SYSTEM ANALYSIS Parts 1 and 2 of this manual dealt with the flow equation in the reservoir. However, in order to produce the reservoir fluids to the surface, a tubular system is placed in the well. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the interrelationships between the reservoir and the piping system. The reservoir-system analysis, also known as NODAL, has been developed by Flopetrol-dohnston and will be summarized in this section, This provides the field engineer with a method to better understand the behavior of the well. The reservoir system analysis relates the various pressure losses in a well. The ability of the reservoir to produce fluids is coupled to the ability of the piping system to carry these fluids to the surface. - 97 -Figure 61 shows the possible pressure drops in a producing well in the direction of flow; they are: A) reservoir pressure drop B) completion pressure drop C) tubing pressure drop D) tubing restriction pressure drop E) wellhead pressure drop F) horizontal pressure drop. AP(E) Pan Foote AP) >| = bea Ps \ des SYSTEM PRESSURE DROPS \ AP(C) = AP(D) jt Pt S&S Pat Poors Ba AP(B) | Fe AP(ay >} Figure 61 Taking into consideration all of the pressure drops described, a Cartesian plot of flowing pressure (pwr) vs flow rate (q) at any given point can be generated. Thi¥ plot will help to determine the causes of possible well problems. = 98 -Reservoir-Pressure Drop The reservoir pressure drop can be analyzed by the inflow performance relationship (IPR) curve, which can be developed as follows. 1. O11 Case. The IPR curve for an oil well above the ‘DubbTe point can be drawn using the definition of Productivity index (PI or J), which is the ratio of production rate to pressure drawdown. pl = ——__ (110) Using equation (110), a plot of pyr vs q can be generated if PI is known, or if a”test has been run with the flowing pressure above the bubble-point at a given rate and the average reservoir pressure is known. The IPR curve can also be generated with calculated reservoir parameters from a pressure analysis using the flow equation at pseudo-steady state. kh (By - p, See pe We eng qu) 141.2 u B, [In(r,/r,) - 0.75 + s] To account for multiphase flow in the reservoir, Vogel (1968) developed an equation relating flow rate and pressure: 2 P, Pp, te te 0.0 = gee (112) Snax PR PR Equation (112) is used to calculate dmax When a test is run at a given qy and pyp. Once qnay is known, the equation can be°solved"for qo at any desired pyr. When generating an IPR curve for an oil well, there is a combination of the two parts described by equations (110) to (112). There is a straight line portion above the bubble-point pressure and a curved portion below the bubble-point pressure. Figure 62 shows the resulting IPR curve for an oil well. = 99 -OIL WELL IPR CURVE Figure 62 To produce an IPR curve, the steps to follow are: e If the test is run above the bubble-point pressure, determine the productivity index PI using the flow rate and the flowing pressure during the test in the equation: q py Sta BOSh (113) Pi > Pwrtest © Determine the bubble-point pressure rate qg where Gg = PI (94 - pp) (4) © Determine the quay bY PL pp Imax = 98 * Te (115) © For any given pressure below the bubble-point pressure, the flow rate is calculated using: 2 p, P, we f pwr = 9 + [ax - 9g] {1 - 0.2 - 0.8, Pg Pa } (116) - 100 -If the test is run with the flowing pressure below the bubble point, PI in step 1 has to be calculated with the following equation: 4 PI = ets p, P P (7) . Py > Pp ae ee [1.0 - 0.2 witest 9 3 wftest ) 1.8 Py Pp q 0 qm 4 qs Pur Pr Pp Pwrr Pwrar Figure 63 shows the different parts of the IPR curve. Pi Ge: TEST POINT: J = ————_—- —"*“*\ —_____— » PBT 1 9 0.3 Pattost Pi — pet zg| 1002-508 Pty 1 1 \ | To qe a a2 | dma Jee 8 Figure 63 - 101 -Gas Case. The IPR curve for a gas well is also known ‘as the gas deliverability curve. It can be generated from the flow equation for pseudo-steady state: _ 2 2, kh (BR - Pug ) 1424 u Zt [In (ry/r,) - 0.75 + s] (118) Equation (118) does not take into account turbulent flow within the reservoir. Turbulent flow is important in high-permeability reservoirs or in high- rate wells. If this is the case, the following equation can be used: 2 2 2 = Pyp = 2g + ba (119) where 1424 u ZT a = ————_ [In (r/r,) - 0.75 + s] (120) kh ef Tw and 3.161E-12 y, ZT 8 b= (121) hor Ww The @ factor is a turbulent-flow factor, which is dependent on permeability, porosity, pressure and temperature and can be approximated by: 4.11E10 aa (122) Knowing a and b from equations (120) and (121), the quadratic equation (119) can be solved for q: [ze + 4b (pi - Pye ) > 8 q=— —— (123) 2b - 102 -A table of flow rates vs flowing pressures from which the deliverability plot can be generated will Took like: a 0 ay gees AOF Pur PR Pwrr Pwrars*Pwtn 9 The absolute open flow (AOF) potential is the maximum rate a gas well will produce with no backpressure. The AOF may be calculated by setting pyp = 0 in equation (123). There are other methods to determine the AOF of a well using a multiple-rate test, but these methods are beyond the scope of this manual and the engineer is referred to the references cited in Appendix C. Figure 64 shows a gas well deliverability plot. TURBULENCE NOT INCLUDED — TURBULENCE INCLUDED Pa GAS WELL DELIVERABILITY CURVE Figure 64 - 103 -Transient IPR Curves The method shown previously is for a well that has reached pseudo-steady state. However, it is also important to generate IPR curves during the transient time for a better understanding of well behavior. For wells under radial flow with or without skin, the transient flow equations (104) and (105) from Part Two can be used. These equations are: for ofl kh (Bp ~ Pye) kt 1 Rt 10g —-———p = 3.234 0.87 s]” (124) 162.6 By u gue, ty for gas - 2 2, kn (Bq Pye) ke a —_+—__"— [log ————-z - 3.23 + 0.87 s] (125) 1637 u ZT tue ry Having selected a given time, the terms within the brackets in the right-hand side of the equations can be calculated, and the IPR curve for that time can be generated by solving for q at any desired pyre Figure 65 shows how a transient IPR plot looks for different times and for pseudo-steady-state time. - 104 -TRANSIENT AND PSEUDO STEADY-STATE IPR CURVES Figure 65 To calculate the maximum transient time for transient IPR curves, it is recommended to use one-third of the calculated time to reach pseudo-steady state. The tc can be calculated by: 2 1191.4 @ cy ry i 8 $8 (126) k C. Fractured Wells IPR Curves Whenever it is necessary to generate the IPR curves for a fractured well, the following method should be used. If the transient IPR curve needs to be generated, type curve 5 from Part Two of this manual is used (type curve for a well with a finite conductivity fracture in an infinite reservoir with overlayed closed square pseudosteady state). The Fep of interest will determine which curve to follow. The dimensionless time can be calculated from real time by: 2.637E-04 k t oo (227) Bucy Ke t - 105 -From this value of typ, go vertically to the Fen curve of interest and then hof{zontally to the Pp axis, “bo determine the corresponding value for py. This value of Pp can be used in the following equations: for oil _ Kh (By = Py) (128) 141.2 u By pp for gas: =o 2 _ KAR Pup) (129) 1424» ZT Pp and the IPR is calculated, for that given time, solving equations (128) or (129) for several values of Pwr For pseudo-steady-state-IPR-curve generation, the effects of the fracture are considered equivalent to a skin effect. The equivalent skin effect s- can be estimated using the nomograph of Figure 66 if Fop and x¢/ry are known. This value of s¢ can then be used in equations (111) and (118). for oil kh (Bp = Pye) R wh (11) 141.2 u By [In(ro/ryy - 0475 + sp] for gas kh Bp. =) Bp - 2 R wh (118) 1424 w ZT [In(rg/ry) - 0.75 + se] and the equations solved for several values of pyr. ~ 106 -Si + In (xi/tw) To og tt ESOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS OF AIME ‘SPE PAPER 6014 CINCO. F. SAMANIEGO, N, DOMINGUEZ 1 0 107 1 10 107 10° Feo PSEUDO-SKIN FACTOR FOR A WELL WITH A FINITE-CONDUCTIVITY VERTICAL FRACTURE Figure 66 Injection Wells IPR Curves In the cae of liquid or gas injection wells, the methodology is the same, except that now the curve has a positive slope; in other words the pys will increase as q increases. Use the following method"€o generate an IPR curve for an injection well: 1. Liquid Case. For a liquid well where the reservoir parameters are known, a modification of the flow equation is used. kh Dp (130) (gg 2 J 141.2 u 8, [In(rg/r,) - 0.75 + s] - 107 -Figure 67 If the injectivity index (Jj,j) is known, then: ding * Ying OP (131) With either equation (130) or (131), the value of Dp can be calculated for a given qy,j, and the injection pressures are: Pur = Ba + OP (13a) A table of qinqy VS Pyr from which the IPR curve can be generated W111 be” q 0 qy op 0 Dp, Pwr PR Pwr Pwrar ts sPwen Notice that the absolute values of injection rates are used in the equations above regardless of the direction of flow. The liquid injection IPR curve will look like Figure 67. LIQUID INJECTIVITY CURVE gnwity CURVE - we Dpe cA - 108 -2. Gas Well. In the case of a gas well, the flow ‘equation in pseudo-steady state is expressed as a linear function of p as follows: k h Bp Dp 9 2° (132) IN) 7.11605 w ZT [In (rg/ry) - 0.75 + s] Solving equation (132) for various values of q, the value of Dye is: Pwr = Pr + OP (131a) and a table from which the injectivity curve can be plotted will look like: q 0 q a, Gn Dp 0 Dp, Dp, Dp, Pur PR Pwr Pwt2 = PwFn The plot will be similar to Figure 68. - 109 -Pr Figure 68 3. INJECTIVITY CURVE Pwr ! [Ops Doe q —> GAS INJECTIVITY CURVE Generalities. The IPR or deliverability curves for production or injection wells are very effective tools to compare well performance before and after a stimulation job. In the case of an acid job, the curve can be calculated for a positive skin (damaged well) prior to stimulation and then for an expected negative skin after stimulatton. This is shown in Figure 69. - 110 -Figure 69 COMPARISON OF SKIN EFFECTS The effects of a fracture can also be examined. In this case, the curve will be generated for a damaged well (positive skin) or a skin of zero prior to the fracture job. Then with the help of type curve 5, different fracture lengths can be used for the curve generation and comparison. This is shown in Figure 70. COMPARISON OF FRACTURE LENGTH Figure 70 - ills.CEMENT CASING TUBING SCREEN Figure 71 Completion Pressure Drop The second pressure drop to be considered after the reservoir pressure drop is the pressure drop across the completion. The cases of interest are the gravel-pack completion and the open perforation completion. The pressure drop across the 1. Gravel-Pack Completion. Caapletion Th a gravel-packed well 1s a function of the gravel-pack permeability, the perforation density and the perforation length. Figure 71 shows a schematic of a gravel-pack completion. If a single perforation is taken into consideration, the linear flow in the perforation tunnel is analyzed for the calculations. INDIVIDUAL SHOT bt: & LLL PENETRATION CEMENT CASING 3 SCREEN Q PERFORATIONS SAND GRAVEL-PACK COMPLETION - 112 -O11 Case. In the case of a liquid well, the pressure drop can be expressed as: Puts ~ Pwr = ag + ba? (133) where uBol a = —__2___ (134) 1.127E-03 ky A and 2 9.08E-13 6 By ok D @ ae (135) A In equations (134) and (135), the gravel permeability (ka) is given in millidarcies and has been tabulated in Table 2. The p is the oil density in 1b/ft3. The term A is the area open to flow and is expressed by: A = 5,454E-03 hy n dp? (136) perforated interval (ft) shot density (spf) shot diameter (in.) The term L is the tunnel length, which is taken from the outside diamter of the screen to the end of the perforation penetration. Table 3 shows different screen diamters. Both d, and the penetration can be obtained from Table 4. The 6 term, which is the turbulence factor, can be calculated as a function of the gravel-pack permeability by: 1.47E07 B= os (137) - 113 -The pwrs in equation (133) is the flowing pressure calculated from the IPR or deliverability equations. TABLE 2 PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS OF GRAVELS Standard Average Average Deviation of Number Gravel Measured Measured Permeability of Size Porosity Permeability Measurements ‘Samples (US Mesh) (x) (darcies) (darcies) Tested 40-60 39.8 69.0 13.6 7 20-40 40.9 170.85 39.9 12 10-20 40.5 652.0 45.9 3 8-12 41.5 1969.0 1 6-10 42.0 2703.0 TABLE 3 RECOMMENDED SCREEN DIAMTERS FOR INSIDE CASING Maximum Recommended* Casing Size Screen Diameter Screen Diameter o wr 0) Pipe 0D Wire 0D Pipe OD Wire OD (in.) (ib) (in.) Cin.) (in.) (in.) (in.) 4 9.5 3.548 1 1.815 1 1.815 4-1/2 11.6 4,000 1-1/4 2.160 1-1/4 2.160 5 18.0 4.276 1-1/2 2.400 1-1/2 2.400 5-1/2 17.0 4.892 2-3/8 2.875 2-3/8 2.875 6-5/8 24.0 5.921 3-1/2 4.000 2-7/8 3.375 7 29.0 6.184 3-1/2 4.000 2-7/8 3.375 7-5/8 33.7 6.765 4 4.500 2-7/8 3.375 8-5/8 36.0 7.825 5 5.500 2-7/8 3.375 9-5/8 47.0 8.681 5-1/2 6.000 2-7/8 3.375 tUnless larger production-tubing string used or multiple gravel packs attempted in wellbore. - 114 -PERFORATING GUN DATA TABLE 4 - 115 - Perforation Diameter Penetration Gun Size Cin.) in.) Cin.) Casing (Average) raat agest Longest + Retrievable Through Tubing 1-3/8 4-1/2 sg 0.21 3.03 3.30 (Sch) 1-9/16 5-1/2 sg 0.24 4.7 5.48 (Va) 1-11/16 4-1/2 ~ 5-1/2 0.24 4.8 5.50 (Sch) 2 4-1/2 - 5-1/2 0.32 6.5 8.15 (Va) 2-1/8 2-1/8 thg 0.33 7.2 8.15 (Va) - 4-1/2 sg 2-5/8 4-1/2 csg 0.36 10.36 10.36 (DA) Expendable Through Tubing Ls 4-1/2 sg 0.19 3.15 3.15 (Va) 14 2-2/8 tbg 0.30 3.91 3.91 (Va) 1-3/8 0.30 5.1 5.35 (Va) 1-11/16 2-3/8 tg 0.34 6.0 8.19 (Va) -5-1/2 csg 2-1/16 8-1/2 - 7 csg 0.42 8.2 8.6 (DA) 2-1/8 2-7/8 tbg 0.39 7.7 8.6 (Va) Retrievable Casing Guns 2-3/4 4-1/2 ¢sg 0.38 10.55 10.55 (Va) 2-7/8 4-1/2 ¢sg 0.37 10.63 10.63 (Sch) 3-1/8 4-1/2 csg 0.42 8.6 1.1 (Va) 3-3/8 4-1/2 csg 0.36 9.1 10.8 (Sch) 3-5/8 4-1/2 & 5-1/2 csg 0.39 8.9 12.8 (DA) 4 5-1/2 - 9-5/8 csg 0.51 10.6 13.5 (Va) 5 6-3/4 - 9-5/8 csg 0.73 12.33 13.6 (Sch)By solving equation (133) for various shot densities and flow rates, a table of pressure and rate can be made which will look like: 4 0 4 q 4 Puts Pr Pwest Pufs2 Pwfsn Put Pp Pwr Puf2 Pwen Dp 0 Op, Op, Dp, Using this table, two plots can be generated: The different py values can be plotted, and the shot density can be analyzed. The plot will look like Figure 72. Pa te — COMPLETION ANALYSIS Pe IPR OR DELIVERABILITY CURVE ° ° a ae .—a Figure 72 The pressure drops Dp by themselves can be plotted as a function of rates, and the plot will look like Figure 73. - 116 -PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE COMPLETION Figure 73 Gas Case. In the case of gas, the linear flow equation in the perforation tunnel can be expressed as: Pyrs? ~ Pwr? = 2a + ba? (138) where: 8.93603 uZ TL a (139) ky A and 1.247E-10 y, BZTL g (140) A Then the pyr can be calculated by: 2 aye Pye = [yes ~ (2a + ba] (an) The different terms in equations (139) and (140) can be calculated with the equations shown for the oil case. -i7-idm. Figure 74 The solution of this equation for different flow rates can be tabulated similarly to the oil case and the plots of p, and Dp will look like Figures (72) and (93), respectively. Open-Perforation Completion. The open-perforation Completion refers to those wells with no gravel pack. In this case, the tunnel, which will create a Pressure drop across the completion, will be generated by the perforation shot outside the casing. The schematics for this case are shown in Figure 74. INDIVIDUAL SHOT CASING ROTATED 90° fe dp 4} gg CEMENT ——______ SHOT PENETRATION L Kel CRUSHED ZONE — PERFORATIONS. ya tox] | OPEN PERFORATION COMPLETION —— a. Oil Case. Considering only one perforation, the flow towards the perforation tunnel from the sand face can be considered radial. With this assumption, the pressure drop across the tunnel is: Pwrs ~ Pwr = aq + bq2 (133) where: . ry By In(r fr, ) (142) 7.08E-03 Lk, - 118 -and 2.2818 8° 8 9 [M/ty - Wee) bs . (aa) Following is an explanation of the different terms in equations (133), (142) and (143). The sand face flowing pressure Pyrs 1s that Calculated from the IPR equations in the reservoir pressure drop. The rate q is the rate per perforation. Stott hyn D (assy hp and n being the perforated interval and the sRot density, respectively. The crushed zone radius (r, perforation diameter (dp) fhe erushed zone is onlf 0 g) is besed on the fn ft; assuming that AB ine thick. gf? + 0.042 (195) the tunnel length (L} 1s the shot penetration and can de found in Table 4. The crushed zone permeability (ke) 1s 9 function Of the effective permeability of the fluid under Consigeration and is assumed to be On1 & if perforated overbalance (ase) kg = 0.4 k Hf perforated underbatance ar) The turbulence factor (8) can be expressed as @ function of the crushed zone permeability by: 2.33810 ft iearetee (198) -us-and 2 2.36-14.B, 8 e [1/r, - Wry) pee et (243) L Following is an explanation of the different terms in equations (133), (142) and (143). The sand face flowing pressure pyr, is that calculated from the IPR equation’ in the reservoir pressure drop. The rate q is the rate per perforation. _ Stotal h po (144) and n being the perforated interval and the Beat density, respectively. The crushed zone radius (rg) is based on the perforation diameter (d,) Sn ft; assuming that the crushed zone is onl¥ 0.5 in. thick. dp/2 + 0.042 (145) The tunnel length (L) is the shot penetration and can be found in Table 4. The crushed zone permeability (ko) is a function of the effective permeability of* the fluid under consideration and is assumed to be: 0.1 k if perforated overbalance (146) = 0.4 k if perforated underbalance (147) The turbulence factor (8) can be expressed as a function of the crushed zone permeability by: 2.33E10 8 ar (148) c - 119 -Solving equation (133) for various perforation densities and desired rates, a table is made from which the pressure at the bottom of the well or the pressure drop across the perforation can be plotted. This table will look like: q 0 q 42 Gn Pwfs PR Pwfsi Pufs2 Pufsn Put PR Pwft Pwt2 Pwtn Dp 0 Op, Opp Op, The plots of interest to assess the influence of these pressure drops will look like Figures 72 and 73. Gas Case. For the gas case, the equations become: Pwes? - Pwr? = ag + bq? (138) where: ae 1424 ZT in(r/ty) (149) kK and 3.16E-12 8 1, ZT (1/r, - Ir.) ac Se poe (150) L Equation (138) can be rearranged for py: 2 2, 41/2 Pyp = [ Pypg - (2a + bg) y" (41) - 120 -and a table similar to the one for the oil case can be prepared. This table will be used for the generation of the pressure drop plots, both in conjunction with an IPR or deliverability curve or by themselves as shown in Figures 72.and 73. F. Tubing Pressure Drop The tubing pressure drop (Dp c)) in Figure 61 can be better explained by multiphase pipe flow theory. This theory deals with the different pressure drops occurring when there is movement of fluids in tubulars. The case of interest is vertical multiphase flow in pipes. To predict the pressure drop in a vertical pipe, the total pressure drop is the result of the effects of: e@ elevation e@ friction © acceleration. Therefore, if the pressure drop Dp is taken for a distance z, an equation can be written as: (=) (2) (=) (=) (1st) a ={— so + {— spe tL ¥ 1 az/ Total “\ 47 /Elevation "\",7 /Friction “\',, / Acceleration The elevation component is the most important and may account for as much as 90% of the total pressure drop. It is a function of the density of the mixture. In oil field wells, the mixture is usually ofl, water and gas. This component is also a function of the hold-up, which is the fractional part of the pipe occupied by liquid. The friction component is a function of pipe size, roughness of the pipe and, most importantly, viscosity of the fluid. The acceleration component is the least important of the three, and is a function of the change in velocity in different places in the pipe. Theoretically, the elevation pressure drop is taken only for the vertical distance, and the friction and acceleration components are taken for the total distance of the pipe. To solve equation (151) is beyond the scope of this manual. It has been done by many authors, who have generated gradient charts for different, particular conditions of pipe diamter, gas and liquid properties and ratios and total rates. The most important correlations published in the technical literature are: - 121-Hagedorn and Brown Duns and Ross Orkiszewski Beggs and Brill Azis, Govier and Fogarasi cocoon The Hagedorn and Brown correlation has been found to give very good results for the widest range of applications and is recommended, These gradient curves have been compiled in the Brown (1984). This manual tells how to use these curves. 1. Liquid Well. In the case of a liquid well, the gradient curves are generated based on type of liquid, tubing size, producing rate and fluid properties and are parametric in gas-liquid ratio (GLR) as shown in Figure 75. Having Pyhs find pye: © Select appropriate gradient chart based on known fluid type, tubing size and producing rate. © Find equivalent depth for given pwn, going vertically from the value of pyp on the pressure axis to the GLR curve of interest, and then horizontally to the depth axis. eo Find calculated depth, adding the vertical depth of the well to the equivalent depth, © Find pyr, going horizontally from the value of calculated depth on the depth axis to the GLR curve of interest, then vertically to the pressure axis. ~ 122 =PRESSURE (100 PSI) 0 5 10 15 0580 ALUOIL 7 TUBING SIZE: 3 in. 1D 1 PRODUCTION RATE: 600 B OIL API GRAVITY: 35° AVERAGE FLOWING TEMPERATURE: 150°F 2 GAS SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.65 i oe 1 ¢ 1 4. 3 SG + CG, i OaeNT o 4 Me & a. PNY 2 a 19>. = 1 {7 ai Nx a 6 i a | 7 $2. a 2 6 2 9 10 TYPICAL LIQUID GRADIENT CURVE Figure 75 - 123 -PRESSURE (100 PSI) o 5 10 15 ~=20 25 30 TUBING SIZE: 3.958 in. 1D GAS SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.65 EB 4 3 8 %, = % z % Yo & % a 6 %, % Oy z Ihe S 8 S 9 Ne 6 10 TYPICAL GAS GRADIENT CURVE Figure 76 - 124 -3. Having pwr> find Pyh? © Select appropriate gradient chart based on known fluid types, tubing size and producing rate. © Find calculated depth, going vertically from [nown value Of Pyp on pressure axis to the GLR curve of interest, then horizontally to the depth axis. © Find equivalent depth, subtracting the vertical depth of the well from the calculated depth. © Find pyhs going horizontally from equivalent depth Waiue on the depth axis to the GLR curve of interest, then vertically to the pressure axis. Gas Well. In the case of a gas well, the gradient Gurves are generated based on tubing size and gas properties, and are parametric on flow rate as shown in Figure 76. The use of these curves is basically the same as for the liquid case in that an equivalent depth is found, then the calculated depth is found and the locus curve to calculate pressures will be the flow-rate curve rather than the GLR curve. Examples. A straight oi] well is flowing at a rate 600 STB/day, through a 3 in. ID tubing at a wellhead pressure of 500 psi. The oil is a 35° APT gravity with a GOR of 500 SCF/STB. The gas specific gravity is 0.65 and the average flowing temperature is 150°F. What is the flowing bottom-hole pressure using 4,000 ft as the midpoint of perforations? Using the gradient curve on Figure 75, start on the pressure scale at 500 psi and go down to the 500 GOR curve. Go horizontally to the depth scale and determine the equivalent depth of 2,500 ft. Add the equivalent depth of 2,500 ft to the vertical depth of 4,000 ft to obtain a calculated depth of 6,500 ft. From the value of 6,500 ft on the depth scale, go horizontally to the 500 GOR curve, then vertically to the pressure scale and read the downhole flowing pressure of 2,250 psi. If the bottom-hole pressure of 2,250 psi was known, the above sequence done inversely will give @ wellhead pressure of 500 psi. - 125 -A straight 3.958 in. ID tubing gas well is flowing a 0.65 specific gravity gas at a rate of 10 MMSCF/day and a wellhead pressure of 500 psi. What is the bottom-hole flowing pressure, using 9,000 ft as the midpoint of perforations? Using the gradeint curve on Figure 76, go to the pressure scale and select a wellhead pressure of 500 psi. Since the gradient curves start at 500 psi, there is not equivalent depth to be calculated. On the depth scale, from the 9,000 ft depth, go horizontally to the 10 MMSCE/day curve, then vertically to the pressure scale to determine a bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1,000 psi. Tubing Analysis For well analysis, the gradient curves are used to generate a plot of flowing bottom-hole pressure vs rate. A particular set of conditions is chosen, (i.e., wellhead pressure, tubing diameters and fluid type). Based on this particular set of conditions, the gradient curves are used for different rates and a table of rate q vs bottom-hole flowing pressure pyr can be constructed similar to: Pwh = selected Tubing ID = Selected 4 4 49 q Pur Pwr Pwr2 Pwtn Using the data in the table, a plot of bottom-hole pressure py vs rate q will be drawn as in Figure 77. This is caYled a tubing-intake curve. - 126 -Figure 77 (-) SLOPE pwh = SELECTED ONE TUBING ID = SELECTED ONE TUBING INTAKE CURVE (4) SLOPE a aoritical “Ge q TUBING INTAKE CURVE The tubing-intake curve in Figure 77 has three important characteristics: ° The negative slope portion at low rates is indication of unstable flow in the pipe The inflection point in the curve indicates the critical rate below which the gas will slip past the liquid and the well will load up; Any rate below the critical rate will kill the well, The positive-slope portion of the curve shows the rates and pressures in which the velocity is high enough to take the fluids to the surfaces The influence of different wellhead pressures on the production of the well can be analyzed by calculating the same set of data for different wellhead pressures. The plot will look like Figure 78. = 127 -TUBING ID = SELECTED ONE ye owt Pp ows Pent WELLHEAD PRESSURE COMPARISON Figure 78 The influence of pipe diameter can be investigated similarly, by generating tables for different tubing ID. The plot will resemble Figure 79. - 128 -WELLHEAD PRESSURE = SELECTED ONE Figure 79 1. ¢—_—> TUBING SIZE COMPARISON Deviated Wells. For the analysis of deviated wells, Special correlations have been developed. Unfortunately, there are not published gradient curves, and a computer has to be used to calculate the pressure drops for this case. In the case of extreme need, the engineer could use the total wireline length of the pipe instead of the vertical depth to find the calculated depth in the straight gradient curves. Be aware of the over-simplification of the problem. Tapered Tubing Completions. Some wells have tapered Tubing Completions Ta-whieh a tubing size is placed from the bottom of the well to a point (A) and then changed to a bigger one to the surface, as shown in Figure 80. - 129 -TAPERED TUBING COMPLETION Figure 80 LL, | LWettnean BOTTOM-HOLE To generate the tubing intake curve for this case, having the wellhead pressure, select the gradient chart for the upper tubing and following the steps in Three:I.F.l., find the pressure to the depth of point (A) at different rates. Using a new gradient chart for the lower tubing and using the flowing pressures at point (A) as the wellhead pressures, follow the same procedure, but add to the new equivalent depth the distance from point (A) to the bottom, to find the bottom-hole flowing pressure py. The reverse procedure will be used if the starting point is the bottom-hole flowing pressure. A table of rate, q, and flowing bottom-hole pressure Pyrs Will look like: q qy q2 Gh Put Pwrit Pura’) Pufn Put Putt Pure Owen and the intake curve plot will be similar to the one shown in Figure 77. Injection Wells. In the case of injection wells, the gradient charts will look similar to the ones for flowing wells. The methodology to calculate bottom- hole pressures is the same; however, the tubing intake curve will have a different slope. In this case the curve will look as in Figure 81. = 130 -TUBING INTAKE CURVE Pri SS ee as ° a ——> INJECTION WELL INTAKE CURVE Figure 81 He Tubing Restriction Pressure Drop Qi1 and gas wells could have restrictions to flow along the tubing, i.e., safety valves, tubing nipples and downhole chokes. In all of these restrictions, the pressure drop can be expressed-as a function of the flow rate. Manufacturers of the different equipment have tables of pressure drop for given rates depending on the size of the restriction. If such tables are not available, Gilbert's formula can be used. This formula is: 1.89 Pup S 435 ROrO48 (152) Equation (152) assumes critical flow. If subcritical flow is present, there are no simple formulae to relate rate and pressure drop, so a computer should be used, To use equation (152), it is necessary to have the upstream pressure, pyy. To calculate pup, appropriate gradient curves should be used starting Bt the bottom of the well with a known pyr, up to the length where the restriction is placed. - 131 -With the calculated data, a table of flow rate, q, flowing pressures, Pyr afd Pyp, and pressure drop Dp wil look like: 4 4 49 Gq Pwr Pw Pwh2 Pufn Pup Pup1 —Pup2_—Pupn Op DP, 0 DP, To- plots of pressure vs rate can be generated with the data on this table: Plotting the p p 1M conjunction with an IPR curve appears as in Figure 8¥e ° a qe q ; IPR WITH PRESSURE UPSTREAM OF A CHOKE Figure 82 Plotting the restriction pressure drops for different sizes appears as in Figure 83. ~ 132 -SIZE 1 the-production rate will be lower. dnax32 this is the rate the well will produce whtkeaspr; if the shot density is reduced to 2 SPF, the pressure drop across the completion is higher and consequently the rate will be lower. The intake curves will be different for different sizes of tubing. However, when changing to a bigger tubing, the possibility of loading up at low rates exists. Node 3. Assume that a well has a given wellhead pressure and perforation density, and it is required to analyze different sizes of safety valves. The safety valve will be located someplace between the wellhead and the middle point of perforations. The inflow curve will be generated starting at the reservoir pressure to the upstream end of the safety valve as follows. The sandface pressures, Pyps for different flow rates and using the equations developed in Three:I.£., the pressures at the bottom of the hole, pyr, are calculated for the given shot density using the same rates used in the reservoir pressure drop section. Using these pyr with the appropriate gradient charts for the fluid” properties and tubing in consideration the pressures upstream of the valve, Pyp are calculated. A table with the different pressures will look like: q 4 q9 qh Puts Pwrst wes? Pwesn Put wrt PwF2 Putn Pup Pup Pupe Pupn Figure 87 shows the different curves for the different intermediate nodes to the upstream of the - 139 -safety valve, which is considered the inflow curve for the node. Starting at the wellhead with the given wellhead pressure, pyj, and using the appropriate gradient chart as exbfained in Three:1.F., the pressures downstream of the valve, py,, are calculated and summarized in a table like the following: q 4 4p qq Ph Pan Pana Pan2 Pann When plotted in the nodal plot, the downstream pressures become the outflow curve. The pressure response at the valve is the difference between the upstream pressure and the downstream pressure. This is the required pressure drop in this solution node. From the data for different size of valves, a table of pressure drop, Dp, vs rate, q, can be generated looking like: q q qo qn Size 1 Op Dp, ~—sDpy_— sO, Size 2 0p Dpy_— ss Dpy SD The resulting curves are the created pressure drops in the valve node. The selection of the optimum valve size is enhanced by the analysis of the Nodal plot, Figure 87. - 140 -a REQUIRED. 1 { PRESSURE OROP | AVERAGE RESERVOIR PRESSURE INTAKE CURVE Pans PRESSURE 1 ' i I urstneate eR cuRvE (SANDFACE PRESSURE! PRessunE oneareD Borrow PRESSURE OROP PRESSURE Figure 87 i q ——> SAFETY VALVE NODAL ANALYSIS Notice that the inflow curve could be generated adding the pressure drops from the reservoir to the safety valve. That is, the pressure drop in the reservoir is added to the pressure drop across the completion and subsequently added to the pressure drop in the tubing from the bottom of the hole to the safety valve. Then this total is subtracted from the reservoir pressure, Likewise, the pressure on top of the safety valve for the outflow curve could be obtained totalizing the pressure drops in the tubing from the wellhead to the safety valve and adding the total to the wellhead pressure. ~ 141 -