PLAIN BEARING FAILURE

Plain bearing failure index

1.0 Lubrication breakdown

Lubrication breakdown index

1.1 Start-up wiping damage

Click on photograph to enlarge

Minor rub in bottom of bearing subject to a vertical load

Main Characteristics Minor wiping - melting and resolidification of white metal at right hand side of
damage patch (the black axial mark is a photographic effect and should be
ignored) - in centre of bottom half of bearing subjected to a vertically downward
load.
Cause Damage is caused by rubbing of journal before hydrodynamic lubricating film
has developed. For more information on causes of lubrication breakdown and
possible actions to take, see Lubrication breakdown - Summary
Note When a hydrodynamic film is present, the load-line and the minimum film
thickness is displaced in the direction of rotation. Hence any damage during
running due to small dirt particles or transient lubrication film breakdown is
likely to be displaced in the direction of rotation from the centre of the loaded
half of the bearing.
Possible Confusion with Fretting damage caused by vibration from an external source when machine is
Other Types of Damage not operating with the journal resting in the bearing also occurs on the bottom
centre line. However, fretting damage is likely to be symmetrical rather than
smearing in the direction of rotation (as shown in the photograph above).
Comment This type of damage is limited to heavily loaded bearings, particularly in
machines subject to frequent starts. The main effect is optical with the damage
no more than a witness mark; it has no effect on the performance of the bearing
and is only found when the bearing is examined at overhaul.

Minor wiping or plastic deformation can be a desirable feature, assisting run-in,

the bearing generating its own profile to suit the operating conditions.

Similar witness marks may also be found at the edges of a bearing where there
is misalignment or manufacturing error.
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1.0 Lubrication breakdown

Lubrication breakdown index
 1.2 Wiping damage caused by excessive load at start-up

Click on photograph to enlarge

Wiping of white metal thrust pad caused by successive starts under excessive
load.

Main Characteristics Obvious melting of bearing metal that has been carried over the trailing edge of
the pad and solidified in layers once subjected to the cool oil flowing between the
pads.
Cause Excessive thrust load at starting has meant that the bearing metal has been
subjected to rubbing and frictional overheating before the development of
hydrodynamic lubricating film. The molten white metal has resolidified on
coming into contact with the cool oil flowing between the pads. The photograph
shows successive layers of resolidified white metal following a number of starts.
For more information on causes of lubrication breakdown and possible actions to
take, see Lubrication breakdown - Summary
Note With thrust pads, successive wear at start-up can change the profile of fixed
inclined pads leading to a reduction in load capacity. With tilting pads thrust
bearings the effect is not so severe since the pads can compensate for wear and
therefore maintain a thrust capacity.

With profiled journal bearings (e.g. multi-lobe, offset half bearings), small
amounts of wear can lead to changes in the rotor stability and hence machine
vibration which in turn can result in further bearing wear.
Possible Confusion It is not always straightforward to distinguish between wear at start-up and wear
with Other Types of during normal operation. With journal bearings, if the angular position of the
Damage region of wear is in-line with the direction of load then this supports the case for
wear at start-up
Comment If the load at start up cannot be reduced, the only cure is to use a larger bearing.
Changing lubricant viscosity and/or lubricant additives is unlikely to help.
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1.0 Lubrication breakdown
Lubrication breakdown index

1.3 Loss of clearance in tilting-pad journal bearing at start-up

Click on photograph to enlarge

Loss of clearance in five pad, tilting-pad journal bearing at high-speed start-up

causing wiping at the centres of all the pads
Main Characteristics Small patch of wiping in centre of all of the pads.
Cause Establishment of thermal equilibrium in a tilting-pad journal bearing takes some
time because of the restricted thermal path through the pad pivots. With rapid
start-up, sufficient radial thermal expansion can occur in the pads to take up the
radial clearance, preventing the formation of a hydrodynamic lubricating film
and causing wiping at the centres of the pads. For more information on causes of
lubrication breakdown and possible actions to take, see Lubrication breakdown -
Summary
Note All or most pads are wiped, but those in the direction of loading may be more
heavily wiped than others.
Possible Confusion Wiping during "normal" operation (e.g. due to vibration) would tend to wipe
with Other Types of more of the pad area than just the centre at the position of the pad supports.
Damage
Comment This type of failure can be avoided by extending the run up time to full speed or
by increasing the radial clearance in the bearing if this is acceptable for the
performance of the bearing for the normal operating conditions.

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Site M1.5 Lubricant breakdown with lead-bronze bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Crack in crankpin of reciprocating compressor with lead bronze big-end bearings

caused by lubrication breakdown failure.

Main Characteristics The photograph shows a section through one 10 inch diameter crankpin from a 6-
throw reciprocating compressor after a lubrication failure. The lead-bronze
bearing had wiped, but, in contrast to the case with a white metal bearing that
limits the temperature rise to about 240C, much higher temperatures have been
reached and this has resulted in quench cracking of the steel crankpin and total
loss of a large crankshaft.
Cause This is a lubrication breakdown failure (see summary sheet at end of section for
possible reasons).
Note When wiping occurs with a lead containing copper alloy (lead bronze, copper
lead), only a small proportion of the bearing metal melts (the lead phase); high
enough temperatures are generated by rubbing against the solid material leading
to potential cracking of the journal by repeated quenching as it leaves the load
zone.
Possible Confusion Fatigue cracking due to repetitive stress cycles, rather than repetitive thermal
with Other Types of cycles. However fatigue cracks are likely to be found at positions of stress
Damage concentration such as sharp corners or changes in section thickness.
Comment White metal bearings should be the first choice where loading conditions permit
their use. Lead-bronze can be used for little-end bearings where loads tend to be
high, but the lower speed oscillating conditions do not tend to give rise to quench
cracking. Note that hardened steel journals have to be used with these harder
bearing alloys. As a rule of thumb journal hardness should be at least three times
that of the bearing metal.
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1.4 Typical wiping failure

Click on photograph to enlarge

Wiping of journal bearing showing resolidified white metal in the oil groove

Main Characteristics The photograph shows a typical wiping failure with the molten white metal from
the bearing surface solidifying in a cooler part of the bearing, in this case the oil
supply groove.
Cause Wiping is caused by loss of the hydrodynamic lubricating oil film during
running. There are a number of reasons why this can occur. These are discussed
in the summary sheet at the end of this Section. For more information on causes
of lubrication breakdown and possible actions to take, see Lubrication
breakdown - Summary
Note The resolidified white metal can often be peeled off from the surface.
Measuring the thickness of the bearing shell at various positions axially and
circumferentially can show the exact position of the shaft when the wiping took
place and this can in some cases aid the failure diagnosis procedure.
Possible Confusion with Wiping can be a secondary event initiated by fatigue damage or electrical
Other Types of Damage erosion reducing the effective load carrying area of the bearing. The signatures
of these failure mechanisms (fatigue, electrical erosion) are described in the
appropriate sections and should be looked for, particularly in the nominally
unloaded parts of the bearing.
Comment Do not change to a bearing material with higher load-carrying capacity unless it
can be established that failure has been the result of inadequate strength in the
white metal. Treating the symptoms is not the way to provide a cure. The cause
of failure must be identified

2.1 Scoring damage of white metal thrust pad by dirt

Click on photograph to enlarge

Scoring of thrust pad by dirt in oil.

Main Characteristics
Score marks follow the direction of motion in the bearing, like the grooves in a
gramophone record. The score marks start where the dirt particle bridges the film
and form a continuous mark up to the end of the bearing surface, the trailing edge
on the right of the pad in the Photograph, or stop with an embedded particle (see
following example). Scoring is an example of abrasive wear; adhesive wear gives
 discontinuous tears rather than clear uninterrupted scores.
Cause Contamination of the lubricant with hard particles small enough to enter the oil
film at the point of maximum film thickness, but too large to pass right through
without bridging the film. See also in the photograph how the soft white metal
has been dragged over the trailing edge of the pad. See wear summary for further
information on causes and actions.
Note Since the embedded particles can be identified using laboratory methods the
source of the contamination can readily be determined.
Possible Confusion Scoring can lead to a roughening of the bearing surface profile resulting in a
with Other Types of potential loss of hydrodynamic film leading to wiping (adhesive wear) which
Damage then masks the original source of the problem.
Comment Scoring damage indicates inadequate filtration of the oil or failure to change the
oil filter when necessary.

.2 Scoring of white metal journal bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Dirt particles embedded in bearing surface

Main Characteristics Score marks in white metal surface ending in an embedded foreign particle
Cause Contamination of the lubricant with hard particles small enough to enter the
oil film at the point of maximum film thickness, but too large to pass right
through without bridging the film. See wear summary for further information
on causes and actions.
Note The embedded particles may be analysed to identify the source of the
contamination. For example, iron or steel particles can be identified by iron
printing using absorbent paper soaked in potassium ferrocyanide solution.
Possible Confusion with With scoring due to damage to the journal surface there will be no embedded
Other Types of Damage particles within the bearing material and the scores may be continuous around
the bearing circumference.
Comment Scoring damage indicates inadequate filtration of the oil or failure to change
the oil filter when necessary.

2.3 Scoring of lead-bronze journal bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Gross scoring damage to lead-bronze journal bearing.

Main Characteristics Deep circumferential scoring of bearing surface in the direction of

 rotation.
Gross contamination of lubricating oil. See wear summary for further
Cause
information on causes and actions.
Note the continuous score marks and the dragging over of the bearing
Note metal at the downstream end of the half bearing (right hand side in
Photograph).
Possible Confusion with Other
Unlikely to confuse with other failure mechanisms.
Types of Damage
This was a main bearing of a three-throw reciprocating pump. The
Comment damage occurred at commissioning because the crankcase was not
cleaned out before starting.

2.4 Erosion damage of white metal journal bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Erosion of surface of bearing caused by the presence of large amounts of small

size dirt particles in the oil

The arrow in the photograph shows the direction of rotation. The erosion
damage is clearly caused by dirt particles entering via the oil feed holes in the
Main Characteristics
central circumferential oil groove. Erosive wear is shown by roughening and
dulling of the white metal surface.
Contamination of the lubricant by fine particles. See wear summary for further
Cause
information on causes and actions.
Contaminant particles smaller in size than the minimum oil film thickness and
Note
therefore erosion occurs rather than scoring.
Cavitation of the oil film gives similar looking damage (see cavitation
Possible Confusion with
erosion), but in the above example the damage develops from the oil supply
Other Types of Damage
hole clearly supporting the deduction that particulate erosion is the cause.
For further verification of the cause, microscopic examination could be
Comment
undertaken.

2.5 Erosion damage to axial oil groove in journal bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Erosion damage to inlet oil groove caused by particles in oil too large to enter
the oil film.

Edges of oil groove have been eroded away by particles trapped in oil groove
Main Characteristics
as they were too large to enter bearing oil film.
 Oil contamination. See wear summary for further information on causes and
Cause
actions.
Axial oil grooves should have dirt escape gutters cut at 45 at ends of groove.
Note These gutters should be deep enough to discharge the dirt particles, but not so
deep that they cause excessive sideways drainage of oil from the groove.
Possible Confusion with
None
Other Types of Damage
This damage indicates inadequate filtration of the oil and poor bearing
Comment
design.

3.1 Fatigue of White Metal Journal Bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Photograph "a": Initial stages of fatigue showing 'bruising' of the white metal
surface.

Photograph "b": More advanced stage of fatigue showing cracking and formation
of loose pieces of white metal.

Both photographs show the characteristic crazy cracking of the white metal
surface. Where loose pieces are formed these may remain in the bearing
(photograph 'b') or come away and get trapped so that they melt and wipe, but
Main Characteristics
this is a secondary effect, not the primary damage. The loose pieces tend to have
an aspect ratio (length / thickness) of about 5:1, so that on thick wall bearings the
fatigued areas are large. For further details see Fatigue failure summary.
Cause Excessive alternating loading (e.g. reciprocating machinery).
Photograph 'b', where the fatigue damage is on one side of the bearing suggests
Note
that there may have been slight misalignment.
Possible Confusion
It is necessary to determine whether the fatigue is "normal" or due to poor
with Other Types of
bonding (see Premature fatigue of white metal journal bearing ).
Damage
Reduce load or change to a stronger bearing material (but check that shaft
Comment hardness is at least 3 times the hardness of the new bearing material otherwise
shaft damage could occur in the event of a further failure).

3.2 Fatigue of White Metal Journal Bearing Caused by Vibration

Click on photograph to enlarge

 White metal journal bearing showing fatigue in both bearing halves.

Fatigue of journal bearing removed from a high-speed centrifugal compressor

Main Characteristics (16,000 rev/min) following a 12-hour vibration incident. For further details
see Fatigue failure summary.
Synchronous vibration causing excessive loading on the white metal. Note
Cause that the fatigue patches are diametrically opposed, showing that the vibration
mode was elliptical.
The circumferential bands of fatigue correspond to the dovetail grooves that
Note were machined in the bearing shell which probably contributed to the
occurrence of fatigue damage (although not the primary cause).
Damage due to fatigue can result in contact between the shaft and the bearing
Possible Confusion with
resulting in melting of the white metal (wiping) which can in some cases
Other Types of Damage
cover up the primary cause of failure.
This bearing remained in service for six weeks after the vibration had been
suppressed, showing the remarkable load-carrying capacity of the oil film
formed by hydrodynamic action. The loss of bearing material would of course
have prevented the bearing from starting up satisfactorily.
This particular machine was prone to a peculiar type of intermittent
synchronous vibration instability. In one machine, with a rotational speed of
26,000 rev/min, the manufacturer supplied lead-bronze bearings with a lead
Comment
overlay in an attempt to prevent fatigue failure, though this was treating the
symptoms rather than addressing the real problem. Bearing fatigue still
occurred, leading to lubricant film breakdown and cracking of the expensive
rotor by thermal shock (see Lubrication Breakdown with Lead-Bronze
Bearing) that incorporated an integral gear. The problem was successfully
solved by changing to a modified design of bearing (elliptical bore) that
inhibited the instability

3.3 Fatigue of White Metal Journal Bearing Caused by Vibration

Click on photograph to enlarge

Premature fatigue caused by poor bonding of white metal to bearing shell.

Exposed dovetails in machined oil groove showing lack of bonding between

the edges of the dovetail and the white metal (the black lines at the edges of
the dovetails). Note the dirt escape grooves at the corners of the main oil
supply groove (these are considered to be a beneficial feature for bearings).

Main Characteristics This has the appearance of typical fatigue cracking. The tell-tale 'bubbles' in
 the central oil groove that have been caused by vaporisation of oil trapped in
the cast iron bearing shell point to poor bonding. This suggests that the
fatigue damage has also been the result of poor bonding. For further details
see Fatigue failure summary.
Premature fatigue from inadequate bonding of the white metal to the bearing
Cause
shell resulting in decreased fatigue strength of the white metal lining.
Note the presence of the dovetails in the bearing shell. This has been used in
the mistaken impression that the strength of the white metal is increased by
giving it a mechanical bond. The harmful effect of dovetails in preventing the
Note formation of a metallic bond because of the different thermal conductivities
and rates of expansion in steel and white metal is shown in photograph 'b'
where the machined oil groove has exposed the dovetails revealing lack of
bonding between the white metal and the sides of the dovetails.
The appearance of premature fatigue is very similar to that or normal fatigue.
Possible Confusion with It can be confirmed by removing loose pieces and examining the bearing
Other Types of Damage shell. In the case of normal fatigue the tin lining on the shell will still be
present.
Cast iron should not be used for bearing shells. Cast iron is porous and
absorbs lubricating oil in service. This oil is almost impossible to remove and
Comment
prevents satisfactory re-metalling of the shell. The bonding should be
checked by ultrasonic testing before re-metalled bearings are put into service.

4.1 Cavitation Erosion Damage in Reciprocating Engine Bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Cavitation erosion damage to engine bearing caused by rapid approach

of shaft to bearing, collapsing vapour bubbles in the oil film.
(Photograph: Glacier Metal Co.)

Main Characteristics Cavitation damage results in roughening of the bearing lands. It takes
the form of arrows with the arrow head pointing against the direction
of motion.
Cause Rapid fluctuations of pressure in the oil film in reciprocating machine
causing the formation of bubbles as the shaft moves away from the
bearing followed by rapid collapse of the bubbles as the load is applied
and the shaft approaches the bearing.
Note The damage is in the middle of the bearing lands, away from the oil
groove and the oil feed holes.
Possible Confusion with Cavitation damage is very similar to the damage resulting from dirt
Other Types of Damage erosion (see Section 2.4: Erosion damage of white metal journal
bearing). In the latter case, however, the arrowhead starts at the oil
feed hole
Comment This is a case of vaporous cavitation. For an example where the less
violent gaseous cavitation was involved, see section 4.3 "Cavitation
Damage Caused by Bearing Instability" and section 6 "Copper deposit
on thrust bearing".
 4.2 Cavitation Erosion of White Metal Thrust Collar

Click on photograph to enlarge

Photograph a:
cavitation erosion of white metal thrust face

Photograph b:
steel thrust collar with lubricant feed grooves on end of shaft

Main Characteristics Photograph 'a' shows typical roughening of white metal caused by erosion.
Cause Photograph 'b' shows the thrust collar associated with the cavitation damage
shown in Photograph 'a'. This is an unusual arrangement with the oil grooves
machined in the hard steel thrust collar, the reverse of the more normal
arrangement with the grooves in the soft white metal.
Note
Possible Confusion
with
Other Types of
Damage
Comment The problem was caused by the sharp fall in pressure at the beginning of the
grooves in the steel collar, followed by bubble collapse as the oil re-entered the
high pressure region downstream of the groove. The problem was solved by
changing to the more normal arrangement with the grooves in the white metal
face.

4.3 Cavitation Damage Caused by Bearing Instability

Click on photograph to enlarge

Photograph a:
cavitation erosion damage to white metal journal bearing in high-
speed refrigeration compressor subject to instability

Photograph b:
part of Photograph 'a' at higher magnification

Main Characteristics This is another aspect of cavitation erosion damage, in this case the bearing of
 a high-speed (25,000 rev/min) refrigeration compressor that was subject to a
synchronous vibration. The higher magnification Photograph 'b' shows erosion
damage resembling the effect of wave action on a sandy shore.
Cause The refrigerant was Refrigerant R12 that was in contact with the lubricating
oil. Because of the vibration, the refrigerant came out of solution in the oil as
the shaft moved away from the bearing, only to go back into solution as the
pressure increased as the shaft approached the bearing.
Note This was a case of gaseous cavitation, giving a less energetic bubble collapse,
but sufficiently energetic to cause cavitation damage to the bearings.
Possible Confusion with
Other Types of Damage
Comment For another example where gaseous cavitation was involved, see Section 6
"Copper Deposit on Thrust bearing".

5.0 Fretting in a Journal Bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Fretting damage to journal bearing subject to vibration when stationary

Main Characteristics Fretting when the machine is stationary occurs in line with the gravity load; in
the Photograph this is in the centre of the bearing, not displaced to one side as it
would be if the damage had occurred at the point of minimum oil film thickness
during running.
Cause This is caused by external vibration that causes small oscillatory movement at
the point of contact between journal and bearing.
Note
Possible Confusion with
Other Types of Damage
Comment The damage resembles a start-up witness mark or wipe (see Section 1.1: Start-
up wiping damage), but is much more severe.

5.0 Fretting in a Journal Bearing

Click on photograph to enlarge

Thrust bearing pad (back side) with fretted pivot bar resulting from axial rotor
vibration (Photograph: Glacier Metal Co.)

Main Characteristics With steel contacts fretting produces a characteristic reddish-brown stain at the
point of contact
 Cause This has been brought about by axial vibration which causes the pad to flutter
with the resulting oscillating load.
Note
Possible Confusion with
Other Types of Damage
Comment

.1 Lubricant Oxidation Deposits

Click on photograph to enlarge

Lubricant oxidation deposits on the trailing edge of a thrust pad.

Lubricant oxidation deposits on trailing edges of thrust pads.

Main Characteristics Deposit forms in the loaded (high temperature) part of the bearing: the load line in a journal bea
or the trailing edge of the pad in a thrust bearing (Photographs above). The deposit ranges in col
from reddish-brown to almost black depending on the degree of oxidation (a function of the
temperature) and is characteristically patchy rather than continuous.
Cause Excessive temperature. The rate of chemical reaction is a function of temperature. Although the
of exposure to the high temperature in the bearing is very short (milliseconds), oxidation of min
hydrocarbon lubricating oils, even those containing anti-oxidants, can occur if the temperature
exceeds about 150C.
Note Lubricant oxidation deposits are a clear sign of excessive temperature and are frequently associa
with other effects such as wiping and plastic deformation. In the case of thrust bearings the depo
may be restricted to only a few of the pads, showing differences in the pad heights with the affec
pads carrying most of the load.
Possible Confusion with Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially similar. The final diagnosis
Other Types of Damage requires chemical analysis.
Comment Oil degradation deposits are usually soluble or partly soluble in aromatic solvents and can be
removed by wiping with a swab soaked in the solvent, but see Summary Sheet at end of this Sec
for possible analytical techniques
6.2 Lubricant Degradation Deposits
Click on photograph to enlarge

Deposit of ammonium succinate in bearing of ammonia synthesis gas

compressor.
 Main Characteristics This is clearly a deposit from the lubricant that has been laid over the whole
bearing surface apart from the loaded lands on the bottom half (right), where
the high shear rate in the oilfilm has prevented settling. Diagnosis depends on
chemical identification of the deposit.
Cause This occurred in the bearings of the synthesis gas compressor on an ammonia
manufacturing plant; this was the first such plant using a centrifugal
compressor rather than reciprocating ones. The bearings and shaft seals on this
machine were lubricated by a turbine oil from a common system. Chemical
analysis showed the deposit to be ammonium succinate. Succinic acid is
widely used as the corrosion inhibitor in turbine oils. Ammonium succinate
was formed by reaction between ammonia leaking across the oil barrier shaft
seals into the lubrication systems and the corrosion inhibitor in the oil.
Ammonium succinate is soluble in water, but not in mineral oil. The lubricant
that was also used for the steam turbine driver was slightly wet, the water
dissolved the succinate which was then deposited in the hot bearing as the
water boiled off.
Note Note also the small patch of fatigue damage (see Section 3: Fatigue) on the
right hand land of the upper half (left} and the signs of wiping (see Section 1:
Lubrication breakdown) on both lands on the bottom half (right); the latter is
probably a consequence of the deposit formation.
Possible Confusion with Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially the same.
Other Types of Damage The final diagnosis requires chemical analysis.
Comment It was not possible with this system to prevent minor contamination of the
lubricating oil with ammonia. The solution was to reformulate the oil with a
corrosion inhibitor that did not react with ammonia. Such oils are now
standard on ammonia synthesis plants.
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.3 Copper Deposit on Thrust bearing

Click on photograph to
enlarge

Deposit of metallic copper on the surface of a fixed, inclined pad thrust bearing

Main Note the uniform appearance of the golden-brown deposit on the white metal bearing
Characteristics surface, in the oil grooves as well as on the bearing surface. This clearly has an
electrolytic origin. Diagnosis depends on chemical identification of the deposit.
Cause Deposit was identified by x-ray diffraction as pure copper. Copper deposits
preferentiallyfrom solution on other metal surfaces that have a more negative
Standard Electrode Potential (SEP). The SEP of copper = +0.345, tin = -0.136; hence
copper will plate out from solution on to tin-rich white metal, just as it does on a steel
penknife blade (SEP for iron = -0.441) dipped into a solution of copper sulphate. The
lubrication system contained copper pipes and a copper alloy cooler, but the problem
was to find a mechanism that would produce sufficient dissolved copper in the oil to
plate out on the bearing. The bearing was from a centrifugal refrigeration compressor
 that used R12 as the refrigerant. R12 contains chlorine that could attack the copper,
but R12 is stable to over 250C well above any expected temperature in the system.
The only hypothesis was that gaseous cavitation was taking place in the bearing (R12
is soluble in mineral oil) and that sufficiently high temperatures occurred on bubble
collapse to decompose the R12, producing free chlorine that reacted with water in
solution in the oil to give the required electrolyte. The bearing was changed to a
tilting-pad one, where it was thought that pressure gradients in the oil in the bearing
would be reduced. Although the hypothesis was never fully proved, the change in
bearing type solved the problem.
Note
Possible Confusion Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially the same. The final
with diagnosis requires chemical analysis
Other Types of
Damage
Comment The identification of the deposit in this case was simple. Once that fact had been
established it became possible to look for an explanation. The hypothesis suggested
seemed improbable, but in the absence of any alternative suggestion, it seemed worth
trying to modify the conditions in the bearing by changing the geometry. This was a
standard package refrigeration unit and it subsequently turned out that, despite
assurances from the manufacturer that it was limited to the company involved, in fact
it was a common problem with these units.

6.4 Tin Oxide Formation on White Metal

Click on photograph to
enlarge

Tin oxide deposit on trailing edge of thrust pad

Tin oxide formation on thrust bearing, the deposit covering the complete surface of
the pads. Bearing failure has caused melting of the underlying white metal causing
cracking of the brittle tin oxide layer

Main Deposit was identified by x-ray diffraction as tin oxide. The deposit of tin oxide is
Characteristics black and brittle. This is shown by the patchy nature of the deposit in Photograph 'a'
and the way the deposit has broken up when not supported by solid white metal,
Photograph 'b'. (Rather similar to a thin layer of ice on mud, that fractures when stood
on.} The particles of the deposit that have broken away in the case of the single pad
(Photograph 'a') have scored the softer white metal in the direction of motion, though
these scores do not extend to the trailing edge, probably because they have broken
down to small particles of size below that of the oil film; this is suggested by the
small radial 'ticks' at the ends of some of the score marks.
Cause Tin oxide was a particular problem in marine steam turbines. Tin oxide forms by an
electrochemical reaction of a tin-rich white metal and an electrolyte. This occurred in
marine turbine sets as steps were taken to remove steam condensate from the oil. In
the marine environment there was also some contamination by salt (sodium chloride)
 and as the oil was dried the concentration of the electrolyte increased until reaction
occurred
Note The problem has become much less common now that the condition of the oil in
marine steam turbine lubrication systems has been improved, but tin oxide formation
still occurs occasionally in systems with sea water cooling and machines operating in
marine environments.
Possible Confusion Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially the same. The final
with diagnosis requires chemical analysis
Other Types of
Damage

6.5 Sulphur Attack of White Metal

Click on photograph to
enlarge

Copper sulphide deposits on white metal thrust pads

Copper sulphide deposit on white metal journal bearing

Main Black deposit on the trailing edge of thrust pad, Photograph 'a' and in the load area in
Characteristics the bottom of a journal bearing, Photograph 'b' (right). The location of the deposits
suggests chemical attack. Diagnosis depends on the chemical identification of the
deposit.
Cause The deposit was identified by x-ray diffraction as copper sulphide. Attack of the
copper present in tin-rich white metal by reaction with active sulphur compounds in
the process gas contaminating the lubricant forming deposit of copper sulphides
(Cu2S, CuS) on the bearing surface.
Note The reaction is a temperature dependent one. The fact that there is hardly any deposit
present on the second pad from the right in Photograph 'a' indicates that this pad has
been carrying little of the load, presumably as it is thinner than the others. Copper-
free lead-rich white metal is more resistant to attack by sulphur, though under severe
conditions (high temperature, high concentration of active sulphur compounds) a
deposit of lead sulphide (PbS) may be formed.
Possible Confusion Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially the same. The final
with diagnosis requires chemical analysis
Other Types of
Damage
Comment Sulphur attack is more of a problem on floating-bush shaft seals lined with tin-rich
white metal, where it can take up the clearance and cause seal failure. It can also
cause breakdown of the lubricant film in thrust bearings, leading to wiping and loss of
the evidence. Failure of journal bearings is much less likely, so that, in the case of
wiping failures with thrust bearings, it always pays to look at the associated journal
 bearings to see if there is any evidence of deposits.

6.6 Sulphur Attack of Copper-Based Bearing Alloy

Click on photograph to
enlarge

Sulphur attack of lead-bronze tilting-pad journal bearing

Main Black deposit in loaded area of pad, suggesting chemical attack. Diagnosis depends
Characteristics on chemical identification of the deposit.
Cause Deposit was identified by x-ray diffraction as copper sulphide. Copper alloys are
more prone to attack that tin-rich white metal. In this case the attack has come from
the presence of the sulphur-containing load-carrying additive zinc dialkyl
dithiophosphate commonly used in High Duty (HD) Hydraulic Oils.
Note This example comes from a high speed centrifugal pump with an integral gear. An
HD Hydraulic Oil was used to provide additional protection for the gears. These were
turbine quality gears that can operate perfectly satisfactorily with oils without load-
carrying additives. A change to a turbine oil solved the problem. Note this bearing had
not actually failed. The machine was shut down because of failure of the thrust
bearing (see Sulphur Attack of Silver Bearing).
Possible Confusion Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially the same. The final
with diagnosis requires chemical analysis
Other Types of
Damage
Comment Extreme pressure (EP) and High Duty hydraulic oils that contain active sulphur
additives should be avoided in systems where there are copper-based bearing alloys

6.7 Sulphur Attack of Silver Bearing

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enlarge

Silver sulphide deposit on thrust pads

Main Black deposit on trailing edge of thrust pads, suggesting chemical attack. Diagnosis
Characteristics depends on chemical identification of the deposit.
Cause The deposit was identified by x-ray diffraction as silver sulphide. Silver is even more
prone to attack than copper. These pads come from a heavily-loaded, high speed
thrust bearing. Silver was chosen for the bearing material because of the expected
high bearing temperature. (Note the oil feed groove at the inlet edge of the pad, giving
individual pad lubrication to assist cooling.} In this case the attack has come from the
presence of the sulphur-containing the load-carrying additive zinc dialkyl
 dithiophosphate commonly used in High Duty (HD) Hydraulic Oils.
Note This example comes from a high speed centrifugal pump with an integral gear. An
HD Hydraulic Oil was used to provide additional protection for the gears. These were
turbine quality gears that can operate perfectly satisfactorily with oils without load-
carrying additives. A change to a turbine oil solved the problem. (This was the same
machine that provided the previous example Sulphur Attack of Copper-Based Bearing
Alloy that involved the journal bearing. Note that the pads are showing signs of
wiping at the trailing edge where deposit has effectively reduced the load-carrying
capacity.
Possible Confusion Other deposits described in this Section tend to look superficially the same. The final
with diagnosis requires chemical analysis
Other Types of
Damage
Comment Extreme pressure (EP) and High Duty hydraulic oils that contain active sulphur
additives should be avoided in systems where there are silver bearing alloys. Silver
can be used for the bearing surface on the swash plate of multiple piston hydraulic
pumps.

7.1 Thermal Ratcheting of Tin-Rich White Metal

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enlarge

Roughening of tin-rich white metal on trailing edge of thrust pads caused by thermal
cycling

Main Highlighting of tin-rich crystals in tin-rich white metal on the trailing edges of the
Characteristics pads where the temperature is highest.
Cause Thermal cycling causing differential rotation of the anisotropic tin-rich crystals in
the white metal. It occurs at the trailing edges of the pads where thermal changes are
greatest.
Note
Possible Confusion
with
Other Types of
Damage
Comment The effect is produced by differences in optical reflection by differences in rotation
of the different crystals. The amount of rotation is small and does not have a
significant effect on performance.

7.2 Thermal Fatigue of White Metal

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enlarge
 Thermal fatigue of white metal thrust pad. Note the absence of a tinned layer on the
steel backing

Thermal fatigue of white metal thrust pad. Note how the fatigue lines up with the
dovetail

Main The Photographs show typical fatigue of white metal. Normally, however, there is
Characteristics insufficient axial vibration in industrial machines to cause fatigue failure of thrust
bearings. This is much more likely to be caused by thermal cycling.
Cause Thermal cycling can lead to cracking because of the difference in the thermal
coefficient of expansion between steel and white metal. Differences in thermal
conductivity may also be a factor, particularly where dovetails are used because the
different thermal paths accentuate the temperature difference between the white metal
and the steel. Note the way the fatigue damage lines up with the dovetail in
Photograph 'b'. Poor bonding accentuates the situation. The absence of a tinned layer
on the exposed steel in Photograph 'a' shows poor bonding. The use of dovetails tends
to make it more difficult to achieve a sound metallurgical bond between the white
metal and the steel backing.
Note Notice particularly the coincidence in location of the fatigue with the dovetails in the
steel backing
Possible Confusion Normal fatigue (see Section 3) can occur in thrust bearings, but is very uncommon.
with
Other Types of
Damage
Comment Dovetails should not be used in white metals bearings. The differences in the thermal
paths tend to disrupt the bond when cooling after pouring on the molten white metal
because of the different coefficients of thermal expansion between the two metals.
(See also Section 3: Premature Fatigue)

8.1 Electrical Erosion Damage in Journal Bearing (1)

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enlarge

Electrical arcing damage in loaded area of journal bearing

 Electrical arcing damage to the journal corresponding to Photograph 'a'

Main This damage occurred in an electric motor after a short run on test following a
Characteristics mechanical overhaul. Damage is confined to the loaded area on the bottom half
bearing, but is continuous on the journal. Note the shiny melt pits on the surface of
the bearing
Cause Electrical fault with leakage to earth through bearing oil film
Note Possible Confusion with Other Types of Damage Dirt erosion (see Section 2: Erosion
of White Metal Journal Bearing) and cavitation erosion give a superficially similar
matt finish on the bearing surface, but both of these have an arrow shape pointing
against the direction of motion. Moreover, there is no corresponding damage on the
journal

.2 Electrical Erosion Damage in Journal Bearing (2)

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enlarge

Spark erosion damage on top half of ring-oil bearing

Main Note the characteristic roughening at the leading edge of the top half bearing. In this
Characteristics case so much damage had been caused to the bottom half that it had wiped and the
evidence of electrical damage had been removed.
Cause Electrical fault in motor causing sparking through oil film at area of minimum film
thickness.
Note Evidence of electric arcing was also present on journal
Possible Confusion Dirt erosion (see Erosion of White Metal Journal Bearing) and cavitation erosion give
with a superficially similar matt finish on the bearing surface, but both of these have an
Other Types of arrow shape pointing against direction of motion. Moreover, there is no
Damage corresponding damage on the journal
Comment This was the third successive failure to the motor after an overhaul. The wiping in the
first two was attributed to lubricant breakdown caused by dirt in the oil; this was also
considered responsible for the damage to the journal. A more careful examination
after the third failure revealed the erosion damage on the top half bearing and that the
damage to the journal was pitting, not scoring.

8.3 Electrical Arcing Damage on Journal of Vertical Electric Motor

Click on photograph to
enlarge
 Electrical arcing damage on the journal of a vertical electric motor

Main This is an unusual type of electric damage, similar in appearance to 'washboarding' in

Characteristics rolling bearings
Cause The damage shown in the Photograph occurred on a 4 MW vertical motor on a
standby water pump. The motor was run each month for about an hour. This pattern
of operation lead to the laying down of wear dust from the carbon brushes that in time
caused an explosion that was traced to arcing in the end cover. The damage to the
journal was found when the machine was stripped to investigate the explosion.
Similar damage was found on other motors in the pumping station that were subject
to the same operating regime.
Note The direction of motion in the Photograph is horizontal. Note that most of the lines of
marks follow the direction of motion, some are at an angle of about 45.
Possible Confusion
with
Other Types of
Damage
Comment No explanation was found to account for the effect, but it is worth illustrating as an
example of electrical damage.

8.4 Electrostatic Erosion Damage on Journal Bearing

Click on photograph to
enlarge

Electrostatic erosion damage to bottom half bearing from centrifugal compressor

Journal corresponding to the bearing shown in Photograph 'a'

Main Typical 'frosting' appearance of electrostatic arcing damage. This tends to be on a

Characteristics finer scale than electromagnetic current erosion, but at low magnification (5-10X),
the characteristic shiny pits can be seen
Cause Electrostatic built up on rotor of centrifugal compressor caused by droplet
impingement on the wheels
Note Note that the damage to the bearing is limited to the region of low oil film thickness,
the loaded region, of the bottom half bearing, but is continuous on the journal.
Possible Confusion Dirt erosion (see Section 2: Erosion of White Metal Journal Bearing) and cavitation
with erosion (see Section 4) give a superficially similar matt finish on the bearing surface,
Other Types of but both of these have an arrow shape pointing against the direction of motion.
Damage Moreover, there is no corresponding damage on the journal
Comment Electrostatic build up can result from either solid particle or liquid droplet
impingement on the rotor. A build up about 20V at least is necessary for damage to be
caused.

8.5 Electrostatic Erosion Damage on Thrust Pad

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enlarge

Electrostatic erosion damage on thrust pad

Main Characteristics Note the characteristic 'frosting', that is caused by spark erosion pitting. The shiny
melt pits are obvious at low magnification (5-10X)
Cause Electrostatic built up on rotor of centrifugal compressor caused by droplet
impingement on the wheels.
Note Note that the damage to the bearing is limited to the outer edge of one pad. This
suggests that this particular pad was misaligned and proud of the other pads
Possible Confusion
with
Other Types of
Damage
Comment Electrostatic build up can result from either solid particle or liquid droplet
impingement on the rotor. A build up of about 20V at least is necessary for damage
to be caused.

9.1 Failure of Bearings with Nitrided Steel Shaft

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enlarge

Failure of Bearings with Nitrided Steel Shaft

Main The bearing damage is in the form of sharp vee-shaped grooves pointing against the
Characteristics direction of rotation
Cause The presence of hard particles loosely adhering to the nitrided surface.
Note
Possible Confusion Both dirt erosion (see Section 2: Wear) and cavitation erosion (see Section 4)
with produce arrow-shaped damage on the bearing surface; in these cases, however, the
Other Types of whole of the arrowhead has a matt appearance.
Damage
Comment Nitrided steels should be cleaned and polished before being used as bearing surfaces.

9.2 Wire-Wool Failure of Journal and Thrust Bearing

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enlarge

Wire-wool failure of journal bearing

Wire-wool failure: damage to journal and thrust collar corresponding to the bearing in
Photograph 'a' above.

Main Identified by extensive damage to both bearing and the journal and/or thrust collar
Characteristics with wear products from the shaft collected in the bearing housing where they look
like wire wool. A black scab is also often present on the damaged surface, hence the
alternative name 'black scab failure'.
Cause This failure occurs when a small particle of hard dirt or swarf gets embedded in the
bearing material, but continues to rub against the steel counterface. At high speed the
temperature generated by the frictional rub carburises the chromium in the steel in the
presence of a hydrocarbon oil, producing hard chromium carbides that embed in the
soft bearing material and act as cutting tools on the journal or thrust collar. The
process continues by accretion of the embedded carbides and may result in a journal
being turned completely through.
Note Although wire-wool failures have been most frequently encountered with whitte
metals bearings, they can also occur with copper bearing alloys.
Possible Confusion
with
Other Types of
Damage
Comment The best solution is to limit the chromium content of the steel to 1.5% where surface
speeds are greater than 25 m/sec.

10.1 Start-up wiping damage

Click on photograph to enlarge

Barrelled Shaft
 10.2 Undersize Bearing Shells or Oversize Housing Bore

Click on photograph to enlarge

Undersize Bearing Shells or Oversize Housing Bore

10.3 Incorrect drilling of oil feed hole

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enlarge

Fatigue damage to journal bearing (a) in line with incorrectly positioned feed hole
partially drilled in back of shell (b)

Main A small patch of fatigue damage at centre line of bottom half bearing, Photograph 'a'.
Characteristics Fatigue would be expected to occur at the position of maximum, not at the bottom of
the bearing
Cause Examination of the back of the bearing shell shows a partially drilled hole in line with
the fatigue damage, Photograph 'b'. This was obviously a machining error that was
discovered before the oil feed hole was completely drilled through. This has resulted
in inadequate support of the white metal that has failed in fatigue under the low
loading at the centre of the bottom half of the bearing.
Note This was a main bearing from a reciprocating compressor, with sufficient alternating
loading to cause the fatigue.
Possible Confusion While this is clearly a fatigue failure, the location of the fatigue patch suggests some
with abnormality.
Other Types of
Damage
Comment The back of the bearing shell should always be examined, particularly in cases of
abnormal damage.

10.4 Incorrectly Inserted Thermocouple Causing Distortion of Bearing Surface

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enlarge
 Incorrectly Inserted Thermocouple Causing Distortion of Bearing Surface

Main This bearing was removed because of a very high temperature when it was put into
Characteristics service
Cause The surface of the pad was distorted by incorrect assembly of the thermocouple. This
led to reduction in the oil film thickness in the distorted area with abnormally high
temperature resulting from the thin oil film.
Note It is normal to fit more than one pad with a thermocouple or RTD. This should help
to indicate if one of the pads is behaving abnormally.

10.5 Misalignment

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enlarge

Pair of bearing shells showing wiping at opposite sides of bottom and top shell

Main The wiping at opposite sides of the top and bottom halves of the bearing shows
Characteristics misalignment causing breakdown of the oil film by edge loading.
Cause A similar result could occur by running with a tapered shaft, but in this case the
damage would be on the same side of each bearing half.
Note The low melting point and strength of white metal (compatibility) are valuable
properties, allowing it to wipe or deform to compensate for a limited amount of
misalignment.

10.6 Dirt Between Thin Shell Bearings and Housing

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enlarge

A thin-walled bearing shell showing local overheating in its bore caused by

dirt trapped between the shell and the housing