Titui~D!~Cr;;~ti'IJI;')i. C.!:!

p 1 - 10 Y 11
P"ofesi": ZuJejnTfl Santaila

RESEARCH
. DESIGN
..' Qualitative,
. Quantitative,
and lvlixedMethods
, , '

[ dedcate ths book to Karen Drunlm Creswell. She is the inspiration

. Approaches
Ior my writing and my lfe.Because of her, as wir~, supporter, and detailed
and careful editor, J am able to work long hours and keep the home Iires
burning during the years that 1 devote to my job and my books. Thank you SECONO EDITION
frorn the bottom of my heart for bein g there fOI me.

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.. John W .Creswell
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University of Nebraska, Lincoln
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,~~~ SAGE Publications

Infernalional Educafional and Protessionel
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Publisher
Tnousanc Oaks London New Delhi

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~ CHAPTER ONE
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A FromevJork
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I n tne post two decodes. research opprooches hove mulliplied lo

a point at which investigotors or tncuirers have mony cnotces, For
tnose .designing a proposal or plan. I recommend that a general
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framework be adopted to provlde guidonce about 011focets 01 the
study. trorn ossessing the general philosophical ideas behind the
inqulry to the detailed data collectlon ond cnovsls procedures. Using
an extant framework 0150 otows researchers to lodge their plans in
Ideas well grounded in the literature and recognized by audiences

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(e.g" foculty cornrrttees) that read and support proposals tor

research.
What frameworks exist ter desigriing a proposal? Althouqh differ-
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ent types and terms abound in the literature. I wlll focus on three:
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quantitotive. qualitative, ond mixed methods opproaches. The flrst ~>
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has. been ovoilable to the social ond human scientlst ter years. the "
secondhos amarged prlmarlly durlng tha last three or tour decodes. W:
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and the last Is new and still deve!oplng in lorm and substance.
This chapler introduces the reader to the three approaches lo
research. I suggest that lo understand them. the proposal developer 1;
needs to considerthree framework elements: philosophicol assump-
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tlons obout whot consntutes knowledge cloims; general procedures
01 research called stroteges of nqury; and detalled procedures 01 W

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dolo collection, onolvsls. and writing. called mefhods. Qualltotlve.
quontitotive. ond mixed methods opprooches trame each 01 these
elements diflerently. and these differences are Identltled and dls-
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cussed in this chapter. Then typical scenarios tha! combine the three
H elements are advanced. tollowed by the reosons why ane would ;,
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IL: choose one.opproach over onother in designlng o study. This discus- (,.
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slon wlll not be a phllosophicol treatise on the nofure 01 I<nowledge.
but it wilt provide a orocncol grounding in some 01 the philosophical
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ideas behind reseorch.

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4 Research Design A Fromework rorDesign 5

THREE ELEMENTS OF INQUIRY Elcmerits ofInquiry,

Altcrnative K.tlowJcdgc Clalms

In the Irst editon of ths book. 1 used two approaches-s-qualtatlve and Approaches toRescarch
Ocsign Processes
'quantitative. 1 descrlbed each in terrns of diferent philosophical
assurnptons about the nature of reality, epislemology. values. the
rhetoric of research, and rnethodology (Creswell, 19,94). Several devel-
Stratcglcs ollnqulry
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Qu<tlilC1liv~
Quuntituvc
Mixcd MC!thuds ..
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, of Research

Questions

opments in the last decade have causcd a rcexamination of this stance.

/ Trunslated
nro nmcucc
'l'hcorcucel lens
Data collecton
t;UIlCl:pluull~.ct1 Dutu unalysls .
by lhe rersenrche . wrnc-up
Mxed methods research has come 01' age. To include only quantlta- vnlldation
tiveand qualtatve 'methods falls short o'fhe rnajor approaches
, ' '

being used today in the social and human sciences. Figure 1.1 Knowledge Claims, Strategies ot Inqulry, onc Methods'
Leadlng toApprocches and the Design Process '
Other philosophical assumptons beyond those advanced in 1994
have been widely discussed In the literature. Most notably, critica]
perspectves, advocacy/particpatory perspectives. and pragmatic
ideas (e.g . see Lincoln & Cuba. 2000; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998)
are betng extensively dscussed. !\Ithough philosophlcal ideas 3. Whcit rnethudology:-strategy'orplanof action tbat lnks
rernain largely. "hidden" in rescarch Slife & WiIliams. 1995). they rnethods lo outcomes=-gcverns our choice and use of methods
still influence the practice of research and necd to be identified. (e.g., experimental rcsearch, survcy research, ethnography etc.j?

The situation today is lcss quantitative versus qualitatve and more 4. What metbods-tcchniques and procedures=do we pro pose to
bow research practices lie somewhere on a continuurn between the .usc (e.g., questionnare, nterview.locus group, etc.)?
two (e.g., Newrnan & Benz, 1998). The bcst that C.1n be sad is that
studies tend to be more quantitative or qualltatlve in nature. Thus, These four questions show thc interrelated Jevdsof decisi~ns that go '
later in the chapter J introduce l.ypicnJ scenaros 01' quuntitative, into the proccss 01' deslgntng research. Moreover, these are aspects ihat
qualtative. and mixed methods rescarch. . -- informa choice 01' approach, rangng Irorn the broad assumptons that
are brought toa projcct to thc more praccal decslons rnade about bow '
:in~llIy,the practiceof research (such <J$ writing a proposal) involves to collect and analyze dala. '
much more than philosophical assumptlons. Philosophcal ideas , ~ith thesc Ideas in mind. [ conccptualized Crotty's model to address
rnust be cornblned with hroad approaches to research (strategies) three questions central to the design 01' rcsearch:
:
andimplcmenlcd with speclc proccdurcs (methods). Thus. a ,

1

Iramcwork is ncedcd tbu! combines lhc clcmcnts of philosophical l. Wht knowlcdgc clams are belng rnade by the rse~rcher'
ideas. strategies, and methotlsilllOJlie l't'~eapproaches to research. (including a thcorctical perspcctivc)?
.: .

>11 Crotty's (J 998) ideasest,;hlished thc groundwork for ths framework. 2,. What strategics 01' inquiry will inf'orm the proedures?
,

He suggestcd that in desgnlng ,1 rescarch proposal, we consider our

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3. Wllat methods 01' data collccton and analyss will be used?
:," questions: ~

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Ncxt, 1 drew a pcturc, as shown in Figure 1.1. Ths dsplays bow three
l. what eptstemology-e-thcory 01' knowledge embedded .in the
elements 01' lnquiry (Le .. knowledge claims. strateges. and methods)
theoretical perspcctive-e-inlorms lhc rcscarch (e.g .. objcctivism, ,
combine lo lorm dlfcrcnt approachcs lo research.Whcse approaches, in
subiectivism. etc.)?
turno are trunslated inlo proccsscs in thc dcsignof research.Prelrrilnary
2. Wbat. theorctical pcrspccuvc-vphilosophlcal stunce=-hes steps in designing <l rescarch proposal, thcn, are to assess the knowledge
behind the rncthodology in qucsuons (c.g .. pusitivism and . claims brought to thc study, lo consider the strategy of' lnqury that will .
postposltivm. intcrprellvisrn. cruical thcory, ctc.)? bf used, and to ldcny spcciflc rncthods. Using these three elements, a
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 6 Research Design A Framework tor Design 7

and postpostivism. The last term, "postposltvsm." refers to the thinking

after postvsm, challenging the tradtonal noton of the absolute truth
Poslposltivlsm Conslruclivlsm of knowledge (Phillips & Burbules, 2000)and recognizing that we
Determlnotion Understanding cannot be "positive" about our claims of knowledge when studying the
Reductonlsm Multiple partlcipant meonings behavior and actions of hurnans, The postposltlvlst tradtlon comes
Empirical observoton Social and hlstorlcal constructlon frorn ] 9th-century writers such as Comte, Mili, Durkheim, Newton, and
and meosurement Thcory generatlon
Locke (Srnith. 19R3), and it has been most recently articulated by
Theory verlflcallon
wrters such as Phllips and Burbules (2000),
Advococy /Porticlpolory Progmotism Postpositivism reflects a determtnstc philosophy in which causes
Politlcal Consequences 01 octions probably determine effects or outcomes, Thus, the problems studied by
Empowerment Issue-oriented Problem-centered postpositivists reflect a need to examine causes that nfluence outcomes,
Collaboratlve Pluralistlc
such as issues examined in experiments, It is also reductonstc In that
Change-orlented Real-world practlce oriented
theintent ls to reduce the ideas tnto asmall, discrete set of ideas to test.
such as the variables that constitute hypotheses and research questions.
The knowledge that develops through a postpostlvstlcns ls based on
researcher can then Idently either the quantitative, qualitative, or mxed careful observaton and measurernent of the abjective reality that exsts
methods approach to nqulry "out there" in the warld. Thus, developing numeric measures of obser-
vations and studying the behavor of Individuals become paramount for
a postpositivist. Einally, there are laws or theories that govern the world,
Alternative Knowledge Clalms and these need to be tested or ve~iI1edand refined so that we can under-
stand the world. Thus, in the scentic method-the acceptedapproach
Statlng a kllowledge cIaim mcans that rcsearchers start a project with
to research 'by postpostvtsts-c-an individual beglns wth a theory, col-
certaln assurnptions about how they will learn and what they will
lects data that eilher supports or refutes the theory, and then makes
learn during their inquiry. These claims might be called paradigms
nccessary revisions before additional tests are conducted,
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000: Mertens, 199H); philosophical assumptions.
In reuding Phillips andBurbules (2000). one can gain a sense of the
epstemologiesvand ontologes (Crotty, 1998); orbraadly conceved
kcy assurnpons of this positon, such as the following:
research rnethodologies (Neuman, 2(00). Phlosophioally, researchers
make clams about what ls knowlcdgeIontology), how we know it
(epistemalogy), what values gu nto it (uxlclogy). how we write about it l. 'I'hat knowlcdge is conlectural (and anti-foundational)-
(rhetorc), and the processcs Ior studyng.lt (methodology) (Creswell, , ~.. absolute truth can never be found. Thus, evidence establshed .
1994). Four schools 01' thought about knowledge claims will be .r in research s always imperfect and fallble, lt s for this reason
dscussed: postpostivisrn. construcvtsm. advocacy/partcipatory, and that rcsearchers do no _"provehypotheses and inst"e<\(1 indicate l
pragmatsm. T'he majar clemcnts of cnch positiori are presented in Iailure to reject, '"
'rabie l.l. Indiscussions to lhilow, 1wrWirteitlpt. to translate the broad
2. Research s the process of rnakng claims and then rcfining or
philosophical ideas of these posons i11 lo practce.
, abandoning some of thcm Ior othcr claims more strongly war-
ranted, Most quantltatve research, or cxarnple, starts wth the
I test ol' a theory.
,. I
Postpositlve KnowledgeClaims ~
'" ~
Traditionally, tbe postpositivist assumptlons have governed clairns 3. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape knowledge.
about what warrants knowledge. This posltion IS sometimes called In practico. the researcher collects nlorrnaton on nstruments
the "scentifc method" or doing "sccnce'' research. It IS also called bascd en mcasures compleled by the participants or by

.
quanttattve research, posltvlst/postposvst research, empirica1 scence.
~
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observatons recorded by the researcher .

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 8 Research Design
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4.. Research seeks to develop relevant true statements, ones that
can serve to explain the stuatlon that is of concern or that
describes the causal relattonshlps of interest. In quantitative
.studtes. researchers advance the relationship arnong variables
andopose this in terrns of questions or hypotheses.
5. Being objectiveis an essental aspect of cornpetent inquiry, and
or this reason researchers rnustexamine methods and conclu-
sions or bias. For example, standards 01' validity and reliabllity'
are rnportant in quanttatve research.
Soclally Cotisttucted Knowledge Claims
thers claim knowledge through an alternative process and set
al' assumptlons. Social construcvism (often combined with nter-
prevlsm.'sec Mertens, 19YI-llis such H perspectve. The ideas carne Irorn
Mannheim and from works such as Bcrger and Luckmann's The Social
Construction aJ RCiI!Jt!1 (19h 7) and !.incoln and Guba's NiltllmlisUc
1m/l/ir!! (J 9H5). More receru writers who have sumrnarized this position
are Llncoln and CUba (20()O), Schwandt (2000). Neuman (20DO), and
Crotty (1 'l'l Hl, arnong others, Assurnptions identiflcd in these works hold
that imlividuals seek understunding 01' the world in which they lve and
work. 'l'heydevelop subicctive meanngs 01' their experienccs-e-meantngs
directed toward certain obiects or thngs. These meanings are varied and
multlple.Icading the researchcr lo look Ior the complexity of views rather
than' narrowing meanings into a few categories or tdeas. 'l'he goal of
- --
. rosearch. then. s to rely as much as possible 011 the participants' views 01'
thc situutlon bcing studied. 'l'he quesrions becorne broad and general so
that the participunts can construct the mcanlng of situatlon. a rnean-
ing typically forged in'l!isclIssions o, inteructionswith other persons. The
more open-ended the quesnning, (he better, as the researcher listcns
curelully lo whal people suy or do illtr)dj~iTiei;clling. Oten thesc subjcct-
ive mcanings are ncgotiatcd socially und hstoricallyln other words, thcy
are nol simply lmprinted on ilJdividu~llsblll are lorrncd through intcract-
ion with'others(hencc sociul constructlvlsm) and through historlcal and
cultural norrns that operan- in illd~iduals' ves. Thus, constructivist
l
i rcscurcher s oftcn addrcss thc "proccsses" of nteracton arnong individu-
j.
1; als, 'I'hcy also Iocus on the spccflc contcxts in which people live and work
i
; in.order lo understand the lustorical andcultural settings of the partici-
i
: pants.Researchers recognizc that their own background shapes their
tnterpretaon. and they "positon I hernselves" in the reseurch to
acknowledge how their trucrprctaton llows Irorn their own personal.
A Frornework tor eslgn 9
. . .
. . ..
-cultural, and historicai experences. The re~earcher"s ntent, then, s to
make sense of (or nterpret) the rneanngs thers llave .about the world ..
Rather than starting with a theory (as in postpostivism). inquirers
genera te or nductvely develop a theory or pattern of rneaning.
For example, in dscussing constructivism. Crotty (1998) dented .
sevenil assurnptions:
L Meanings are constructed by hurnan bengs as they engage
wth the world they are interpreting. Qualitative researchers
tend tcuse open-ended questions so that particlpants can
express their views.
2. Humans engage with ther world arid make sense of tbased on
their historical and social perspectve-c-we are all born into a
world of rneaning bestowed upon us by our culture, Thus; qual-
itative researchers seek lo understand the context 01' settlng of
the particpants thrugh vsiting this context and gathering
inormation pcrsonally. They. also make an interpretation of
what they Ilnd. un interpretution shaped by the researchers'
own experiences and backgrounds.
3. The basic generatiori of meaning s always social. arising in and
outofIntcracon wth a human cornmunty The process of
qualitatlve research is largely inductve, wth the inquirer gen-
. cruting meaning from thedata collected in the fleld.
. .
Advococy/Pat1icipofory Knowledge Clalms
. Another group of resear hers clairns knowledge throughan advo-
clcy/particpatory approach, This positon arase durin"gthe 1980s and
19908 frorn ndvdualswho felt that the postpostivist assumptions
imposedstructural iaws and theorlcs thatdid not lit marginalized ind-
viduals or groups or dd not adequately address Issues of social )ustice.
Historically, sorne ol'Thc advocacy/partcpatory (oremancpatory)
writers have drawn on Uie works of Marx, Adorno, Marcuse, Habermas, .
and Freire(Nellman, 20(0). More recently worksby Fay (1987). Heron
and Reason (1997), and Kcmmis and Wilkinson (199H) can be read Ior
this pcrspcctve, In the main, these nquirers felt that theconstructvlst
slancc did nol go Iar enough in udvocating Ior an ];tion agenda to help
marglnalixed pecples. Thesc rescarchcrsbclieve that lnqulry needs tobe
ntertwincd with politics and a polltical agenda. Thus; the research
should contain an actlon agenda Iorreforrn that may change thelives of
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10 Research Design A Framework for Deslgn 11

the particpunts, the mstitutions in which individuals work or live, and These are diverse groups and topies, and my surnmaries here are
the researcher's lfe. Moreover, specfic issues needed to be addressed nadequate generalizations. It is helpful to view the surnmary by
that spcak to important social ssues 01' lile day. issues such as empower- Kemmis and Wilkinson (1998) of key features of the advocacy or
mento nequality. oppresslon, dominaon. suppresslon, and allenaton. participatory forms of inquiry:
The advocacy rescarchcr otten begins with one of these ssues as the
ocal point 01' research. 'l'his research also assurnes that the inquirer will 1. Partclpatory action s recursive or dialectical and is focused on
procced collaboratively so <I~ lo no\. lurther marginalize the participants bringing change in practces. Thus, at the end of advo-
about
as u result 01' the inquiry In this scnse, the particlpants may help design cacy/particlpatory studies, researchers advance an action
questions, collect data. analyze inlormatlon, or receive rewards for par- agenda for change.
ticpating in the rescarch. The "voce" orthe participants becornes a
unlted voicc Ior reform and change. 'I'his advocacy may mean provdlng 2. It is Iocused on helping individuals free thcmselves from con-
<l VOlcC Ior thcsc partlcipunts. rasing their consciousness. or advancing straints Iound in the media. in language, in work procedures,
un agenda tor change to irnprove the Ivcs 01' thc participants. and in the relalionships 01' power in educational settings. Advo-
Within thesc knowledge clairns are sumces for groups and indvidu- cacy/participatory studies often bcgin with an lmportant issue
uls in soclety thut muy 11L' Illurgillllized or disenfranchiscd. Therelore, or stance about the problems in society. such as the necd for
empowerment.
theoreticul perspecves muy he ntegr ated with the. philosophical
assumplions that construct u pcturc of the issues being cxamined, the 3. It s emancipatory in that it helps unshackle people lrom the
pcople to be studicd. ,lml t he changos thut are needed. Some of these constraints of irrational and uniust structures that limit self-
theoreucal perspectivcs me lisled helow, development and sclf-determination. The aun 01"advocacy/par-
ticipatory studics s to crea te a political debate and discussion so
.'t'IIJillisL{Jcrsl}(~Cjvcs(I1111make prohlernatic
rcnter women's diverse that change will occur,
situutions und thc mst ituons thnt trame those situaons. Research
topcs may nclude policy issucs rcl.ucd to realizing social jusuce for 4. lt s practica! and collaborativc bccause it is inquiry completed
. womcn in spccic l'llnl.cxb or knowlcdge about opprcssivc situa- "wth" others rather than "on" or "to" others. In thisspirit,
ons lor worncn (Olcxcn, 20(0).
advocacy/partlcipatory authors cngagc the particlpants as
active collaborutors in their inquiries. .
/{Ildalizctl lli,w:OIlJ'SCS raixc nnport.uu qucstions about the control and
pruductinn 01' knowlcdgc. parculurly knowledge about people and
Ptoqmatic Knowledge Claims
communitics ol' color IL\son-llillillgs. 20()O).
All~~~her poslton about clams cm knowlcdge comes from [he prag~
CriUml Ull'orll pcrspcclivcs are conccrned with empowerlng human masts. Pragmatism derives fro/TI (he work of Pcrce. Jan.~s, Mead, and
hcings lo trunsccndt he const ruints placed on them by race, class, Dcwey (Cherryholrncs, 1992)JRccent writers include R6i'ty (1990).
and gcndcr (Fay, 1 ':.IX 7l. Murphy (l9')(l), Patton (1990). and Cherryholmes (1992). There are
-"-- .... '-.,..
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many Iorms of pragmatsm. For rnany of thern, knowledge claims arse

.()llt'eJ' U1COI'!I Iocuses UIl in~\ividtlals c;i1ling thernselves lesbans, gayo
out 01' actions, stuaons. and consequences rather than antecedent
blsexuals.or t.nlnsgclHlercd pcuplc.tl'he research can be les s objccti-
conditons (as in postpositivism). 'l'here i$ a concern with applica-
Iylng, can be more conccr ncd with cultural and politlcal means, and
tions-"whal works"-and solutions lo problerns (Patton. 1990).
can CO!1Vcythe voccs .uul experielllts of individuals who have been
lnstead 01' methods being rnportant, the problern is rnost irnportant,
supprcsscd ((;lm~~i1:2()()()).
and rescarchers use ull apprcachcs lo understand the problem
DiwJilJ'I! iIH/lIir.11 addrcsses thc mcunng 01' nclusion in schools (see Rossman& Wilson, 1985). As a philosophtcal-underptnnng for
and encompnsses ndmtnistrators. tcachers, and parents who have mixed rncthods studies, Tashakkort and Teddlie (1""998) and Patton
children with dlsahilitivs (Mertcns. 191.)8). (1990) convoy the irnportance Ior focusing attention on the research
. \.

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12 Research.Design A Frornework tor Desion 13

problern ln social science research and then usng pluralistic approaches

to derive knowledge about the problem. According toCherryholmes
(1992), l'vlurphy (1990), and my own interpretations of these writers, Qliontitative Qualitotive Mixed Methods
pragmatism provides abass lar the following knowledge c1alms:
Experimentaldesigns Ncrrotves Sequentlal
Non-experimental designs, Phenomenologles Concurrent
L Pragmatism is not committed 10 any one system of philosophy such as surveys Ethnographies Tronstorrnctlve
,;no rcality Ths applles tornlxcd methods research in that Grounded theory Ii
Cose studies
inquirers draw lberally Irom both quantitatve and qualitative I ".
assumpnons when they cngage in thelr research,

2. Individual researchers havc H lreedom of choice. They are

"Cree" to chcose thc methods, technlques, and procedures of
research that best meet their nccds and purposes. sfrotecresot Inquiry
3. Prugmatsts do not scc lile world as an absoluto unrty In a sim-
The researcher brings lo the choice of a research design assumptons
ilar wuy, mixed rnethorls researchcrs look to many apprcaches
about knowledge claims. In addltion. operatingat a more appled level
lo collcctng and analyzlnj; dul,l rather than subscribing lo only
are strategies of inquiry (or traditions of nqulry, Creswell, 1998; or
one way (e.g .. quanutntive or qualiative).
methodologies, Mertens, 1998) that provde specc direclon for proce-
4. Truth is what works ,11 t he time: ir is no! based In a strict dual- dures in a researchdesgn. Like knOwledgc clams, strategieshave mul-
isrn bctwccn [he mind <lne! a rcality cornpletcly indcpcndent of tplicd ovcr the years as computar technolcgy has pushed forward data
thc mind. Thus, in mixcd mcthods research, invesgutors use analysls and the ablty to analyze complex models, and as individuals
hoth quantitutivc <111(1 qunluu.ive data because they work lo have artculated new procedures for conducting social science research.
providc the bcst undcrstnndiru; 111' a research problem. 'l'hesc strategiesof inquiry contrbute to our overall research approach.
Thc major strateges ernployed in the social sciences are discussed in
s. l'ragnHl!:ist rescarchcrs [onk lr: I:lle "what" and "how" to rcscarch
Chaptcrs Y. 10. and 11 of this book. Rather than cover al! or a large.
huscd 01] its intended COllsl.q\lcrlccs~where they want lo go with
nurnber 01' strategles, these chapters focus on those Irequently (sed in
it. Ivlixcd mcthods rrxc.m.hcrx IICl'tI lo establlsh a purpose Ior
the social scences. Hcrc I will introduce those that will bedscussed.
I hcir "mixing." a l'<llioll,l!c lor t!IC reasons why quantltativc and
I:lltr and that are cited in examples ofresearch throughout the book,
qualiuulve data nccd lo he mixcd in the lirst place.
A~ overvicw of these strat~gies is shown in Table 1 )::.
h. Pragrnasts ugrec I.h,iI.l'\~sc"n1i ulways occurs in social. histori- ~ ~.

c,IL politlcul. and _oLj('r CIH.llexli>. In this way, mxed mcthods

Strategies Associated With the Quontltotive Approoch
studies muy includc <1 post'll)'&:t:ntnrn. a theorccal lens that

7. Prugmasts
.
Is rcllcxivc ()I'social itlslin~ und polcul airns.
, .

bclicvc iCllcITylwllllt's. 1992) that we nccd to stop

During thc late ]9th ccntury and throughout
inqury associated with quanttatlvcrescarch
the 20th. strategies of
were those that invoked
the postpositvtst perspcctivcs. Thesc include thetruc experimnts and
askmg qucstions about re,d' y ilnd the laws 01' nature. "They
the lcss rgorous experiments called quasi-experimcnts and correlational
would ximply Ilkc u (jltlge 11ll' subicct" (Rorty
19H3. p. xiv).
studics(Campbcll & Stanley, 19(,3). 80d speciflc slngle-subiect experi-
ments (Cooper. Heron: & l lewurd. J Y~ 7: Ncurnan & McCorrnick, 199 S).
Thus. or the mlxcd Illctil()(Ls n~St"IITllt'r.prlgm(lli~1ll opens the door to More reccntly quantltatlvc stratcgics involved ~complex experiments
multiplc mcthods, dlllcrcru worldviows, and dtllercnt assumptions.vas with many variables and trcatrnents (e.g.. Iactorlal designs and repeated
well as to diflercnt lorlns (11' t"!;1 collccon and analysis in the mxed measure deslgns). They aiso included elaborate structural equation
methods study. modcls that mcorporatcd causal paths and the identification of the

7/39

'.
 A Framework for Desgn 15
14 Research Design

collectve strength of muluplc variables. In ths book, we wil focus on

Case studies, in which the researcher explores in depth a program, '
an evento an activity, a process, or one or more individuals. The
two slrategies of inquiry: cxpcrments and surveys.
cases) are bounded by time and actvity, and researchers collcct
detailed nformaton using a variety of data collectlon procedures
Experil/Jellisnclude truc experiments, with the randorn assignment
of subjects lo trcatmcnt condons, as well as quasi-experiments over a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995).

that use nonrandornizcd dcsgnsIkeppel, 1991). Included within

Phenomellological researcl1, in which the researcher Identies the
quas-experiments are snglc-subicct designs.
"essencc'' of human experiences concerning a phenomenon.vas
: j
described by participants in a study. Understanding the "llved experi-
SlIrVeIS include cross-sccrlonul and lnngtudinal studies using ques-
onnaires 01' structurcd nterviews Ior datacollection, with the ences" marks phenomenology as a phlosophy as wcll as a method,
ntcnt of gcnerulzing Irum a sarnple lo l population (Babbe. 1990). and the procedure involves studying a smull number of subjccts
through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop patterns
Sfrotegies Associoted With the Quolitotive Approach and rclatonshlps of meaning (Moustakas, 1994). In thsproccss. Lhe
researcher "brackets" hs or her own experiences in ordcr to under-
In qualltative reseurch. rhe numbers and types of approaches also stand (hose of the particlpants in the study (Nieswiadorny ] 993).
becarnc more clearly vislhl during lile J 990s. Books have summarized
thc various types (such ax lile 19 strutegics identil1ed by Wolcott, 2(01), NrrrrrUvc r'esearch, a form of inquiry in whch the researcher studes
and complete procedurex are now avallable on specfic qualitative the llves 01" lndvlduals and asks one or more individuals to providc
lnqury appronchex. F(\r ('X umplc, Clnndnm and Connelly (2000) have storles about thclr lves, 'l'his lnformatton is thcn rctold or restoricd
constr uctcd a pcturc ,,!, wh! "nnrr.u ive reseurchers do." Moustakas by the researcher lnto H narrave chronulogy, In the end: the nar-
('',)',)4) dscusscd .hc philoSllphical tcncts and the procedures of the rative combines vews Irorn the paruclpant's lifc with thosc of lile
phenorncnological mcthod. and Slrauss and Corbin (l990. 1998) have rescarcher's lfe in u colluboratvc narrutive (Clandinin &
expllcated (be proccdurcs ,,1' ?rOlmded thenry.Wolcott (1999) has su m- Con 11 elly, 20()O).
marzcd ethnographc prorcdurcs, ami S!.ake (J 995) has identiJled the
proccsses olcasc study rcscarch. In this book. i1lustrations wil! be drawn
Strategies Associoted With the Mixed Methods Approach
lrom the following strntcuies:
Less wcll known than elthcr thc quantil.ativc or qualltutivc stratcgics
it.JulO!ll"IIplrks, in wl ihh thc rcsearrher studies un lntact cultural
group in a natural s('lirrg ovcr ,1 prolonged period of time by col-
are those that involve collecting and analyzing both Iorms of data in a
single study, Thc concept of mixing diflerent methods probabiy origi-
lccng. prtmurily, ubsc.rvut iouu! da!;l (l;reswell. .199H). The research nated,in .1',)59, when Campbell and Flskc uscd ruultiplc methodsto
. proccss is Ilcxlhleund ivplcallv cvolvcs contextualy in responso to 01' psycholo~i~.allraits.
studY',;alidi~y They encouragcd others to ernploy
thc livcd rculics l'rlclllrnLerl'J! in the cld setting (LcCumpte & ther mulmethcd matrix l~ examine multlplc appronehcs to data
Schcnsul, 1,)<)',)}. collecuon in a study, This prornpted others lo mix mcthods, und HOOIl

. ' ----
{11m,.!!. in whi.l: l hc resenrcher' attempts to derive a
C;rOllluled
"''''-", . approuches assocated wth fcld methods such IS observations and
intcrviews '(C]lIulilativc data) wcrc combincd with traditionalsurveys
general. uhstrac! tJl:llr'y' 01' u proL"ess, acon, or interactlon
(quanttatve data) (S. D. Siebcr, 1973). Recognizing hat all methods
grounded in hc vic.ws ,)i" parcipunts in a study. 'l'his process
havc lmiaons, rescarchers Ielt that biascs inhcrcnt ,in any single
involvcs usng muluplr slilgt"Sol' <lft:1 collection and the rclinement
method could neutralize or cancel the biascs of other methods. Trian-
und ntcrrelaticnshtp ni" ca!l'?oi"ics 01" mlormauon (Strauss &
gulang tinta sOllrces-a rncans Ior secklng convcrgence across qual-
Corhin. I l.J<)O,]9':) K l. 'I'wo primury characterstlcs of this design are
tative and quantitative rnethods=-werc born (jck, 1979). Fromthe
thc constant compurison ,,1' dal" with cmerging categores and
original concept of trangulauon ernerged addtonal'reasons Ior mlxing
thcorcticul sumpllnu ul ditlerent gruups to maxirnize the slmllarities
differenL types 01" data. Por exumple, the rcsults from one method can
and the diffcrences 111' lntormaton. ,

8/39
16 Research Design A Frornework for Deslgn 17

help develop or lnforrn the othcrmethod (Greene. Caracell, & Graham.

1989). Alternatively, one method can he nested within another method ,~;.r~~1~;it{~'JklfA~~~~1~[~l~E~!\tw~~~*~~f.~~~
.'
to provirle
, Teddlie,
insight into diflerent levcls or units of analysis [Tashakkori &
1998). Orthc mcthods can serve a larger. transformative pur-
Quantitative
Research Methods
Qualitotive
ResearchMethods""
I Mixed Methods
R~serc;~.Methods,
.,

POStO change and' advocate Ior rnurglnalzed

, 'ethniclracial
groups. such as women,
mlnortles, mcmbers 01' gay and lesbia n communities.
Predetermined Emerging methods I
Both predetermined
Instrument based Open-ended cuesftona ] and emerglng ,
people with disabilities. and thosc who are poor (Mertens.2003). questions ntervlew doto. 1, methods
These reasons for mixing md 110ds have led writers from around the Performance data. observotori data. ' 80th open- and
world to develop procedurcsIor mixed methods strategies of inquiry and attitude data, document data.j closed-ended
observononot data. andaudiovisual data, questions
to take the numerous terms Iound in rhe lterature, such as mult-
rnethod, convergence, intcgrutcd, and combined (Creswcll. 1994) and
and census data Text and Imageanalysis I
Multipfe rorrns of
Statisticol onafysis I data drawing on
shape procedures for research (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 20(3). [ 011possibilitles
In particular, three general strategies and sevcral varatons within Statisticol and
them will be iIlustrated in Ihts book: I
text onalysis
I

SCijlJcntial procedures. in which thc rcscarcher sedes lo

claborute on or
expand the findings 01' OJ1l' method with another method. Ths may Research Mefhods
involve begmmng wih a quulilal ivc mclhod Ior exploratory purposes
and Iollowing up wilh <l qu.mtnv mcthod with l lurge sarnple so The thrd maior element that goes into a rcscarch approach. is Lile
.that the rcscarcher can gt'lwralize rcsulrs 1.0 a population. Alterna- specific rnethods of data colIection and analysls. As shown in Tablc ] .:l,
tivcly.the study muy begill wit ha qu.mtitalivc rnethodin which thco- it is useful lo consider the full rango of possibiliticsfor dti collecon in
ries or conccpls are (l~~Il'd, lo he lollowcd by a qualitatvc method any study, and to organizo .thesc methods by thclr degree of prcdcter-
involving dctuilcd explora: ion with a lcw cases (Ir ndviduals, , . mined nature. their use of closed-ended versus open-ended qucstonlng,
and thcir focus for nurneric versus non-nurneric data analysis, 'l'hcse
COIlt:ul'rf.Jll proccdurcs, i'l which t hr rcscurchcr converges quanta- methods will be developed further in Chapters <) through l rus qU':'-,
tve ami qualttave tlill.il iu ortlt'l' to providc ti comprchensivc analy- tatvc. qualltutive, and mixed methods,
sis 01' the rcseurch problcm. In Ihis-design. the nvestgator collects l.~escarchers colect data on an nstrument or test (e.g. a sct 01'qucs-
both lorrns of data at thc sume imu during the study and then inte-

.tions about attitudes toward self-esteem) or gather lnforrnauon un a
grales the inormuon in 1 he ntcrprctatlon 01' thc overall results.. , behavioral checkllst (e.g., \.(Ihere rcseurchers observc"H vorker engugcd '
Also, in .his dcsgn. II\t' I'l,still'd]('.l' nests one Iorrn of data wlthin in uslng il cornplex skill), On the other end of'the cunrinuum. iI might
anothcr. lurgcr tI"ta (""II('l'l illll jr;<'~'liiTi't:-'inorder lo unalyzc dilTcr- involve vlsiting a rcscnrch sitc and ohsvrving t lu- bchuvior ol' individuul
ent qucstions or lcvcls ni' IIl1iLs 11: un orgaruzation. withoul predeterrnined guestions 01' conducung an.intervicw in which
the individual ls allowed.to talk openly about a topc largclywthout the
'/'ra/l,\jiJr/JllIt/ve procedurcs. in which Lile researcher uses a thcorct- use of specic questions, 'l'hc choice 01' rncthods by a rcsearchcr urns
cal lens (see Chaptc)' 7) ilS un ~verarching perspectivc within a on whethcr the intent is to speciy the type 01' informattonto be collected
desgn that C[\nlaills hol h quunt iuuivc and qualltatve data. 'I'his in advnnce 01' thestudy or lo allow it lo erncrge from paructpants in the
lens provdes a Iramework 1'01' ropics of intcrest, methods lar collcci- proiect. Also, the type 01' data rnay be numcric inlormaon gathered on
ing duta, und OllLCOJl1('S (U' ('IHlll!!-t'Snntlciputcd hy thc study Wilbin scales 01' instrurnens 01' more tcxl lnlormntion. rctlJring and reporting
this lens could he a daur cullection mcthod that nvolves a sequcntial the voicc 01' the partcipants. In some lorrns of data collecton, both
or a concurren! appru.rch. quantilative and qualitave data are colleclcd. Instrument data muy

9/39
 .;,; ,
~
:~;.,
:~!:.

18 Resecirch Design ~,r

I
. ~',

"

be augmented with open-ended observatons. or.census data may be <

~~.
followed by in-depth exploratory intervews.
.~ ~'~"',

..

'~:.'
THREE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH r~~ .

~
The knowledge clalms, thc strategies, and the method all contribute
to a research approach that I('I/(/S to be more quanttatve, qualitative, or
mxed. Table 1.4 creates distinctions that rnay be useful in choosing
an approach for a proposal, This table also inc1udes practces of al!
I~
.~.
~.
;:

three approaches that will be cmphaszcd in the remaining chapters af

this book.
Denltions can help Iurthcr clarify the three approaches:

A qu(/ntilativl~ approach i.' onc in which the nvestgator primarily

uses postpositivist clums rol' dcvelopng knowlcdgc (i.e., cause ami
cfect thinking, reduction 1.0 specfic variables and hypothescs and
qucstons, use 01' measurcment und observation, and the test of the-
ories), employs struteglcs ()I' inqulry such as experiments and sur-
veys, ami collects data (lIT prcdetcrmined lnstruments that yield
statsucal data. l'
Alr crn af ivcly. I l{lIl1li/l/l\'(' upproach 'is (lile in which the inquircr
~i
tr-::'
often makes knowlcdgc clairn bascd prtrnarily on construcuvist
pcrspccvcs (Le.. the multiple mcuniugs 01' individual cxpcrlences, 1:
meanngs socially und lustorcally constructed. with an ntent of
dcveloping a thcory or pouern) or advocacy/participatory perspcc- t
tivcs (Le .. poltical. ssuc-uricntcd, ccdluliurative, or chango orientcd)

~.
01' both. H also uses sirutculcs o inquiry such as rrarrativcs. phc-

nomenologies, cthnographes. grnunded theory studes, or case

studies. 'l'hc researcher collccts opq):;.end~~merging da la wih the
~'"
prrnury intent oldevclopingIhcmcs trom the data.
I

. Fnally, a mixC'/ mei.llOrls approuch is one in whch tbe rcscarcher

'lends tobase knowlcdge claims on gragmac grounds (c.g .. cense- f(
1:;,
quencc-ortcntcd, problcm-ccntercd. und pluralistic). It employs
stratcgies 01' inqulry thnt involvc collecting data either simultane-
ously or sequentally to ucst understand research problems, 'I'he
i~;
:\
1-:.r,

,~.:,':.
:....

19

10/39
 ". :,.. :;~.:::.

20 Research Design A Fromework ter Desigri 21

ResearchApproach Knowledge Strategy of Methods . culture-sharng group and studyng how tdeveloped shared patterns of
Claims Inquirv behvior over time (i.e. ethnographyj.Dne of thekey elements of col-
Ouantitative Postpositivist Experimental design Measuring lecting data s to observe partcipants' behavlors by partlclpatlng 'in
assumptions attitudes, rating their actlvitles. . .
behavors .
Qualitative Constructvst Ethnographic design Field observations Qualitative approach: particlpatory knowledge clams, narrative
assumptions desgn, and open-ended ntervewng .
Qalitative Emancipatory Narrative design Open-ended :.
. ..'
assumptions interviewing Por this study, th~ inquirer seeks to. examine an issue related to
Mixed methods Pragmatic Mixed methods Closed-ended oppresson of- individuals. To study thts, the approach s taken of col-
assumptions design measures.
open-ended
.lectng stories of
ndlvdual oppression using a narratve approach. Ind-.
observations .
I vduals are interviewed at sorne length to deter'minehow they 'have
. personally experienced oppression. .

Figure 1.2 Four Alternative Combinotions 01 Knowledge Claims, Mixed methods approach: pragmatic know!edge claims, collecton of
Strategies of Inquiry, and Methocs
both quantitative and qualltatlvedata scqucntially

The rcsearcher bases the inquiry on the assumpton that collectng .

data collection also lnvolves gal hcring both numcric inforrnaon diverse types of data bestprovdes an understandmg of a research
(c.g., on nstrurnents) as wcll as Lexl inforrnaon (e.g.. on intcr- problern, The study begns with a broad surveyn order lo.generalize
vews) so.that the nul dIJ)lse represents both quantitatvc and results to l population and then focuses, in a second phase, on detaled
qualltavc information. qualitativc.open-ended interviews to collcct detailed vicws from
par ticipants.
T 'sce how thcse thrce clcmcuts (knowlcdgc claims, stratcgies. and
rnethods) combine in practce. I huvc drultcd scvcral typcal scenarios 01'
rescarch. as shown in Figure 1.2. -- CRITERIA FOR SElECTlNG AN APPROACH

()uC/lltiLatil'eapproach:
tul stratcgy of inquiry,
poSI posit ivi:;,tknowlcdge
ami
clums. experimen-
pn'- .nul posttcst mcasures of atttudcs Giy.en these thrce approaches.rwhat Iactors affect a choice 01' one
approach over another Ior he design <ir a proposal? Three considera-
In ths sccnario. the rcscur .IICr tests a thcory by speclyng narrow tions play into this declson: the research problem. th'ipersonal experi-
hypothescs and the collecton ,,1' (j'IHI fN4.V.jJport or refute the hypo- cnccs of the researcher, 'and thc audenccts) for whom the report will
thescs, An experimental desigll is uscd in which ttitudcs are asscsscd be wrltten.
both beforc and nltcruri cxpcrimcnlul trcutmcnt.Thc data are collcctcd
.
. on an instrumcnt thut mcasurcs ill.lii.\ldl's. and t.hc information collectcd .
" '.
.'

s analyzed using stastical prol'"durs and hypothesis testng, Match BetWeen Problem and Approoch

Qualital.ive approach: construrvist

design. and observation {Ir bchavlor
kuowledgc clalms, cthnogruphlc Certa in t.ypes of social research problems call Ior-speciflc approaches .
A research problem, as dscussed in Chapter 4. s an issue or concern
that nceds lo be addresscd (e.g.. whether O!1C lypc"iJi'intervention works
In ths stnatlon the rcscarrhcr sccks to cstabllsh thc rncariing nI' a better than another type of intervention). Por example, if the problem .
phenornenon Irom thcvcwx 01' par! icipnntx. 'I'his mcans ldcntifying a ts idcnfyng factors that influcnce an outcome. the utility of an

11/39

L
 22 Reseorch Design A Framework for Design 23

intervention, or understanding the best predictors of outcomes, then a means that researchers may be more comfortable with the highly
quantitative approach is best, It s also the best approach to use to test a systematic procedures of quantitative research, Also, for some ndvidu-
theory or explanation. On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon als, il can be uncomfortable to challenge acceptedapproaehes among
needs to be understood bccause lit.t.le rescarch has been done on it, then some Iaculty by using qualitative and advocacy/partcipatory
it merits a qualtattve approach. Quulttarive research s exploratory and approaches to inquiry. On the other hand, qualtatve approaches allow
-: is useful when the researcher does not know the important variables to room to be innovative and to work more within researcher-designed
, examine. This type of approach rnay be nceded beeause the topie is new, frarncworks. allow more creatve, 'literary-style
They writing, l Iorrn
the tapie has never been addresscd wlth a certain samplc or group of that Individuals may like to use. Por advocacy/parcpatory wrlters.
, people. or existing
theories do noi apply with thepartcular sample or there is undoubtedly a strong personal stirnulus to pursue topies that.
group under study (Morse. I 99 J l are 01' personal Intercst-c-ssues that relate to margtnalzed people and
A mixedmethods design is uselul to capture the best of both quant- an interest in creating a better socety Ior thern und cveryone.
tatve and qualtative approaches. flor example. a researcher may wunt For the mixed mcthods researcher, l project wiIl take extra time
to both generalize the findlngs to a populatlon and dcvclop a detalcd because 01' the need tu colleci ami analyze both quantitavc and qualt-
view of the meantng of a phcnomenon or concept for ndvlduals. In tatvc data, It ts a person who enjoys both the strueture of quanttatve
this rcsearch, the inquirer first explores generally to Icarn about whut research ami the lcxibility 01' qualitativc inquiry.
varables to study ami then studies those variables with H large sample
of ndivlduals, Altcrnavelv, rescarchcrs may Ilrst survey l Iarge
numbcr of tndvduuls. thcn Iollow up with a few 01' thcm to obtaln Audience
their spccilc language ami voices ubout the topic, In these stuaons.
Pinally, rescarchcrs are sensitive to audicnces 1.0 whom thcyreport
the advantages 01' collccung hoth closcd-endcd quanttave data and
ther rcsearch. Thcse audiences may be journal editors, journul rcadcrs,
opcn-cnded qualltutve dat.a pruvc advautageous to best undcrstand a
gruduute comrntuees. conference attendccs, or colleagucs in thc Ileld.
rcsearch problcrn.
Students should considcr thc approuchcs typcally supported ami used
hythcir advisers. 'I'he expcrlcnces of these audicnccs with quuntauvc,
qualuuvc. or mxed methods .studies wiIl shape the dccson rnade
Personal Experiences
uhout this choice.
Into this rnix of choice also COIlW~ thc rescarcher's own personal
training und expcricnccs. /\1\ individuul trancd in technlcal. scicntfic
writing. statistics. and computcr stustcal programa who is also famil-
iar with quantitatlve [ournals in Lile lbrary wouldmost likely choosc
thc qu.uuitutivc designo 'I'lu: qll,Jilliv,' .ipprouch incorporaes 1J111ch
more 01' a litcrary !<1rI11 nI' W'-UIIg, r.omputcr text analysts programs.
arul expcricncc in condurungopcn-cudcd intcrvicws und observations. One prulimlnary considcrationbeforc designing a proposal ls lo idcntily
'l'he rnixcd mcthods rescarchcr I1CCUS lile t,iiNir wilh both quantita- a Iramcwork lor the study 'I'hrec upproaches lo rcsearch are discusscd in
tive und quulitavc rescarch. 'l'his per~'!11 ]SIl nceds an uudcrstandlng this chuptcr: quantitatvc, qualltutivc, und mixed methods rcscarch.
of the rationalcs lor comhillil\!. bot h r"l'1l1S 01' data so that they can be They contain philosophcal assurnptuns about knowledge clarns.
artculated in proposal. '1'11<' mixcd methods approach also requircs strategles 01' inquiry. and specflc rescarch methods. WhelJ philosophy,
knowledge about the dillcrcnt mxcd mclhods designs that help orga- strateges. and rnethods are combincd. thcy provide drferent Irame-
n ize procedures for l Hldy. works lor conducng research, The choice of which approach lo use is
Because quautuve sllldies are I"l~ trnditional modc 01' rese'lrch. bascd 011 thc research problcm, personal expcricnces. and the audlenccs
carefully worked out. proccdures ;111<1 rules cxist. lor the rcsearch. 'I'hs lor whom one seeks lo wrile. .".
Research Design A Frornework for ,[)Esign 25
goes on to discuss nne dfferent theoretlcal orientatons in social
research, such as postmodernism, feminism, critical inquiry, inter-

Writtj EXu-cU~ pretvsm, constructionism, and positivismo

Kemmis, S. & Wilkinson, M. (1998). Participatory action

J, Idcntfy resc,lrcll qucson in a [ournal artlclc and research and the study of practice. In B.Atweh, S. Kemrnis, &.
dscuss what approach would be best lo study the ques- P. Weeks (Eds.), Actionresearch in practce: Partners/lips, for
ton and why social justice ineducation (pp. 21 -36). New York: Routledge.

2, 'l'ake a topie thut you would like to study, and. using the Stephen Kemmis and Mervyn Wilkinson provide an excellent
our cornbinuuons 01' knowlcdge clarns. stratcgics 01' overview of partcpatory rescarch. In particular. they note the six
inquiry, and mchodx in Figure 1,2, dscuss how the topic rnajorfeatures of ths inqulryapproach and then discuss how action
might be studied llsing each 01' the cornblnations. rcsearch is practiced al the individual, the social, or both levels.

3,Locate [ournal artcle that is either quantltatlvc, qual-

tativc. or rnixcd rnl'l.hods rcxuurch.Tdcnfy the "rnark- Lincoln.Y, S.; & Guba, E. G. (2000). Paradtgmatc.controverses,
ings" as lo whv il would bc.oJlC approuch and not thc contradctons, and cmcrging contluences. In N. K. Denzin,
othcrs. Y. S. Lincoln, & E. G. Gllha (Eds.), Halldbool< of qualitative
research (2nd ed., pp. 163-) 88). Thousand Oaks, eA: Sage:
l,---~-----. ,. ,,----,-------------'
Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Cuba have providcd the basic belefs of
11Vt: alternative inquiry p~r'-J(.Jigllls in social scicnce rescarch, These
extcnd the earlier analysis provided in the first edition of thc l-Iarul-
ADDITIONAL READINGS fJOok.and nclude positivism, poslposilivism. critical theory, con"
structivism, and particlputory paradigrns. Each s presented in
Cber ryholmcs, C. H, (l ')')2). Nof.cxon prugmatism and scicntil'ic terms of ontology (i.e .. nature (Ir rcality). epistemology (i.c .. how
rcalism. Bdncotionul HI:,'I,"rdwr, 14, Augtrs t-Sepf ernhcr, l3~ 17. we know what we know), and methodology (i.e .. the process of
Clco Chcrryhollllt's C(}Il1.nlslsJ)f'r"flWUSIll wilh trudi ional scen- rcsearch). The participatory paradigrn addsunother altcrnatve
uc rcseurch. 'l'hest rt,n,,1 hs (il' I.hi:" uruclc are the numcrous clta- " parudigrn lo those originally advanced in the first edition. After
J
nns 1.0 writcrs 11(HI!pr<I"Il1,[Slll und ti clurillcation 01' the brielyprcsenting th1se llvc approaches. thc,aUlhors contrast
ultcrnnuvc verxlonx <Ir J1nlglll,lli~Ill, Chcrryholrncs clarifics his them in terms of sevcn issues. suchas the natufe of know!edge
own stance hy illllil:I~irl" \ h'IIJE!.lg!~~Sl11 is drvcn by antcipatcd andhow knowledge accumulatcs.
conscqucnccx. rl'lu('IIIH'C Lo IHI ir LrLi'estory, und Lile idea hat

thcrc is an cxtcrnnl work] iIHIt-ll'lIdcll\ of our minds.

Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social rr,,~ellrclJ methods: QuaIJtative and
'Crotty; M. (1998). 01 sm:illl reseurch: Memrill!J
'I'JlC' ./iJIIlllfll/IIII,'
(lurmtitative aproaclles (4th cd.). Boston: AlIyn and Bac~n.
,//Id pr,~lledivl' iu (lIe rescarrl: prfh,,\'s, London: Suge. Lawrerice Neuman providcs a cornprchenstve research methods
Mich,ldCro\'ly' rrlTl;I'S usclu] Irumcwork Ior tying togethcr the text S an introduction lo social sclcncc rescurch. Espccallyhelp-
many epis\.elllolo"it',[ ixxuux. theorcllcal pcrspectivcs. methodol- [ul in understandlng thc altcrnutivc meaning 01' methodology s
ogy. and mcthods ,,1' s, ;,'ii I 1I'SI"II,
.h. I-Ie in tcrrel les thc lour com- Chapter 4, tltlcd "Thc Mcanings of McthJilology," in which he
poncnts o( thc n;Sl',II'C] process and SllOWS in Tahlc '1 1I
contraste three methodologlcs-vpositivst social science, nterpre-
representativo slIi'rplirl[!, 01' lopi,:s 0[' cach cnmponcnt. He then tive social sclence, ami crcal social science=-n terms of eight

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