)
Offshore Cage Culture
Sea farming has become a promising area of aquaculture and is one of the most important and rapidly
growing components of Asian aquaculture, contributing substantially to the increased demand for high-
value seafood items in the global market. Countries such as Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia have gone
far ahead in sea farming while India has not realized its potential yet.
In India, there is urgent need to enhance the earning capacity of the people living along the coastal
areas. Sea farming through large scale seaweed cultivation is being considered as an alternate and
additional means of livelihood. Seaweed is considered as one of the best sources of food, fodder,
fertiliser, medicine and chemicals. Its extract is widely used in toothpaste, ice cream, tomato ketchup,
textile printing and various other industries and thus its adaption has potential of providing sustainable
livelihood.
Apart from it, the prospects and potential realization pertaining to sea farming in India lie in 7517 km of
coastal boundary and well developed continental shelf. In the year 2015-16 marine fish production in the
country stood at 3.58 million tonnes against the potential yield of 4.41 million tonnes estimated for
Indias EEZ. India required aiming for one million tonnes of marine fish production through sea farming in
next ten years.
Sea farming will have three benefits firstly, increase in the farmers income secondly, there will be
progress in the countrys export and GDP and thirdly it will ensure nutritional and food security in the
country.
Challenges in adoption of this technique:
Coastal aquaculture in the open water requires statutory support as well involvement of local
communities which will be a tedious task.
Streamlining the technology for commercially important species and identifying the products and
markets for such species require special attention.
Coastal aquaculture enterprises in India are primarily operated by small and marginal farmers and
financing sector is not too ambitious about aquaculture projects.
Managing open sea cage culture farms is one such area in which expertise is not readily available in
India.

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 Challenge in diversification as right now shrimp and scampi culture is occupying major percentage.
Long term environmental impacts need to be studied beforehand. For instance there is an urgent
need to study environmental impacts of marine farm wastes from cage cultures, genetic pollution,
habitat modification concerns etc.

9. Explain the origin of earth's magnetism. Discuss its significance with special reference to its interaction
with solar particles as well as artificial satellites.
Approach:
Introduce the concept of earths magnetism.
Explain the origin of earths magnetism.
Discuss its significance.
Answer:
Earth possesses the property of magnetism. The magnetic field of Earth is similar to that of a bar magnet
tilted 11 degrees from the spin axis of the Earth.
Origin of earths magnetism
The Earth's magnetic field is attributed to a dynamo effect of circulating electric current in the core of
the Earth. The rotation of the Earth plays an integral part in generating the currents which are presumed
to be the source of the magnetic field.
At the Earths centre is a solid inner core surrounded by a fluid outer core, which is hotter at the bottom.
Hot iron rises within the outer core, then cools and sinks. These convection currents, combined with the
rotation of the Earth, are thought to generate a "geodynamo" that powers the magnetic field.
Significance of geomagnetism
The Earths magnetic field is important for all forms of life on the planet.
Atmosphere protection: Magnetosphere deflects most of the solar wind, whose charged particles
would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation
Artificial Satellites: The deflection of solar storms by Earth magnetic field helps in proper functioning
of our communication system. The intense solar wind particles can affect geosynchronous satellites.
Rock Dating: The magnetic reversals provide the basis for magnetostratigrapgy, a way of dating rocks
and sediments.
Aurora: Interaction of the terrestrial magnetic field with particles from the solar wind sets up the
conditions for the aurora phenomena near the poles
Navigation: Humans have used Earths magnetic field for navigation purpose since ages. Various
organisms ranging from bacteria to pigeons use it for navigation and orientation.
Temporal Variation: The geomagnetic field changes can degrade navigation and surveying
techniques; it can impede geophysical exploration; it can disrupt electric power utilities, and pipeline
operations; and it can influence modern communications systems, spacecraft.

10. An emissions-reduction approach to fighting global warming is not enough. Alternative solutions
involving climate engineering might have to be deployed sooner than we think. Defining climate
engineering, critically examine the statement.
Approach:
Define climate engineering.
Bring out the relevance of climate engineering vis--vis emission reduction approach.

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Answer:
Climate engineering, also known as geoengineering, describes a diverse and largely hypothetical array of
technologies and techniques for intentionally manipulating the global climate, in order to moderate or
forestall some of the effects of climate change.
It is commonly divided into 2 approaches:
Designed to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere (often referred to as greenhouse gas
removal technologies,).A prominent example is carbon capture and storage (CCS), where some of
the carbon dioxide (CO2) being emitted by coal-fired power stations is recaptured by physically
sucking it in and transporting it elsewhere to be sequestered underground. Another method for
removing CO2 from the atmosphere is to increase forest cover as plants will absorb some of the
unwanted CO2. Increased forestation is part of Indias strategy for reducing CO2.
Designed to reflect sunlight away from Earth (often referred to as solar radiation management
technologies). Among the techniques being considered are marine cloud brightening, cirrus cloud
manipulation and stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI). SAI, involves spraying into the stratosphere
fine, light-coloured particles designed to reflect back part of the solar radiation before it reaches and
warms the earth. SAI proponents claim that this could bring down the global temperature
substantially by as much as 1C.
Success of emission reduction approach
Kyoto protocol of 1997 was the first international agreement of its kind to reduce emissions.
Between 1990 and 2012 the original Kyoto Protocol parties reduced their CO2 emissions by 12.5%,
which is well beyond the 2012 target of 4.7%. It also helped lay the foundations for the Paris climate
agreement
Under the Paris Conference on Climate change (COP21), developed and developing countries alike
are required to limit their emissions to relatively safe levels, of 2 C with an aspiration of 1.5 C
, with
regular reviews to ensure these commitments can be increased in line with scientific advice. Finance
is to be provided to poor nations to help them cut emissions and cope with the effects of extreme
weather. Countries affected by climate-related disasters will gain urgent aid.
Indias Intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) include reduction in the emissions
intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level and to create an additional carbon
sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
Additionally, India has revised its targets of renewable energy and now aims to generate 175 GW of
renewable power by 2022; it has also put in place stringent norms and standards for compliance by
various categories of industries.
Though useful to prevent climate change, emission reduction approach is criticized on various grounds:
Absence of major emitters of GHGs in Kyoto protocol -For example USA did not ratify the protocol. In
2011 Canada formally withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol. Japan, New Zealand and Russia have not
taken on new targets in the second commitment period.
$100 billion a year were pledged by rich nations in 2009 at Copenhagen summit to help poorer
countries adapt to climate change and cut carbon emissions. However only 16% has been paid till
now.
Paris Agreement commits to mobilizing $100 billion per year by 2020, to cover emission cuts and
adaptation, which is far short of the support required.
INDCs that governments drew up during Paris Climate Agreement are not based on science or equity
demands. Moreover, the Paris deal requires no emissions reductions from countries before 2020.
The budgetary allocation in India for achieving the 175GW renewable energy is grossly inadequate.
In view of the above facts, Climate engineering approaches must be viewed as potential options for
limiting climate change, alongside mitigation and adaptation measures. The first 115 MW Carbon capture
and Storage (CCS) retrofitted coal power plant commenced operation at Boundary Dam in Canada in
2014. The CO2 captured there is transported and pumped into nearby oilfields for enhanced oil recovery.

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 Similarly, the Green India Mission aims at increasing the forest/ tree cover by 5 million hectare as well
as, increasing the quality of the existing forest cover in another 5 million hectare, thus boosting existing
carbon sink capacity.
Solar Technology Management technologies like Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) are not very
expensive and thus may be deployed even in developing countries. However precaution should be taken
against any disastrous side effects, crossing national boundaries.
It is only through continuation of responsible research in climate engineering, done under proper
regulatory oversight, that the limitations and risks of such interventions can be fully understood and
provide the basis for informed decision-making. That will call for international governance mechanisms
for overseeing the research and development and possible deployment of climate engineering
techniques.

11. While India embarks upon building urban infrastructure, it is important that it takes into account the
vulnerability of the area to various hazards. Discuss in context of recent flooding in major cities of the
country.
Approach:
Briefly talk about the urban infrastructure development programs.
Discuss the vulnerability of Indian cities to disasters like floods and how the urban development
programmes should take into account this vulnerability.
Answer:
Indian urban landscape is undergoing a rapid transformation owing to mega urban schemes viz. Smart
Cities Mission, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Housing for All.
While both urban and rural areas are vulnerable to hazards, its impacts on cities and towns are of
particular concern due to high concentrations of people and infrastructure in these areas. Indian cities
may be subjected to multiple climate disasters depending upon their geographical location and climatic
conditions, ranging from increased and frequent flooding and water logging to heat and cold waves, sea-
level rise, and storm surges.
According to National Institute of Disaster Management, floods are the most recurrent of all disasters,
affecting large numbers of people and areas. The Ministry of Home Affairs has identified 23 of the 35
Indian states as flood-prone. India loses a little over $7 billion to floods every year, according to a United
Nations report.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) distinguishes urban floods from riverine floods as the
cause of each is different and each needs a different control strategy. The common thread that connects
various urban flooding incidences is poor Urban Planning.
The various factors which leads to urban flooding in India include:
Inefficient drainage systems and poor planning, particularly in the countrys overcrowded
metropolises( Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru etc.)
Ever-growing population squeezing into cities such as Mumbai and Bengaluru, which depletes
natural flood barriers like wetlands; new buildings frequently rise over storm drains
Climate change and resultant extreme events- The urban heat island effect and global climate
change has resulted in episodes of high intensity rainfall events occurring in shorter periods of time.
For example, the average rainfall for Chennai in November was around 407 mm, but in 2015 it was
1218 mm.
Increasing population leads to increased waste and the urban water bodies turn into dumping
grounds for municipal solid waste, as is the case with Chennais Pallikaranai marshland. Water
bodies have also become sewage carriers like the River Bharalu that flows through Guwahati, Assam.
Encroachment of water bodies- for example of the 262 lakes recorded in Bengaluru in the 1960s,
only ten have water at present.
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 Storm surges can also affect coastal cities/ towns.
Sudden release or failure to release water from dams can also have severe impact.
Coastal cities are also facing threat from sea-level rise.
The need of the hour is to develop resilient cities as highlighted by a report prepared by the World Bank
on urbanization in South Asia which enlist 4 recommendations for the same:
Identify risk by using urban risk assessment framework (Urban risk assessments aim to identify
critical infrastructure and develop early warning systems.)
Mitigate risk by planning critical and multipurpose safe and resilient infrastructure (Mitigating risks
call for developing both structural and non-structural measures. While structural measures include
dams, wave barriers and retrofitting of buildings etc., the non-structural measures comprise policies
and laws, practices, and agreements such as building codes, land-use planning, public awareness and
information.)
Develop a risk financing scheme to provide immediate liquidity in the aftermath of disasters and to
build financial resilience
Build strong institutions and collect, share, and distribute disaster data.
It is also important to identify the vulnerabilities of communities and potential exposure to disasters.
As the government embarks upon developing infrastructure across cities, it should take care to build the
transport, water, sanitation and power infrastructure with optimum physical resilience.
Also, since many cities are densely populated, it is not realistic to relocate millions of people away from
their homes and jobs. Hence, cities should revisit urban design and ensure enforcement of building codes
and land-use plans to minimise or prevent further building in risk-prone areas and to reinforce structures
so that they are resilient to various hazards.
Substandard construction practices should be stopped and the authorities should provide incentive for
enforcing building codes as it would reduce post-disaster cost.
One of the feature of Smart city as outlined by the government includes making Areas less vulnerable to
disasters which is a step in the right direction.
The government-appointed Parliamentary Standing Committee formed after the Chennai floods
demanded strict action against encroachments, improve drainage networks and develop vulnerability
indices by creating a calamity map. The Committees direction applies equally well to all the cities and
are crucial for a sustainable urban infrastructure development.

12. Explain how anthropogenic activities effect the intensity and magnitude of landslides. Discuss with
special reference to impact of climate change on landslides in India.
Approach:
Explain the current status of landslides in India.
Explain the impact of climate change on landslides in India.
Explain how most of these effects are due to anthropogenic activities.
Answer:
India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the Himalayas, which are tectonically unstable and are
prone to landslides and earthquakes. Landslides are among the major hydro-geological hazards that
affect large parts of India viz. The Himalayas, the Northeastern hill ranges, the Western Ghats, the
Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyas, in that order, covering about 15 % of the landmass.
Climate change leads to change in rainfall pattern and increased extreme events. Change in rainfall and
evapotranspiration directly impacts the groundwater level. Landslides respond to this change in
groundwater level (pore pressure).Rainfall-induced landslides threaten settlements on unstable slopes
and in landslide prone-areas in some parts of India. Every year there is huge loss of life and property due
to landsides occurrences.

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 Similarly, Climate warming leads to permafrost degradation and permafrost melting phase transition,
resulting in an increasing number of landslides.
Landslides are also induced by human activities such as deforestation, dynamite blasting of rocks, earth
work, constructions, vibrations from big machines, etc. which loosens the soil. The trees on the other
hand work through their roots that hold the soil in place. Loose soil on the hillside surface provides
appropriate conditions for the infiltration of water (from precipitation, snowmelt). The infiltrating water
is blocked by the underlying permafrost or dense soil, forming a potential sliding zone.
Important Anthropogenic factors considered to be responsible for causing landslides in India are:
Slope instability due to removal of lateral and underlying support.
Indiscriminate chopping down of trees.
Slash and burn cultivation practices in hills like in northeast India.
Road construction and mining activities like in Himalayan region.
With increasing population pressure, there is an increase in grazing activities, urbanization which
reduces dense natural evergreen forest cover.
Loosening of the soil due to these various anthropogenic activities like agriculture.
Methods to control the intensity and magnitude of landslides in India.
Community farming- On community lands, fuel or fodder trees should be grown to increase forest
cover to reduce landslide hazard in India.
Grazing should be restricted and better grass must be grown on the surface previously grazed to
increase the hold on soil by plant roots. These grasses can be of some commercial importance so
that economic returns encourage farmers in areas prone to landslide in India.
The runoff collection ponds in the catchment areas must be dug to store water.
Appropriate building codes, safety regulations, and response plans
We cannot stop landslides but minimize its impact by adequate preparation. Landslide
Hazard Zonation (LHZ) mapping is useful in identifying potential risk areas where landslides may occur
repeatedly. NDMA Guidelines are useful in this regard.

13. Discuss the impact of climate change on agriculture and food security in India. How are these
aggravated during the times of disasters? Mention the steps that need to be taken in order to ensure
adequate and affordable food supply for this impending crisis.
Approach:
In introduction briefly mention the factors of climate change.
Assess the impact of climate change on agriculture and food security in India.
State how food security and agricultural productivity are impacted during disasters.
List steps that should be taken to ensure adequate and affordable food during such crises.
Answer:
Climate change - which includes discernible increase or decrease in temperatures, changes in
precipitation level, and higher atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations- can have a direct impact on
agriculture and food security in India:
Significant increases in inter-annual and intra-seasonal variability of monsoon rainfall would be
detrimental for agriculture and food security, as approximately 65 percent of Indias cropped area is
rain-fed.
The impact of climate change on water availability will be particularly severe for India. Large parts of
north-western India, notably the states of Punjab and Haryana, which account for the bulk of the
countrys rice and wheat output, are extremely water-stressed.
The situation could become more adverse during disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones, tsunamis
etc.:
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 Floods, cyclones, tsunamis can lead to loss of farmland by inundation and increasing salinity of
groundwater in coastal areas.
Additionally, lack of rainfall during droughts can cause entire crops to fail or result in less than
average produce even for farmers who irrigate their fields. This was witnessed when drought
recently occurred in the state of Maharashtra.
Due to lack of proper storage facility and perishability of food items, food security becomes a
challenge during such disasters. This has not been adequately addressed by disaster risk
management measures.
While India has legislation and policies on disaster risk reduction, very few address agriculture, food
security and nutrition with sector-specific disaster risk reduction policies and objectives.
Following steps can be helpful in ensuring adequate and affordable food supply in crisis:
Disaster risk reduction planning must be included in national agriculture development plans to
actively reduce disaster losses in the sector, to enable growth and protect the food security and
nutrition of vulnerable populations like disabled people, women, children, elderly etc. who are worst
hit by disasters.
Transportation facilities should be upgraded to ensure that food is supplied to all regions affected.
Remote sensing technology should be adopted in various aspects of agricultural crop management.
Information attained through satellite data about cropping system analysis, which includes crop
area, cropping pattern, crop rotation etc. should be disseminated to farmers so that crop production
is increased and food grains are properly procured and hoarded by government agencies for times of
crisis.
Further, focus should be on prediction and forecasting of extreme events so that there is better
preparedness to deal with impending disasters. Indian Meteorology Department (IMD), ISRO, etc
should continually work towards it.

14. Discuss how drought is more of a man-made disaster than a mere deficiency of rainfall. Elaborate on
the consequences of desertification that drought prone regions face. Also, bring out the preventive
steps to be taken in light of targets to curb desertification as mentioned under the SDGs.
Approach:
For the first part, talk about how drought is a broader concept than just deficiency of rainfall. Use
different types of droughts for supporting your point. However, do not base the answer on them.
Highlight the consequences of desertification that drought prone regions face.
For the last part, first mention the SDGs concerned with combating desertification. Then talk about
the preventive steps needed.
Answer:
Any lack of water to satisfy the normal needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population may
be termed as a drought. This condition can occur due to many reasons - deficient rainfall(less than
expected), prolonged monsoon break, delay in onset or early withdrawal of monsoon, lack of irrigation
facilities, improper water management leading to deficiency in availability of water etc. Therefore, it is
the effectiveness of rainfall and not the amount of rainfall (which deficiency in rainfall is primarily
concerned with) that is important here.
Here, it is important to note that drought occurs due to interplay between a natural event and various
human factors. In practice, drought is defined in a number of ways that reflect various perspectives and
interests. For instance, we have agricultural drought which focuses on impact on crop yield. What could
be a drought condition for cultivating rice could be a condition of excess soil moisture for dry crops like

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 bajra or jowar. This is the reason why India Meteorological Department (IMD) has decided to replace the
word drought to describe poor rainfall with deficient year and large deficient year.
Consequences of desertification in drought prone regions
By impoverishing the natural potential of ecosystems, desertification also reduces agricultural yields
and makes them less predictable. It therefore has a bearing on the food security of people living in
affected areas.
In order to attend to their most urgent needs, the people develop a survival strategy which, in turn,
aggravates desertification and impedes development. This strategy is often accompanied by a
breakdown in solidarity within the community leading to migration and suffering.
Desertification also influences the carbon exchange mechanism. The large amount of carbon stored
in the vegetation in the dry zones decreases when the vegetation is depleted or disappears. This has
powerful effect on the carbon cycle and boosts the greenhouse effect as a result of the release of
carbon.
Lastly, desertificationion directly reduces the fresh water reserves. It has a direct impact on river flow
and the level of ground water tables. The reduction of river flow rates and the lowering of ground
water levels leads to the silting up of estuaries, the encroachment of salt water into water tables,
and the pollution of water by suspended particles and salinization.
SDG 15 aims to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
In India, nearly 30% of the countrys total geographical area is undergoing degradation as per ISRO
Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas. The steps needed to curb desertification include
Integrating land and water management to protect soils from erosion, salinization and other forms of
degradation. This requires watershed management at the local level.
Protecting the vegetative cover can be a major instrument for soil conservation against wind and
water erosion. Afforestation, improving the quality of present vegetative cover is, therefore,
important.
Focussing on activities that are less demanding on local land and natural resources, and yet provides
sustainable income. This includes activities like dryland agriculture, tourism etc.
Giving local communities the capacity to prevent desertification and to manage dryland resources
effectively. This also includes awareness raising and strengthening local self-governance institutions.

15. What is the role of NDRF in managing disasters in the country? Highlighting the challenges that NDRF
has been facing, discuss why it is still the armed forces which end up being the most visible force at
hand during disasters.
Approach:
Briefly give an introduction about NDRF.
Bring out the role of NDRF in managing disasters with recent examples.
Discuss the role of armed forces in disaster relief after establishing challenges of the NDRF.
Answer:
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a specialized force constituted "for the purpose of
specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster" under the Disaster Management Act,
2005.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a force of 12 battalions, organized on para-military lines, and
manned by persons on deputation from the para-military forces of India including BSF, CRPF, CISF, ITBP
and SSB.
NDRF in addition to being able to respond to natural disasters, has four battalions capable of responding
to radiological, nuclear, biological and chemical disasters. Recently NDRF has played a proactive role in
combating disasters in Uttarakhand forest fires.
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 The vision of NDRF is to emerge as the most visible and vibrant multi-disciplinary, multi-skilled, high-tech
force capable of dealing with all types of natural as well as manmade disasters and to mitigate the effects
of disasters.
The role of NDRF is as follows:
Provide specialized response for rescue and relief in case of disasters-natural and manmade.
Deployment in case of impending disasters.
Assistance to civil authorities in distribution of relief material during/after disaster.
Co-ordination with other agencies engaged in rescue/relief work.
The frequency of disasters and the operational commitment of NDRF are increasing day by day. However,
functioning of NDRF is laden with few challenges:
Shortage of manpower - As of now, the NDRF takes personnel on deputation for five years and that
includes a training period of almost three years. Therefore, the personnel get only two years to
exhibit their life-saving skills.
Issues related to limited budgets, lack of autonomy of NDMA and absence of appropriate training
facilities and equipment.
Issues related to infrastructure for its responders and better response time in the wake of
information of a disaster getting unleashed in any part of the country.
Because of these challenges, easy accessibility of the army to difficult terrains, better organization of
armed forces have seen an increased role in disaster relief and rescue operations in previous disasters
such as Uttarakhand floods, J&K floods, Chennai floods etc; This has meant that there has been active
involvement of the armed forces in the relief operations of recent disasters.
At the same time, a tendency to over-rely on the military has stunted the initiative, responsibility and
accountability of the civil government and officials. The case of Operation Sadbhavana in Jammu and
Kashmir is a case in point. It is this vacuum in delivery and governance that the armed forces have filled.
The role of armed forces, therefore, should be clearly defined so that both resources from NDRF and
army could be utilized efficiently.

16. Give an account of the different types of earthquakes based on their zone of occurence. Identify the
earthquake prone regions of the world with special reference to India. Also explain the reasons for
occurance of earthquakes in geologically inactive regions like Peninsular India.
Approach:
Briefly explain earthquakes and mention the required classification. Also write about the intensity
difference.
Elaborate their distribution. Identify the prominent belts which are earthquake prone.
In the last part, examine why earthquakes occur in stable
peninsular block. Use examples wherever possible.
Answer:
Earthquakes are sudden shaking of ground caused by passage of
seismic waves through earth rocks. These waves are produced
when some form of energy stored in earths crust is suddenly
released.
There are many ways of classifying earthquakes. However, based on
their zone of occurrence or origin inside the earth, they can be
classified as follows:
Shallow earthquakes: Most parts of world experience at least
occasional shallow earthquakes-those that originate within 60 km
of Earths outer surface. In fact, great majority of earthquake foci
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 are shallow. They are caused along the constructive plate boundaries (mid-oceanic ridges) and are
generally of lesser magnitude.
Intermediate earthquakes: These are earthquakes with a focal depth ranging from about 60 to 300 km.
Deep Focus: Frequency of occurrence falls off rapidly with increasing focal depth in intermediate range.
These are of high magnitude and are caused along the convergent or destructive plate boundaries and
consequent subduction along the Benioff zone.
In the world, the earthquake distribution is depicted in the following map:
About 68 per cent of all
earthquakes are observed in
the vast regions of the Pacific
ocean as a ring of fire and is
closely linked with the region
of crustal dislocations and
volcanic phenomenon.
Around 21 per cent of them
occur in the Mid-world
mountain belt extending
parallel to the equator across the Mediterranean sea from Alpine-Caucasus range to the Caspian,
Himalayan mountains and the adjoining lands. The region has fold mountains and large depressions.
The remaining 11 per cent are recorded outside these two belts.
The earthquakes in India are mainly confined to the Himalayan region and its foothills. Based on the past
seismic history, country is divided into four seismic zones, viz. Zone-II, -III, -IV and V. Of these, Zone V is
the most seismically active region, while zone II is the least.
Earthquakes in Peninsular India
While the plate boundary region in and around Himalayas are prone to earthquakes because of energy
generated due to collision of plates. However, even peninsular India is prone to some devastating
earthquakes. The reasons include:
It is possible that collision of Indian and Eurasian plate has generated stresses not only at boundaries
but also inside plate. As a result zones of weakness have formed on the plate.
There is possible breaking up of Indian plate, which is most evident along river Bhima near Latur and
Osmanabad, regions experiencing disturbances in the past.
Also, this region is home to some grand dams and reservoirs which have resulted in reservoir
induced earthquakes (eg. Koyna Dam).

17. Temperature, density and salinity are three most important physical properties of Ocean. Explain how
these all are interdependent. Also examine how these are influenced by climate change.
Approach:
Write in brief the significance of temperature, density and salinity as important physical features of
oceans.
Then, explain how they are interdependent.
Impact of climate change on them and how they affect other factors.
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Answer:
Temperature, density and salinity constitute the fundamental physical properties of oceanic waters as
they influence the energy motions in the marine environment.
Temperature
The sea temperature plays a vital role in influencing global radiation balance and heat budget.
It plays a vital role in making the global hydrological cycle functional.
Density
The density of seawater plays a vital role in
determining the dynamics of ocean water
and circulating heat because of the fact
that dense water sinks below less dense.
Density determines whether the water will
sink (subsidence and hence downward
vertical movement of water) or will float
(expansion and hence horizontal
movement).
Salinity
The freezing and boiling points are greatly affected by addition or subtraction of salts in seawater.
The saline water freezes slowly in comparison to fresh water.
Evaporation is controlled by salinity of oceans. In fact, more saline water is less evaporated than less
saline water.
Interdependence of temperature, density and salinity
Another factor to note is that salinity factor has little control over seawater density atleast in the
tropical and subtropical oceans whereas seawater temperature emerges as the most potent factor of
seawater density.
Influence of climate change
Due to climate change, the hydrological cycle -- the worldwide phenomenon of rainwater falling to
the surface, evaporating back into the air and falling again as rain -- is changing, with the wetter parts
of the world getting wetter and the drier parts drier.
The amount of heat stored in the ocean has increased substantially. Over the past century, there has
been an increase in ocean water temperature of 0.6 degrees Celsius.
In the tropical and middle latitudes, there has been a rise in salinity. While, in the higher latitudes
water is getting less salty because of fresh water inflow by the melting ice cap.
The ocean has become more acidic over the past few decades because of increased levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide, which dissolves in the water.
As a general rule, with rising temperature density decreases. Also, the effects of climate change can
be seen on shrinking zones of sharp changes in ocean water temperature (thermocline), density
(pycnocline) and salinity (halocline).
Not only has there been an impact on the surface ocean flows but also on water masses and
thermohaline circulation. This is due to complex linkages between temperature, density and salinity.

18. Critically discuss the effectiveness of initiatives such as "odd-even" and "Car free day" in coping up
with the issue of urban air quality and traffic congestion.
Approach:
In introduction give a brief overview of the two schemes.
Critically assess the consequences of implementation of the schemes by identifying both successes
and limitations.
To conclude provide a holistic set of measures to address issues arising out of urban air quality and
traffic congestion.
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Answer:
Concerns such as urban air quality and traffic congestion have led to schemes such as Odd-even
scheme, in Delhi, and Car free day, in Gurgaon. These schemes aim at reducing the number of vehicles
on the roads and encourage people to use alternate modes of transportation.
The effectiveness of these schemes can be observed as:
The odd-even scheme led people to arrange their commuting needs in practical terms and
experience viable alternate means of public transportation.
Further, it led to innovative ways of transportation such as carpooling that was offered by companies
such as Uber and Ola.
Traffic congestion witnessed a limited decline. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) assessed
the odd-even scheme and acknowledged that it raised public awareness on air pollution and
improved traffic speeds.
Similarly, car free day scheme led to increase in use of bicycles leading to respite from increasing
vehicular pollution and traffic congestion.
However, despite the good intentions underlying them, the effectiveness of these schemes was limited
as:
On the Odd even scheme, TERI stated that it should only be implemented as an emergency measure
as it yielded marginal reductions of PM 2.5 in both phases as reducing it depends on vehicular
pollution and weather conditions.
Such schemes cannot be implemented on a long-term or a permanent basis unless other modes of
public transportation such as the bus and metro systems are extended and upgraded.
The decline in the number of vehicles was limited as vehicles of VIP officials, women, two-wheelers
and commercial vehicles were kept outside the ambit of the scheme.
The problems of urban air quality and traffic congestion require long term measures like:
improvement of public transport including the safety aspects.
a system of 'congestion pricing' to reduce traffic congestion.
implementation of BS VI norms, increase in CNG vehicles.
increased metro connectivity, carpooling.
provision of buy-back options for old diesel/petrol cars from current owners.
ban on burning of paddy straws and refuse burning in NCR region etc.
instituting a dedicated Environment Police Squad in NCR on the lines of Beijing.
implement other innovative ways such as Car Pool Lane, in addition to Car rationing scheme.

Innovative ingenious schemes that have effective long-term consequences regarding issues of urban air
quality and traffic congestion should be implemented with proper dissemination of such schemes. Steps
to reduce emissions generated from construction and industrial activities also need to be taken.

19. Despite having large deposits of coal, we continue to import it for our domestic use. What are the
challenges which we face in meeting our domestic demand? Do you think meeting the social
commitments of our country would be challenging in light of our INDC commitments?
Approach:
In the introduction give an account of the deposits of coal in India, their quantity and quality. Then, talk
about the need to import coal for meeting our domestic demand.
Talk in brief about the social commitments of our country and analyse them in the context of our
INDC commitments.
Conclude giving briefly a way forward.
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Answer:
India, with close to 300 billion tonnes of coal reserves, has one of the biggest coal reserves in the world.
Despite this, imported around 200 million tonne (MT) of coal last financial year to top up domestic
production of 640 MT. The challenges India faces in meeting the domestic demand includes:
There is lack of coking coal reserves in India that is used as a raw material in steel making and allied
industries. Due to this, most of it is imported from Indonesia, South Africa, Russia and Australia.
Indian coal has high ash content (20 to 35 %). Tertiary Coal, although low in ash, has high sulphur
content (3-7%). New scientific techniques are required to remove these impurities and make these
coals more useful.
In India more than 90% of the coal is transported through railways. Lack of railway facility in different
parts of the country, variation in gauges, non-availability of adequate number of wagons, slow
movement of trains etc. create many problems.
The coal mining techniques in India are old and outdated where major part of the work is still
manual. This leads to low per capita production and higher production costs.
Policy and other bottlenecks such as non-operationalization of captive mines, subsequent
cancellation of coal block allocation and non-receipt on environmental clearances have also acted as
roadblocks.
All these factors have meant that there has been a steady increase in net imports from 37 MT in 2005-06
to 200 MT in 2015-16.
Social commitments vis--vis INDC commitments
The different stages of coal mining and cleaning, ranging from transportation to electricity generation to
mine closure have adverse impact on the environment, directly or indirectly. This is particularly
important because Indias INDCs include-
improve the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 below 2005 levels.
increase the share of non-fossil fuels-based electricity to 40 per cent by 2030.
enhance its forest cover which will absorb 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) by 2030.
Increased reliance on coal, therefore, puts questions on Indias ability to fulfill those commitments. At
the same time, it must be realized that Indias priority also includes poverty reduction and economic
development which are directly dependent on coal, with more than 80 per cent of thermal power being
coal based. Notwithstanding its polluting nature, coal remains the cheapest and most abundant fuel for
meeting Indias energy needs.
Therefore, along with increased focus on alternatives such as nuclear and other renewable sources;
there is also need to work towards cleaner coal based technology like Coal-to-liquid (CTL) technology to
balance our social commitments along with INDC commitments.

20. Forest fires have become a regular feature during summers in the Western Himalayas. What are the
causes behind this phenomenon? Critically examine the efforts made by authorities in countering this
problem. Do periodic forest fires have any benefits associated with them?
Approach:
Bring out the causes of forest fires. Also mention some points that are specific to the region asked in
the question.
In the second part talk about how the shortcomings in the efforts being taken by the authorities.
Also give some suggestions as to what approach should be adopted.
Bring out the benefits of forest fires, if any.
Answer:
In early 2016, states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh saw forest fires in April- May. Although forest
fires can be natural, more than 95% of wildfires in India were man-made.

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 In particular, the reasons can be as follows:
Due to 1981 ban on felling of trees above 1000m elevation, real estate mafia, timber fellers and
villagers use forest fires to dry up the trees.
Replacement of fire resistant broadleaf trees with pine for commercial purposes has aggravated
forest fires.
Mass migration of villagers is also to blame; in recent years, migration from the state has checked the
local utilization of the needles, leaving more fuel for forest fires.
The changing pattern in terms of global warming, rising instances of El-Nino etc are also affecting
forest fires; this is due to the cumulative effect of rising temperature, change in precipitation
patterns and air moisture, increasing heat waves, drier soil etc.
Encroachment of ponds, streams and reservoirs in the region lowers the moisture level and increases
the vulnerability to fire in summer season.
Efforts made by authorities have largely been reactive in nature with little long term planning and focus
on mitigation methods. For instance, funds released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change to the States and UTs under Centrally Sponsored Scheme namely, Intensification of Forest
Management, have shown a declining trend during the last few years. This has direct implication on the
ability of the State government to enable them to take the requisite measures for prevention and
mitigation of forest fires.
This has meant that there has been an overreliance on NDRF for fighting forest fires, which is not
desirable in the long term. Therefore, there is a need is to develop a well-defined mechanism to deal
with forest fires via-
Need to cut down old pine trees so that broad-based leave trees establish themselves again; the ban
on felling trees above 1,000 m elevation must be revoked
Regular removal of pine needles- using local help, Forest SHGs, linking the activity with MNREGA etc;
Pine needles can be used as bio-fuel and thus proper capital, technological and industrial support
must be given.
Modern fire-fighting techniques like the Early Forest Fire Detection Using Radio-Acoustic Sounding
System, Doppler radar, etc. can also be used.
Mapping of Fire Vulnerable Zone should be done and preventive measures should be taken in most
vulnerable zones.
Joint Forest Management involving local communities can drastically reduce forest fires.
Even though, periodic forest fires are associated with detrimental consequences, they are also beneficial
in the following manner:
It helps forests by promoting flowering, branching and seedling establishment. Many tree species
actually require fire to germinate their seeds.
Periodic forest fires help in forest growth regeneration. Forest fires return important nutrients to the
forest soil that was previously being stored in biomass.
Similarly, the heating of the soil may result in helpful microbial activity, and hasten decaying
processes that are useful for the vegetation.

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