Important Note: E Cos

Power Point for Optoelectronics and
Ex = Eo cos(Ztkz + IR) Important Note Photonics: Principles and Practices

Second Edition
Ex = Electric field along x at position z at time t You may use color illustrations from this Power Point A Complete Course in Power Point
k = Propagation constant = 2S/O in your research-related seminars or research-related
O = Wavelength presentations at scientific or technical meetings, Chapter 1
Z = Angular frequency = 2SXX frequency) symposia or conferences provided that you fully cite
Eo = Amplitude of the wave the following reference under each figure
IR = Phase constant; at t = 0 and z = 0, Ex may or may not From: S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles
necessarily be zero depending on the choice of origin. and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education, USA
(Ztkz + IR) = I = Phase of the wave
This is a monochromatic plane wave of infinite extent ISBN-10: 0133081753

traveling in the positive z direction. Second Edition Version 1.01
[24 November 2012]
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education
2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
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Chapter 1 Wave Nature of Light

Wavefront
A surface over which the phase of a wave is constant is

referred to as a wavefront
Copyright Information and Permission: Part I
This Power Point presentation is a copyrighted supplemental material to the textbook
A wavefront of a plane wave is a plane perpendicular to the Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles & Practices, Second Edition, S. O. Kasap,
direction of propagation Pearson Education (USA), ISBN-10: 0132151499, ISBN-13: 9780132151498. 2013
Pearson Education. Permission is given to instructors to use these Power Point slides in
their lectures provided that the above book has been adopted as a primary required
The interaction of a light wave with a nonconducting medium textbook for the course. Slides may be used in research seminars at research meetings,
(conductivity = 0) uses the electric field component Ex rather symposia and conferences provided that the author, book title, and copyright information
than By. are clearly displayed under each figure. It is unlawful to use the slides for teaching if the
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in any form whatsoever, especially on the internet, without the written permission of
Optical field refers to the electric field Ex. Pearson Education.
Please report typos and errors directly to the author: safa.kasap@yahoo.com
Light is an electromagnetic wave

PEARSON
Copyright Information and Permission: Part II
This Power Point presentation is a copyrighted supplemental material to the textbook
Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles & Practices, Second Edition, S. O. Kasap,
Pearson Education (USA), ISBN-10: 0132151499, ISBN-13: 9780132151498. 2013
Pearson Education. The slides cannot be distributed in any form whatsoever,
electronically or in print form, without the written permission of Pearson Education. It is
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07458. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is
protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to
any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or
A plane EM wave traveling along z, has the same Ex (or By) at any point in a given xy plane. An electromagnetic wave is a traveling wave that has time-varying electric and magnetic
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For
All electric field vectors in a given xy plane are therefore in phase. The xy planes are of fields that are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation z.
information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department.
infinite extent in the x and y directions.
Spherical Wave Wave Vector or Propagation Vector Phase Velocity
A Direction of propagation is indicated with a vector k, called the The time and space evolution of a given phase I, for example
E cos(Zt kr ) wave vector, whose magnitude is the propagation constant, k that corresponding to a maximum field is described by
r = 2S/O. k is perpendicular to constant phase planes.
I = Ztkz + IR = constant
When the electromagnetic (EM) wave is propagating along
some arbitrary direction k, then the electric field E(r,t) at a During a time interval Gt, this constant phase (and hence the
point r on a plane perpendicular to k is maximum field) moves a distance Gz. The phase velocity of this
wave is therefore Gz/Gt. The phase velocity Y is
E (r,t) = Eocos(Ztkr + IR)
Gz Z
If propagation is along z, kr becomes kz. In general, if k has
v XO
components kx, ky and kz along x, y and z, then from the
definition of the dot product, kr = kxx + kyy + kzz. Gt k
Wave Vector k Phase change over a distance 'z
I = Ztkz + IR
E (r,t) = Eocos(Ztkr + IR) 'I = k'z
The phase difference between two points separated
by 'z is simply k'z
since Zt is the same for each point
Examples of possible EM waves If this phase difference is 0 or multiples of 2S then

Optical divergence refers to the angular separation of wave A traveling plane EM wave along a direction k the two points are in phase. Thus, the phase
vectors on a given wavefront. difference 'I can be expressed as k'z or 2S'z/O
Gaussian Beams Exponential Notation

The radiation emitted from a laser can be approximated by a Gaussian Maxwells Wave Equation
beam. Gaussian beam approximations are widely used in photonics.
Recall that
cosI= Re[exp(jI)]
w2E w2E w2E w2E
H H P 0 where Re refers to the real part. We then need to take the real
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2 wt 2
o r o part of any complex result at the end of calculations. Thus,
Ex(z,t) = 5H[Eoexp(jIR)expj(Ztkz)]
A plane wave is a solution of Maxwells wave equation or
Ex(z,t) = 5H[Ecexpj(Ztkz)]
Ex = Eo cos(Ztkz + IR)
where Ec = Eoexp(jIo) is a complex number that represents the
amplitude of the wave and includes the constant phase
Wavefronts of a Gaussian light beam Substitute into Maxwells Equation to show that this is a solution. information Io.
Gaussian Beam in an Optical Cavity Gaussian Beams Gaussian Beams
The intensity across the beam follows a Gaussian distribution
Swo2
Rayleigh range zo
O
Two spherical mirrors reflect waves to and from each other. The optical cavity contains a
Gaussian beam. This particular optical cavity is symmetric and confocal; the two focal points
coincide at F.
1/ 2 1/ 2
z 2 zO 2
2w 2 wo 1 2 w 2 wo 1 I(r,z) = [2P/(Sw2)]exp(2r2/w2)
zo Swo To= w/z = O/(Swo) 2To = Far field divergence
Real and Ideal Gaussian Beams The Gaussian Intensity Distribution is Not Unusual
The Gaussian intensity distribution is also used in fiber optics
The fundamental mode in single mode fibers can be approximated with a
Gaussian intensity distribution across the fiber core
Definition of M2
worT r worT r zOM 2 2
1/ 2
M2 2 wr 2 wor 1
2
woT (O / S ) Swor
2r2/w2)
I(r) = I(0)exp(
Real Gaussian Beams Gaussian Beams

Refractive Index
When an EM wave is traveling in a dielectric (21/2)wo
medium, the oscillating electric field polarizes the wo w
molecules of the medium at the frequency of the O z z
wave
Real beam zo
The stronger is the interaction between the field and

1/ 2
the dipoles, the slower is the propagation of the zOM 2 2 2To = Far field divergence Rayleigh range
wave 2 wr 2 wor 1
2
Swor
Correction mote: Page 10 in textbook, Equation (1.11.1), w should be wr as above and
zo = Swo2/O
wor should be squared in the parantheses.
Refractive Index and Wavelength Optical frequencies
Refractive Index
Typical frequencies that are involved in
optoelectronic devices are in the infrared (including
kmedium = nk far infrared), visible, and UV, and we generically
refer to these frequencies as optical frequencies
Somewhat arbitrary range:
Omedium = O /n Roughly 1012 Hz to 1016 Hz
Phase Velocity and Hr

Refractive Index and Isotropy
Low frequency (LF) relative permittivity Hr(LF) and The relative permittivity Hr measures the ease with which the
refractive index n. medium becomes polarized and hence it indicates the extent
Crystals, in general, have nonisotropic, or
of interaction between the field and the induced dipoles.
anisotropic, properties
For an EM wave traveling in a nonmagnetic dielectric
Typically noncrystalline solids such as glasses and medium of relative permittivity Hr, the phase velocity v is
liquids, and cubic crystals are optically isotropic; given by
they possess only one refractive index for all
directions 1

H rH o Po
Refractive Index and Propagation Constant

n depends on the wavelengthO ko Free-space propagation constant (wave vector) Refractive Index n
ko 2/OR
NZe 2 O 2 O 2 Oo Free-space wavelength
n2 1

o

k Propagation constant (vave vector) in the medium 1
H o me 2Sc O2 O 2o O Wavelength in the medium Phase Velocity and Hr
k H rH o Po
Dispersion relation n
ko
A1O2 A O2 A O2 c
n2 1 22 2 23 2
O O1 O O2 O O3
22 In noncrystalline materials such as glasses and liquids, the
Refractive index n
definition n Hr
material structure is the same in all directions and n does not
depend on the direction. The refractive index is then isotropic v
Sellmeier Equation
Group Velocity
n depends on the wavelengthO
Cauchy dispersion
n = n-2(hX)-2 + n0 + n2(hX)2 + n4(hX)4
Two slightly different wavelength waves traveling in the same direction result in a wave
packet that has an amplitude variation that travels at the group velocity.
Group Velocity and Group Index

n depends on the wavelengthO
There are no perfect monochromatic

waves
We have to consider the way in which

a group of waves differing slightly in
dZ wavelength travel along the z-direction
vg
dk
Group Velocity and Group Index

Group Velocity
Consider two sinusoidal waves that are close in frequency, When two perfectly harmonic waves of frequencies ZGZ
that is, they have frequencies ZGZ and Z + GZ. Their and Z + GZ and wavevectors kGk and k + Gk interfere, they
wavevectors will be kGk and k + Gk. The resultant wave is generate a wave packet which contains an oscillating field at
the mean frequency Z that is amplitude modulated by a
Ex(z,t) = Eocos[(ZGZ)t(kGk)z] slowly varying field of frequency GZ. The maximum
+ Eocos[(Z + GZ)t(k + Gk)z] amplitude moves with a wavevector Gk and thus with a group
velocity that is given by
By using the trigonometric identity
cosA + cosB = 2cos[1/2(AB)]cos[1/2(A + B)] dZ
we arrive at vg
Ex(z,t) = 2Eocos[(GZ)t(Gk)z][cos(Ztkz)]
dk
Group Index Ex(z,t) = 2Eocos[(GZ)t(Gk)z][cos(Ztkz)]
This represents a sinusoidal wave of frequency Z . This is
amplitude modulated by a very slowly varying sinusoidal of
dn
Ng nO frequency GZ. This system of waves, i.e. the modulation,
dO travels along z at a speed determined by the modulating
term, cos[(GZ)t(Gk)z]. The maximum in the field occurs
when [(GZ)t(Gk)z] = 2mS = constant (m is an integer),
is defined as the group index of the medium which travels with a velocity
In general, for many materials the refractive index n and dz GZ or

dZ
vg
hence the group index Ng depend on the wavelength of light. dt Gk dk
Such materials are called dispersive
A plane EM wave traveling along k crosses an area A at right angles to the direction of
propagation. In time 't, the energy in the cylindrical volume AQ't (shown dashed) flows This is the group velocity of the waves because it determines the
through A.
speed of propagation of the maximum electric field along z.
The group velocity therefore defines the speed with which

Energy Density in an EM Wave energy or information is propagated.
As the EM wave propagates in the direction of the dZ
vg
wavevector k, there is an energy flow in this direction. The dk
wave brings with it electromagnetic energy.
Z = 2Sc/Oo and k = 2Sn/Oo, Oo is the free space wavelength.
The energy densities in the Ex and By fields are the same, Differentiate the above
dZ = 2Sc/Oo2)dOo
1 1 2 dn
2Sn(1 / Oo2 )dOo (2S / Oo ) dOo
H oH r E x2 By dk
dOo
2 2 Po dk

( 2S / Oo2 ) n Oo
dn
dOo
dOo
dZ (2Sc / O2o )dOo c
The total energy density in the wave is therefore HoHrEx2. Refractive index n and the group index NJ of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of ? vg

dk dn n Oo
dn
wavelength. (2S / O2o ) n Oo dOo
dOo dOo
Poynting Vector and EM Power Flow Magnetic Field, Irradiance and Poynting Vector Group Velocity and Group Index
If S is the EM power flow per unit area,
The magnetic field (magnetic induction) component By where n = n(O) is a function of the wavelength. The group
S = Energy flow per unit time per unit area always accompanies Ex in an EM wave propagation. velocity vg in a medium is given by,
If v is the phase velocity of an EM wave in an isotropic

( Av't )(H oH r E x2 ) dZ c
S vH oH r E x2 v 2H oH r E x B y dielectric medium and n is the refractive index, then v g (medium)
A't dk dn
n O
In an isotropic medium, the energy flow is in the direction of c dO
wave propagation. If we use the vectors E and B to represent Ex vB y By
the electric and magnetic fields in the EM wave, then the EM n This can be written as
power flow per unit area can be written as c
where v = (HoHrPo)1/2 and n = H1/2
v g (medium)
S= v2HoHrEuB Ng
Irradiance of a Spherical Wave Poynting Vector and Intensity
where S, called the Poynting vector, represents the energy
Spherical wave front
flow per unit time per unit area in a direction determined by
Source EuB (direction of propagation). Its magnitude, power flow
O A 4A 9A
per unit area, is called the irradiance (instantaneous
Po
irradiance, or intensity).
r
2r The average irradiance is
3r
Po I Saverage 1
2v o r H H Eo2
I
4Sr 2
Snells Law or Descartess Law? A Gaussian Beam Average Irradiance or Intensity

Since v = c/n and Hr = n2 we can write
I Saverage 1
2 cH o nEo2 (1.33 u 103 )nEo2
The instantaneous irradiance can only be measured if the

power meter can respond more quickly than the oscillations
of the electric field. Since this is in the optical frequencies
range, all practical measurements yield the average
irradiance because all detectors have a response rate much
I(r,z) = [2P/(Sw2)]exp(2r2/w2) slower than the frequency of the wave.
To= w/z = O/(Swo) 2To = Far field divergence
Power in a Gaussian Beam

Snell's Law Irradiance of a Spherical Wave
I ( r )2 I (0) 2 exp[ 2( r / w) 2 ]
Area of a circular thin strip (annulus) with
radius r is 2Srdr. Power passing through
and
this strip is proportional to
I(r) (2Sr)dr
I ( r )2Srdr
Po
Fraction of I
4Sr 2
0
optical power = f
0.865
within 2w
I ( r )2Srdr
sin T i n2 0
sin T t n1 Perfect spherical wave

Derivation of Snells Law
Total Internal Reflection
v 1t v 2t sin Ti v1 n2
or AB c
sin T i sin T t sin Tt v2 n1
n1 sin Ti n2 sin T t
Light wave traveling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium.
n sin T constant
Depending on the incidence angle with respect to Tc, which is determined by the
ratio of the refractive indices, the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected.
(a) Ti < Tc (b) Ti = Tc (c) Ti > Tc and total internal reflection (TIR). This is Snell's law which relates the angles of incidence and A light wave traveling in a medium with a greater refractive index (n1 > n2) suffers
refraction to the refractive indices of the media. reflection and refraction at the boundary. (Notice that Ot is slightly longer than O)
Prisms Snells Law

n1 sin Ti n2 sin T t We can use constructive interference to show that there can
only be one reflected wave which occurs at an angle equal to
When n1 > n2 then obviously the transmitted angle is greater the incidence angle. The two waves along Ai and Bi are in
than the incidence angle as apparent in the figure. When the phase.
refraction angle Tt reaches 90, the incidence angle is called
the critical angle Tc which is given by When these waves are reflected to become waves Ar and Br
then they must still be in phase, otherwise they will interfere
destructively and destroy each other. The only way the two
n2 waves can stay in phase is if Tr = Ti. All other angles lead to
sin T c the waves Ar and Br being out of phase and interfering
destructively.
n1
Snells Law Snells Law

Lateral Displacement Unless the two waves at Ac and Bc still have the same phase, there
n2
sin T c will be no transmitted wave. Ac and Bc points on the front are only
in phase for one particular transmitted angle, Tt.
n1
It takes time t for the phase at B on wave Bi to reach Bc
When the incidence angle Ti exceeds Tc then there is no
BBc = v1t = ct/n1
transmitted wave but only a reflected wave. The latter
phenomenon is called total internal reflection (TIR). TIR
During this time t, the phase A has progressed to Ac
phenomenon that leads to the propagation of waves in a
AAc = v2t = ct/n2
dielectric medium surrounded by a medium of smaller
refractive index as in optical waveguides, e.g. optical fibers.
d cos T i Ac and Bc belong to the same front just like A and B so that AB is
sin T i 1 Although Snell's law for Ti > Tc shows that sinTt > 1 and hence
perpendicular to ki in medium 1 and AcBc is perpendicular to kt in
L ( n / no ) 2 sin 2 T i Tt is an "imaginary" angle of refraction, there is however an
medium 2. From geometrical considerations,
attenuated wave called the evanescent wave. ABc = BBc/sinTi and ABc = AAc/sinTt so that
Lateral Displacement
Fresnel's Equations
where r is the position vector, the wave vectors ki, kr
and kt describe the directions of the incident, reflected
and transmitted waves and Eio, Ero and Eto are the
respective amplitudes.
Any phase changes such as Ir and It in the reflected

and transmitted waves with respect to the phase of the
incident wave are incorporated into the complex
amplitudes, Ero and Eto. Our objective is to find Ero and
Eto with respect to Eio.
Light travels by total internal reflection in optical fibers

Fresnel's Equations
Fresnel's Equations
The electric and magnetic fields anywhere on the wave must

be perpendicular to each other as a requirement of
electromagnetic wave theory. This means that with E// in the
EM wave we have a magnetic field BA associated with it such
that, BA (n/c)E//. Similarly EA will have a magnetic field B//
associated with it such that B// (n/c)EA.
We use boundary conditions
Etangential(1) = Etangential(2) An optical fiber link for transmitting digital information in communications. The fiber core
Light wave traveling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. The plane of incidence is the plane of the has a higher refractive index so that the light travels along the fiber inside the fiber core
paper and is perpendicular to the flat interface between the two media. The electric field is normal to the direction of by total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.
propagation. It can be resolved into perpendicular and parallel components.
Fresnel's Equations
Fresnel's Equations
Mon-magnetic media (relative permeability, Pr = 1),
Describe the incident, reflected and refracted waves by the
Btangential(1) = Btangential(2) exponential representation of a traveling plane wave, i.e.
Using the above boundary conditions for the fields at y = 0, Ei = Eioexpj(Ztkir) Incident wave
and the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields,
we can find the reflected and transmitted waves in terms of
the incident wave. Er = Eroexpj(Ztkrr) Reflected wave
The boundary conditions can only be satisfied if the Et = Etoexpj(Ztktr) Transmitted wave
reflection and incidence angles are equal, Tr = Ti and the A small hole is made in a plastic bottle full of water to generate a water jet. When the hole is illuminated with a laser
beam (from a green laser pointer), the light is guided by total internal reflections along the jet to the tray. The light
angles for the transmitted and incident wave obey Snell's guiding by a water jet was first demonstrated by Jean-Daniel Colladan, a Swiss scientist (Water with air bubbles was
used to increase the visibility of light. Air bubbles scatter light.) [Left: Copyright: S.O. Kasap, 2005][Right: Comptes
law, n1sinT1 = n2sinT2 These are traveling plane waves Rendes, 15, 800802, October 24, 1842; Cnum, Conservatoire Numrique des Arts et Mtiers, France
Polarized Light Fresnel's Equations Fresnel's Equations
Further, the above coefficients are related by
r// + nt// = 1 and rA + 1 = tA
For convenience we take Eio to be a real number so that phase

angles of rA and tA correspond to the phase changes measured
with respect to the incident wave.
For normal incidence (Ti = 0) into Fresnel's equations we find, Incident wave Ei = Eioexpj(Ztkir)
n1 n2
A linearly polarized wave has its electric field oscillations defined along a
line perpendicular to the direction of propagation, z. The field vector E and z Reflected wave Er = Eroexpj(Ztkrr)
define a plane of polarization. r// rA
n1 n2 Transmitted wave Et = Etoexpj(Ztktr)
Brewster's angle Fresnel's Equations
Applying the boundary conditions to the EM wave going

from medium 1 to 2, the amplitudes of the reflected and
transmitted waves can be readily obtained in terms of n1, n2
and the incidence angle Ti alone. These relationships are
called Fresnel's equations. If we define n = n2/n1, as the
relative refractive index of medium 2 to that of 1, then the
reflection and transmission coefficients for EAare,
Internal reflection
rA
Er 0,A cos Ti n 2 sin 2 Ti > @ 1/ 2
>n T@
(a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and rA vs. angle of incidence Ti for n1 = 1.44 and 1/ 2
n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is 44q. Ei 0,A cos Ti 2
sin 2 i
(b) The corresponding changes I// and IA vs. incidence angle.
Fresnel's Equations
Total Internal Reflection Reflection and Polarization Angle
We find a special incidence angle, labeled as Tp, by Et 0 , A 2 cos Ti
tA
> @
In linearly polarized light, however, the field oscillations are 1/ 2
contained within a well defined plane. Light emitted from
solving the Fresnel equation for r// = 0. The field in the Ei 0,A cos Ti n 2 sin 2 Ti
reflected wave is then always perpendicular to the plane
many light sources such as a tungsten light bulb or an LED
of incidence and hence well-defined. This special angle There are corresponding coefficients for the E// fields with
diode is unpolarized and the field is randomly oriented in a
is called the polarization angle or Brewster's angle, corresponding reflection and transmission coefficients, U//
direction that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
and W//,
At the critical angle and beyond (past 44 in the figure), i.e.
n2 Er 0,// >n 2
@
sin 2 Ti
1/ 2
n 2 cos Ti
when Ti t Tc, the magnitudes of both r// and rAgo to unity so
that the reflected wave has the same amplitude as the incident
tan T p r//
Ei 0,// >n 2
sin T @ 2 1/ 2
n 2 cos Ti
wave. The incident wave has suffered total internal n1 i
reflection, TIR. Et 0,// 2n cos Ti

t //
Ei 0,// n 2 cos Ti n 2 sin 2 Ti > @1/ 2
Penetration depth of evanescent wave Evanescent Wave Phase change upon total internal reflection
When Ti > Tc, in the presence of TIR, the reflection coefficients
In internal reflection (n1 > n2), the amplitude of the become complex quantities of the type
D2 = Attenuation coefficient for the electric field
penetrating into medium 2 reflected wave from TIR is equal to the amplitude of rA = 1exp(jIA) and r// = 1exp(jI)
the incident wave but its phase has shifted. with the phase angles IA and I// being other than zero or 180. The
reflected wave therefore suffers phase changes, IA and I//, in the
2 1 / 2
2S n2
n What happens to the transmitted wave when Ti > Tc? components EA and E//. These phase changes depend on the
D2 sin T i 1
1 2
incidence angle, and on n1 and n2.
O
n 2
According to the boundary conditions, there must still The phase change IA is given by
be an electric field in medium 2, otherwise, the
The field of the evanescent wave is e1 in medium 2 when
y = 1/D2 = G = Penetration depth
boundary conditions cannot be satisfied. When Ti >
Tc, the field in medium 2 is attenuated (decreases 1
tan IA
>sin T n @ 2
i
2 12
with y, and is called the evanescent wave. 2 cos Ti

Phase change upon total internal reflection

Goos-Hnchen Shift
For the E// component, the phase change I// is given by
Virtual reflecting plane n2

y
B d tan 12 I// 12 S
>sin T n @2
i
2 1/ 2
A
z
n 2 cos Ti
Ti Tr n1 > n2
'z
Incident Reflected
light light
When Ti > Tc, for a plane wave that is reflected, there is an evanescent wave at the boundary
propagating along z.
'z = 2GtanTi
Optical Tunneling Evanescent wave when plane waves are incident and reflected External Reflection
y
Optically tunneled light
Et ,A ( y , z, t ) v e D 2 y exp j (Zt kiz z )
C kt n1
B n2 d where kiz = kisinTi is the wavevector of the incident wave
along the z-axis, and D2 is an attenuation coefficient for the
E
A n1 > n2
kr electric field penetrating into medium 2
Incident light ki Reflected light
Ti > Tc 1/ 2
2Sn2 n1
2
D2 sin 2 Ti 1
When medium B is thin (thickness d is small), the field penetrates from
the AB interface into medium B and reaches BC interface, and gives rise to
O n2

a transmitted wave in medium C. The effect is the tunneling of the
incident beam in A through B to C. The maximum field Emax of the
evanescent wave in B decays in B along y and but is finite at the BC
The reflection coefficients r// and rA versus angle of incidence Ti for n1 = 1.00 and n2 = 1.44.
boundary and excites the transmitted wave.
External Reflection Beam Splitters
Example: Reflection at normal incidence. Internal Frustrated Total Internal Reflection (FTIR)
and external reflection Light approaches the boundary from the lower index side,
n1 < n2
Consider the reflection of light at normal incidence on a boundary This is external reflection.
between a glass medium of refractive index 1.5 and air of Light becomes reflected by the surface of an optically denser
refractive index 1. (higher refractive index) medium.
(a) If light is traveling from air to glass, what is the reflection
coefficient and the intensity of the reflected light with respect to rA and r// depend on the incidence angle Ti. At normal
that of the incident light? incidence, rA and r// are negative. In external reflection at
normal incidence there is a phase shift of 180. r// goes
(b) If light is traveling from glass to air, what is the reflection through zero at the Brewster angle, Tp. At Tp, the reflected
coefficient and the intensity of the reflected light with respect to
wave is polarized in the EA component only.
that of the incident light?
(a) A light incident at the (b) Two prisms separated by a thin low
(c) What is the polarization angle in the external reflection in a Transmitted light in both internal reflection (when Ti < Tc) and long face of a glass prism refractive index film forming a beam-splitter
suffers TIR; the prism cube. The incident beam is split into two
above? How would you make a polaroid from this? external reflection does not experience a phase shift. deflects the light. beams by FTIR.
Intensity, Reflectance and Beam splitter cubes

Solution Transmittance
(Courtesy of CVI Melles
Griot)
(a) The light travels in air and becomes partially reflected
at the surface of the glass which corresponds to external
Reflectance R measures the intensity of the reflected light
reflection. Thus n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5. Then, with respect to that of the incident light and can be defined
separately for electric field components parallel and
perpendicular to the plane of incidence. The reflectances RA
n1 n2 1 1.5
r// rA 0.2 and R// are defined by
n1 n2 1 1.5
2 2
Ero ,A 2
Ero ,// 2
This is negative which means that there is a 180 phase and R// r//
RA 2
rA 2
shift. The reflectance (R), which gives the fractional Eio ,//
Eio ,A Two prisms separated by a thin low
reflected power, is refractive index film forming a beam-
splitter cube. The incident beam is split
R = r//2 = 0.04 or 4%. into two beams by FTIR.
At normal incidence Optical Tunneling

(b) The light travels in glass and becomes partially
reflected at the glass-air interface which corresponds to
internal reflection. n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1. Then, 2
n1 n2
n1 n2 1.5 1 R RA R//
r// rA
n1 n2 1.5 1
0.2
n1 n2
There is no phase shift. The reflectance is again 0.04 or
4%. In both cases (a) and (b) the amount of reflected Since a glass medium has a refractive index of
light is the same. Light propagation along an Coupling of laser light into a thin layer
around 1.5 this means that typically 4% of the optical guide by total - optical guide - using a prism. The
incident radiation on an air-glass surface will be internal reflections light propagates along the thin layer.
reflected back.
Example: Reflection of light from a less dense Reflection and Transmission An Example (c) Light is traveling in air and is incident on the glass
medium (internal reflection) surface at the polarization angle. Here n1 = 1, n2 = 1.5
Question A light beam traveling in air is incident on a glass plate of refractive index
1.50 . What is the Brester or polarization angle? What are the relative intensities of and tanTp = (n2/n1) = 1.5 so that Tp = 56.3q.
A ray of light which is traveling in a glass medium of the reflected and transmitted light for the polarization perpendicular and parallel to
refractive index n1 = 1.460 becomes incident on a less dense the plane of incidence at the Brestwer angle of incidence?
glass medium of refractive index n2 = 1.440. The free space Solution Light is traveling in air and is incident on the glass surface at the polarization
wavelength (O) of the light ray is 1300 nm. angle Tp. Here n1 = 1, n2 = 1.5 and tanTp = (n2/n1) = 1.5 so that Tp = 56.31. We now have
to use Fresnel's equations to find the reflected and transmitted amplitudes. For the
perpendicular polarization
(a) What should be the minimum incidence angle E r 0,A cos T i [n 2 sin 2 T i ]1 / 2
for TIR? rA 56.3o
E i 0,A cos T i [n 2 sin 2 T i ]1 / 2
(b) What is the phase change in the reflected wave
when Ti = 87 and when Ti = 90? cos(56.31o ) [1.52 sin 2 (56.31o )]1 / 2
rA 0.385
(c) What is the penetration depth of the evanescent cos(56.31o ) [1.52 sin 2 (56.31o )]1 / 2
wave into medium 2 when On the other hand, r// = 0. The reflectances RA = | rA|2 = 0.148 and R// = |r//|2 = 0 so that R This type of pile-of-plates polarizer was invented by
Ti = 80 and when Ti = 90? = 0.074, and has no parallel polarization in the plane of incidence. Notice the negative sign Dominique F.J. Arago in 1812
in rA, which indicates a phase change of S.
Solution Reflection and Transmission An Example Transmittance

E t 0,A 2 cos T i
(a) The critical angle Tc for TIR is given by tA
E i 0,A cos T i [n 2 sin 2 T i ]1 / 2 Transmittance T relates the intensity of the transmitted wave
sinTc = n2/n1 = 1.440/1.460 so that Tc = 80.51 o
to that of the incident wave in a similar fashion to the
2 cos(56.31 ) reflectance.
tA 0.615
cos(56.31o ) [1.52 sin 2 (56.31o )]1 / 2
(b) Since the incidence angle Ti > Tc there is a Et 0,// 2n cos T i
However the transmitted wave is in a different medium and
phase shift in the reflected wave. The phase t // further its direction with respect to the boundary is also
Ei 0,// n cos T i [n 2 sin 2 T i ]1 / 2
2
change in Er,A is given by IA. different due to refraction.

2(1.5) cos(56.31o )
t // 0.667
Using n1 = 1.460, n2 =1.440 and Ti = 87, (1.5) 2 cos(56.31o ) [1.52 sin 2 (56.31o )]1 / 2 For normal incidence, the incident and transmitted beams are
normal so that the equations are simple:
Notice that r// + nt// = 1 and rA + 1 = tA, as we expect.
Reflection and Transmission An Example

2 1/ 2 To find the transmittance for each polarization, we need the refraction angle Tt. From
Transmittance
2 $ 1.440 Snell's law, n1sinTi = ntsinTt i.e. (1)sin(56.31q) = (1.5)sinTt, we find Tt = 33.69q.
sin (87 )
tan 12 IA
>sin 2
Ti n 2 @
1/ 2
1.460 n2 Eto ,//
2
n2 2 n2 Eto ,A
2
n2 2 n2 Eto ,A
2
n2 2 n2 Eto ,//
2
n2 2
cos T i cos(87 $ ) T// 2 n t // TA 2 n t A TA t A T// t //
n1 Eio ,// 1 n1 Eio ,A 1 2 2
n1 Eio ,A n1 n1 Eio ,// n1
= 2.989 = tan[1/2(143.0q)] (1.5) cos(33.69o )
T// 2 (1.5) cos(33.69o )
(1) cos(56.31o ) (0.667) 1 2
TA (1) cos(56.31o ) (0.615) 0.852

so that the phase change IA = 143. or 4n1n2
T TA T//
n1 n2 2
Clearly, light with polarization parallel to the plane of incidence has greater intensity. The
For the Er,// component, the phase change is total transmittance T = (0.852+1)/2 = 0.926. Note that R + T = 0.074 + 0.926 = 1.
If we were to reflect light from a glass plate, keeping the angle of incidence at 56.3, then
tan 12 I// 12 S
>sin T n @ 2
i
2 1/ 2
1
tan 12 IA
the reflected light will be polarized with an electric field component perpendicular to the
plane of incidence. The transmitted light will have the field greater in the plane of incidence,
Further, the fraction of light reflected and fraction transmitted
must add to unity. Thus R + T = 1.
n cos T 2
i n2 that is, it will be partially polarized. By using a stack of glass plates one can increase the
polarization of the transmitted light. (This type of pile-of-plates polarizer was invented by
Dominique F.J. Arago in 1812.)
This reflected wave B, also suffers a
d Example: Antireflection coatings on solar cells
180 phase change since n3 > n2. Incident light so that
n1 n2 n3
When light is incident on the surface of a semiconductor it
When B reaches A, it has suffered a A
B
tan(1/2I// + 1/2n1/n2)2tan(IA/2) =
total delay of traversing the thickness d C
becomes partially reflected. Partial reflection is an important
of the coating twice. The phase energy loss in solar cells.
difference is equivalent to kc(2d)
(1.460/1.440)2tan(1/2143)
D
where kc = 2S/Oc is the propagation The refractive index of Si is about 3.5 at wavelengths around
constant in the coating, i.e. kc =2S/Oc Surface which gives I// = 143.95q180q or 36.05
where Oc is the wavelength in the Antireflection Semiconductor or 700 - 800 nm. Reflectance with n1(air) = 1 and n2(Si) | 3.5 is
coating photovoltaic device
coating. Repeat with Ti = 90 to find IA = 180q and I// = 0q.
Since Oc = O /n2, where O is the free-space wavelength, the phase difference n n 2

1 3.52 Note that as long as Ti > Tc, the magnitude of the reflection
'I between A and B is (2Sn2/O)(2d). To reduce the reflected light, A and B R
n n
1 2
0.309
must interfere destructively. This requires the phase difference to be S or 1 2 1 3.5 coefficients are unity. Only the phase changes.
odd-multiples of S, mS where m = 1,3,5,} is an odd-integer. Thus
30% of the light is reflected and is not available for
2Sn2
O conversion to electrical energy; a considerable reduction in (c) The amplitude of the evanescent wave as it
2d mS or d m
4n

the efficiency of the solar cell. penetrates into medium 2 is
O 2 Et,A(y,t) v Eto,Aexp(D2y)
The field strength drops to e-1 when y = 1/D2 = G, which is
The thickness of the coating must be odd-multiples of the called the penetration depth. The attenuation constant D2 is
quarter wavelength in the coating and depends on the
wavelength.
1 / 2
2S n2 n1 2
2
D2
2 sin T i 1
n22 n1n3 O n2
Rmin 2
n
2 n n
1 3
Illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the reflected light intensity.
O We can coat the surface of the
m 2S 1.440 1 / 2
4n
semiconductor device with a thin 2
d layer of a dielectric material, e.g. i.e. D2 1.460 sin2 (87) 1
2 Si3N4 (silicon nitride) that has an

1300 u 109 m 1.440

intermediate refractive index.
To obtain good destructive interference between waves A and = 1.10u106 m-1.
B, the two amplitudes must be comparable. We need (proved
later) n2 = (n1n3). When n2 = (n1n3) then the reflection
n1(air) = 1, n2(coating) | 1.9 and n3(Si) = 3.5 The penetration depth is,
coefficient between the air and coating is equal to that
between the coating and the semiconductor. For a Si solar G 1/D2 = 1/(1.104u106 m) = 9.06u10-7 m, or 0.906 Pm
Light is first incident on the air/coating surface. Some of it
cell, (3.5) or 1.87. Thus, Si3N4 is a good choice as an
antireflection coating material on Si solar cells. becomes reflected as A in the figure. Wave A has experienced For 90, repeating the calculation, D2 = 1.164u106 m-1, so that
a 180 phase change on reflection because this is an external
reflection. The wave that enters and travels in the coating then G = 1/D2 = 0.859 Pm
Taking the wavelength to be 700 nm,
becomes reflected at the coating/semiconductor surface. The penetration is greater for smaller incidence angles
d = (700 nm)/[4 (1.9)] = 92.1 nm or odd-multiples of d.
d1 d2 d1 d2
Dielectric Mirror or Bragg Reflector 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
2
n22 n1n3
A
B z n3
2
C
D
Rmin

n0 High Low High Low
n1
N=1
n2 n1
N=2
n2 Substrate
n
2 n n
1 3
A dielectric mirror has a stack of dielectric layers of alternating
refractive indices. Let n1 (= nH) > n2 (= nL)
2
Layer thickness d = Quarter of wavelength or Olayer 1.92 (1)(3.5)
Rmin 2 0.00024 or 0.24%
Olayer = Oo/n; Oo is the free space wavelength at which the mirror is 1.9 (1)(3.5)
required to reflect the incident light, n = refractive index of layer.
'O n n
2
n12 N (n0 / n3 )n22 N
RN 2N 2N
| (4 / S ) arcsin 1 2 Reflected waves from the interfaces interfere constructively and Reflection is almost entirely extinguished
n1 (n0 / n3 )n2 Oo n1 n2 give rise to a substantial reflected light. If there are sufficient However, only at 700 nm.
number of layers, the reflectance can approach unity at Oo.
d1 d2 d1 d2
Example: Dielectric Mirror 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
Dielectric Mirror or Bragg Reflector
A
A dielectric mirror has quarter wave layers consisting of Ta2O5 with nH = 1.78 and SiO2 with B z n3
nL = 1.55 both at 850 nm, the central wavelength at which the mirror reflects light. The C
D
substrate is Pyrex glass with an index ns = 1.47 and the outside medium is air with n0 = 1.
Calculate the maximum reflectance of the mirror when the number N of double layers is 4 n2
n1 n1 n2 Substrate
and 12. What would happen if you use TiO2 with nH = 2.49, instead of Ta2O5? Consider the N N=1 N=2
= 12 mirror. What is the bandwidth and what happens to the reflectance if you interchange
the high and low index layers? Suppose we use a Si wafer as the substrate, what happens to r12 for light in layer 1 being reflected at the 1-2 boundary is
the maximum reflectance? r12 = (n1n2)/(n1 + n2) and is a positive number indicating no phase change.
r21 for light in layer 2 being reflected at the 2-1 boundary is
Solution r21 = (n2n1)/(n2 + n1) which is r12 (negative) indicating a S phase change.
The reflection coefficient alternates in sign through the mirror
n0 = 1 for air, n1 = nH = 1.78, n2 = nL = 1.55, n3 = ns = 1.47, N = 4. For 4 pairs of The phase difference between A and B is
layers, the maximum reflectance R4 is
2 0 + S + 2k2d2 = 0 + S + 2(2Sn2/Oo)(Oo/4n2) 2S.

(1.78) 2 ( 4 ) (1 / 1.47)(1.55) 2 ( 4 ) Schematic illustration of the principle of the dielectric mirror with many low and high
R4 (1.78) 2 ( 4 ) (1 / 1.47)(1.55) 2 ( 4 ) 0.4 or 40% Thus, waves A and B are in phase and interfere constructively. refractive index layers and its reflectance.
Dielectric mirrors are widely used in modern vertical cavity surface emitting
semiconductor lasers.
Dielectric Mirror or Bragg Reflector Dielectric mirrors

Solution d1 d2 d1 d2
N = 12. For 12 pairs of layers, the maximum reflectance R12 is 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
2 A
(1.78) 2 (12 ) (1 / 1.47)(1.55) 2 (12 ) B z n3
R12 (1.78) 2 (12 ) (1 / 1.47)(1.55) 2 (12 ) 0.906 or 90.6% C
D
n1 n2 n1 n2 Substrate
Now use TiO2 for the high-n layer with n1 = nH = 2.49, N=1 N=2
R4 = 94.0% and R12 = 100% (to two decimal places).
The refractive index contrast is important. For the TiO2-SiO2 stack we

only need 4 double layers to get roughly the same reflectance as from
12 pairs of layers of Ta2O5-SiO2. If we interchange nH and nL in the
12-pair stack, i.e. n1 = nL and n2 = nH, the Ta2O5-SiO2 reflectance falls
to 80.8% but the TiO2-SiO2 stack is unaffected since it is already
Schematic illustration of the principle of the dielectric mirror with many low and high
reflecting nearly all the light. refractive index layers and its reflectance.
Example: Complex Refractive Index for CdTe
Calculate the absorption coefficient D and the reflectance R of CdTe at
Reflectance Solution
We can only compare bandwidths 'O for "infinite" stacks (those with R | 100%)
the Reststrahlen peak, and also at 50 Pm. What is your conclusion?
Hr = Hrc jHrs and 1 = Hr1/2 For the TiO2-SiO2 stack
Solution: At the Reststrahlen peak, O | 70 Pm, K | 6, and n | 4. n n
The free-space propagation constant is 1 = n jK 'O | Oo ( 4 / S ) arcsin 2 1
n2 n1
ko = 2S/O = 2S/(70u10 m) = 9.0u104 m n2 K2 = Hrc and 2nK = Hrs
2.49 1.55
2 'O | (850 nm)( 4 / S ) arcsin 254 nm
The absorption coefficient D is 2k, 2.49 1.55
n jK 1 ( n 1) K 2 2
R
D = 2ks = 2koK = 2(9.0u104 m)(6) = 1.08u
u106 m n jK 1 ( n 1) 2 K 2 For the Ta2O5-SiO2 infinite stack, we get 'O =74.8 nm
which corresponds to an absorption depth 1/D of about 0.93 micron. As expected 'O is narrower for the smaller contrast stack
Solution continued: At the Reststrahlen peak, O | 70 Pm, K | 6, and Complex Refractive Index for CdTe
n | 4, so that Complex Refractive Index
( n 1) K 2 2
( 4 1) 6 2 2
R | 0.74 or 74%
( n 1) 2 K 2 ( 4 1) 2 62
dI
At O = 50 Pm, K | 0.02, and n | 2. Repeating the above calculations
we get Idz
D = 5.0 u103 m
R = 0.11 or 11 %
CdTe is used in various applications such as lenses, wedges, prisms, beam splitters,
There is a sharp increase in the reflectance from 11 to 72% as we antireflection coatings, windows etc operating typically in the infrared region up to 25
approach the Reststrahlen peak Pm. It is used as an optical material for low power CO2 laser applications.
Temporal and Spatial Coherence

Complex Refractive Index Complex Refractive Index
1 n jK Hr H rc jH rcc Consider k = kc jks
n2 K2 = H rc and 2nK = Hrs E = Eoexp(ksz)expj(Zt kcz)
I v|E|2 vexp(ksz)
2
n jK 1 ( n 1) 2 K 2
R
n jK 1 ( n 1) 2 K 2 We know from EM wave theory
Hr = Hrc jHrs and 1 = Hr1/2

1 = n jK = k/ko = (1/ko)[kc jks]
(a) A sine wave is perfectly coherent and contains a well-defined frequency Xo. (b) A finite
wave train lasts for a duration 't and has a length l. Its frequency spectrum extends over
'X = 2/'t. It has a coherence time 't and a coherence length O. (c) White light exhibits
practically no coherence. 88 Pm 1 n jK Hr H rc jH rcc
Interference between coherent waves Temporal and Spatial Coherence
Temporal and Spatial Coherence
Resultant intensity I is 't = coherence time 1
'X |
I = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)1/2cosG l = c't = coherence length 't
G = k(r2 r1) + (I2 I 1) Na lamp, orange radiation at 589 nm has spectral width 'X |
5u1011 Hz.
't | 1/'X 2u10-12 s or 2 ps,
Interference between incoherent waves and its coherence length l = c't,

l = 6u10-4 m or 0.60 mm.
I = I1 + I2 He-Ne laser operating in multimode has a spectral width around
1
1.5u109 Hz, 't |'X 1/1.5u109 s or 0.67 ns
'X |
l = c't = 0.20 m or 200 mm. 't
Interference between coherent waves Interference Temporal and Spatial Coherence

No interference Interference No interference
Resultant intensity I is 't
(a) A
I = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)1/2cosG B
G = k(r2 r1) + (I2 I 1) Time
Source
P
(b) c Spatially coherent source
Q
E1 = Eo1sin(Zt kr1 I1) and E2 = Eo2sin(Zt kr2 I2)

(c) c An incoherent beam
Interference results in E = E1 + E2
Space
(a) Two waves can only interfere over the time interval 't. (b) Spatial coherence involves
EE (E1 E 2 ) (E1 E 2 ) E12 E 22 2E1 E 2 comparing the coherence of waves emitted from different locations on the source. (c) An
incoherent beam
Optical Resonator Interference Temporal and Spatial Coherence

Resultant intensity I is 't = coherence time
Fabry-Perot I = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)1/2cosG l = c't = coherence length
Optical Cavity G = k(r2 r1) + (I2 I 1)
For a Gaussian light pulse
Phase difference due to optical path difference
1
Constructive interference Destructive interference
'X |
This is a tunable large aperture (80 mm) etalon
with two end plates that act as reflectors. The end
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)1/2 and Imin = I1 + I2 2(I1I2)1/2 't
plates have been machined to be flat to O/110.
There are three piezoelectric transducers that can If the interfering beams have equal irradiances, then
tilt the end plates and hence obtain perfect Spectral width Pulse duration
alignment. (Courtesy of Light Machinery)
Imax = 4I1 Imin = 0
Optical Resonator Fabry-Perot Optical Cavity Optical Resonator
Fabry-Perot Optical Cavity
Io Io
I cavity I max
(1 R ) 4R sin 2 ( kL)
2
(1 R ) 2
Maxima at kmL = mS
m = 1,2,3,integer
Fabry-Perot etalons can be made to operate from UV to IR wavelengths with optical

(2S/Om)L = mS Schematic illustration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a)
cavity spacings from a few microns to many centimeters Reflected waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain
wavelengths are allowed in the cavity. (c) Intensity vs. frequency for various modes.
m(Om/2) = L
(Courtesy of IC Optical Systems Ltd.)
R is mirror reflectance and lower R means higher loss from the cavity.
Note: The two curves are sketched so that the maximum intensity is unity
Optical Resonator
Fabry-Perot Optical Cavity
Xm = m(c/2L) = mXf = Mode frequency

Quality factor Q is similar to the Finesse F
m = integer, 1,2,
Resonant frequency Xm Xf =free spectral range = c/2L = Separation of modes
Q mF Each allowed EM oscillation
Spectral width GXm Xf SR1/ 2
GX m F
F = Finesse is a cavity mode
F 1 R R = Reflectance
Optical Resonator Fabry-Perot

Optical Resonator is also an optical filter Optical Cavity
Only certain wavelengths (cavity modes) are transmitted A + B = A + Ar 2exp(j2kL)
Ecavity = A + B + } = A + Ar2exp(j2kL) + Ar4exp(j4kL) + Ar6exp(j6kL) + }
A
Ecavity
1 r exp( j 2kL)
2
Io Io
I cavity I max
Fused silica etalon
(Courtesy of Light Machinery)
A 10 GHz air spaced etalon
with 3 zerodur spacers.
(1 R ) 4R sin 2 ( kL)
2
(1 R ) 2
(Courtesy of Light Machinery)
(1 R ) 2 Maxima at kmL = mS

I transmitted I incident
(1 R ) 4R sin 2 ( kL)
2
m = 1,2,3,integer
Example: Semiconductor Optical Cavity Example: An Optical Resonator in Air
Solution: Continued Solution: Continued
Spectral width of a mode in wavelength is Xf = c/2L = separation of modes

= (3u108) / [2(100u10)] = 1.5u1012 Hz.
c c (3 u 108 )
GOm G GXm (5.03 u 1010 ) 0.136 nm SR 1 / 2 S 0.901 / 2 Xf 1.5 u 1012
Xm X m2 (3.33 u 1014 ) 2 F 29.8 GXm 50.3 GHz
1 R 1 0.90 F 29.8
The Q-factor is c c (3 u 108 )

GOm G GXm (5.03 u 1010 ) 0.136 nm
Q = mF = (1374)(29.8) = u10 Xm X m2 (3.33 u 1014 ) 2
Piezoelectric transducer controlled Fabry-Perot etalons. Left has a 70 mm and the
right has 50 mm clear aperture. The piezoelectric controller maintains the reflecting
The Q-factor is plates parallel while the cavity separation is scanned. (The left etalon has a reflection
of interference fringes that are on the adjacent computer display)
Q = mF = (222)(29.8) = u10 (Courtesy of IC Optical Systems Ltd.)
Diffraction Example: Semiconductor Optical Cavity

Consider a Fabry-Perot optical cavity of a semiconductor material of length 250 microns
with mirrors, each with a reflectance of 0.90. Calculate the cavity mode nearest to 1310
nm. Calculate the separation of the modes, finesse, the spectral width of each mode, and
the Q-factor. Take n = 3.6 for the semiconductor medium.
Solution
Given, L u10 m, n = 3.6, R = 0.90
'Xm Xf = c/2nL = Separation of modes = 1.67u1011 Hz
SR1/2 S 0.91/2
F 29.8
1 R 1 0.9 A scanning Fabry-Perot interferometer (Model SA200), used as a spectrum analyzer, that
Xf 1.67 u 1011
has a free spectral range of 1.5 GHz, a typical finesse of 250, spectral width (resolution) of
A light beam incident on a small circular aperture becomes diffracted and its light intensity pattern GXm 5.59 GHz 7.5 MHz. The cavity length is 5 cm. It uses two concave mirrors instead of two planar
mirrors to form the optical cavity. A piezoelectric transducer is used to change the cavity
after passing through the aperture is a diffraction pattern with circular bright rings (called Airy rings). F 29.8 length and hence the resonant frequencies. A voltage ramp is applied through the coaxial
If the screen is far away from the aperture, this would be a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. (Diffraction
cable to the piezoelectric transducer to scan frequencies. (Courtesy of Thorlabs)
image obtained by SK)
Example: Semiconductor Optical Cavity Example: An Optical Resonator in Air

Diffraction from a Circular Aperture
Solution: Continued Consider a Fabry-Perot optical cavity in air of length 100 microns with mirrors that have
a reflectance of 0.90. Calculate the cavity mode nearest to the wavelength 900 nm, and
Mode number m corresponding to 1310 nm is corresponding wavelength. Calculate the separation of the modes, the finesse, the
spectral width of each mode and the Q-factor
2(3.6)( 250 u 106 )
2nL
m 1374.05 Solution
O (1310 u 109 )
Find the mode number m corresponding to 900 nm and then
which must be an integer (1374) so that the actual mode take the integer
wavelength is
2L 2(100 u 106 ) 2L 2(100 u 106 )
2nL 2(3.6)( 250 u 106 ) m 222.2 Om 900.9 nm
Om 1310.04 nm O (900 u 109 ) m ( 222)
m (1374)
Thus, m = 222 (must be an integer)
For all practical purposes the mode wavelength is 1310 nm
A light beam incident on a small circular aperture becomes diffracted and its light intensity pattern Om = 900.90 nm | 900 nm (very close)
after passing through the aperture is a diffraction pattern with circular bright rings (called Airy rings). Mode frequency is
If the screen is far away from the aperture, this would be a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. (Image c (3 u 108 ) The frequency corresponding to Om is
obtained by SK. Overexposed to highlight the outer rings) Xm 2.3 u 1014 Hz
Om (1310 u 109 ) Xm = c/Om = (3u108)/(900.9u10-9) = 3.33u1014 Hz
Diffraction from a Circular Aperture Diffraction from a Single Slit
Diffraction
Huygens-Fresnel principle
Every unobstructed point of a wavefront, at a given
instant in time, serves as a source of spherical
secondary waves (with the same frequency as that of
the primary wave). The amplitude of the optical field at
(Image obtained by SK)
any point beyond is the superposition of all these
wavelets (considering their amplitudes and relative
O phases)
sin T o 1.22 Diameter of
D aperture
Diffraction from a Rectangular Aperture Diffraction from a Single Slit Diffraction

GE v (Gy ) exp( jky sin T )
y a
E (T ) C Gy exp( jky sin T )

b y 0
1
j ka sin T
a Ce 2
a sin( 12 ka sin T )
E (T ) 1
2
ka sin T
2
C ca sin( 12 ka sin T )
The rectangular aperture of dimensions a b on the left gives the I (T ) I (0)sinc 2 ( E )
diffraction pattern on the right. (b is twice a)

1
2
ka sin T (a) Huygens-Fresnel principle states that each point in the aperture becomes a source of
(Image obtained by SK. Overexposed to highlight the higher order lobes.) secondary waves (spherical waves). The spherical wavefronts are separated by O. The new
E ka sin T
1 wavefront is the envelope of the all these spherical wavefronts. (b) Another possible
2 wavefront occurs at an angle T to the z-direction which is a diffracted wave.
Diffraction from a Square Aperture Diffraction from a Single Slit Diffraction from a Single Slit
2 2
sin( 1 ka sin T ) sin E
I (T ) I ( 0) 1 2 I ( 0) I (0)sinc 2 ( E )
2 ka sin T E
ka sin TE 1
2
Zero intensity when I(T) = 0
mO
sin T
a
Divergence (a) The aperture has a finite width a along y, but it is very long along x so that it is a one-dimensional
slit. The aperture is divided into N number of point sources each occupying Gy with amplitude
Diffraction pattern far away from a square aperture. The image has been 2O proportional to Gy since the slit is excited by a plane electromagnetic wave. (b) The intensity
overexposed to capture the faint side lobes (Image obtained by SK) 'T 2T o | distribution in the received light at the screen far away from the aperture: the diffraction pattern.
a Note that the slit is very long along x and there is no diffraction along this dimension. (c) Diffraction
patter obtained by using a laser beam from a pointer incident on a single slit.
Rayleigh Criterion Diffraction from a Circular Aperture
Experimental Diffraction Patterns
(Overexposed photo by SK)

Image of two point sources captured through a small circular aperture. (a) The two points
are fully resolved since the diffraction patterns of the two sources are sufficiently
Crossed slits 200 x 100 Pm separated. (b) The two images near the Rayleigh limit of resolution. (c) The first dark ring
through the center of the bright Airy disk of the other pattern. (Approximate.) (Images by Diffraction pattern far away from a circular aperture. The image has
SK) been overexposed to capture the faint outer rings (By SK.)
Green laser pointer used at a
wavelength of 532 nm
Experimental Diffraction Patterns Resolution of the Human Eye Diffraction from a Circular Aperture
The human eye has a pupil diameter of Intensity distribution
about 2 mm. What would be the minimum
a = 20 Pm angular separation of two points under a 2
green light of 550 nm and their minimum 2 J (J )
separation if the two objects are 30 cm from I (J ) I o 1
J
a = 40 Pm
the eye?
a = 80 Pm The image will be diffraction pattern in the eye, and is a result of waves in this medium.
If the refractive index n | 1.33 (water) in the eye, then J = (1/2)kDsinT (By SK)
a = 160 Pm (550 u 10 9 m)
O
sin('T min ) 1.22 1.22
(Overexposed photo by SK)
nD (1.33)(2 u 10 3 m) k = 2SO
'Tmin = 0.0145 1 S
Single slit with a width a Their minimum separation s would be
George Bidell Airy (18011892, England).
George Airy was a professor of astronomy
at Cambridge and then the Astronomer
J 1 (J )
S 0
cos(D J sin D )dD
s = 2Ltan('Tmin/2) = 2(300 mm)tan(0.0145/2) Royal at the Royal Observatory in
Green laser pointer used at a Greenwich, England. ( Mary Evans
Bessel function (first kind,
= 0.076 mm = 76 micron Picture Library/Alamy.)
wavelength of 532 nm first order)
which is about the thickness of a human hair (or this page).
Experimental Diffraction Patterns Experimental Diffraction Patterns

Rayleigh Criterion
Overexposed photo by SK
Resolution of imaging systems is limited by diffraction effects. As points S1 and S2 get

Single slit with a width 100 Pm (Overexposed photo by SK) closer, eventually the Airy patterns overlap so much that the resolution is lost. The
Blue = 402 nm Rayleigh criterion allows the minimum angular separation two of the point sources be
Green = 532 nm Diffraction from a circular aperture determined. (Schematic illustration inasmuch as the side lobes are actually much smaller
with a diameter of 30 Pm the center peak.)
Red = 670 nm
O
sin( 'T min ) 1.22
Answer Green laser pointer used at a
Why does the central bright lobe get larger with increasing 2O wavelength of 532 nm
'T 2T o | D
wavelength? a
Example: A reflection grating
Diffraction Gratings Diffraction Grating
The secular reflection from the grooved surface
coincides with the mth order diffraction when
2J = Tm Ti
? J = (1/2)Tm Ti) = (1/2)(59.6q 45q) = 7.3q
Suppose that we reduce d to 2 Pm

Recalculating the above we find
Tm = 3.9q for m = 1
and imaginary for m = +1.
Further, for m = 2, there is a second order

diffraction beam at Tm = 57.4q.
(a) Ruled periodic parallel scratches on a glass serve as a transmission grating. (The glass
If we increase the angle of incidence, for plate is assumed to be very thin.) (b) A reflection grating. An incident light beam results in (a) A diffraction grating with N slits in an opaque screen. Slit periodicity is d and slit width is a; a
example, Ti = 85q on the first grating, the various "diffracted" beams. The zero-order diffracted beam is the normal reflected beam << d. (b) The far-field diffracted light pattern. There are distinct, that is diffracted, beams in certain
diffraction angle for m = increases from 33.5q with an angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence. directions (schematic). (c) Diffraction pattern obtained by shining a beam from a red laser pointer
to 57.2q and the other diffraction peak (m = 1) onto a diffraction grating. The finite size of the laser beam results in the dot pattern. (The wavelength
was 670 nm, red, and the grating has 2000 lines per inch.)
disappears
Experiments with Diffraction Gratings

Diffraction Grating
Photo by SK Bragg diffraction condition
Normal incidence
dsinT = mO ; m = 0, r1, r2, }
Diffraction grating
(2000 lines/inch) William Lawrence Bragg (1890-1971), Australian-born
British physicist, won the Nobel prize with his father
Blue = 402 nm (a) A blazed grating. Triangular grooves have been cut into the surface with a periodicity William Henry Bragg for his "famous equation" when he
Green = 532 nm d. The side of a triangular groove make an angle J to the plane of the diffraction angle. was only 25 years old (Courtesy of SSPL via Getty
Images)
Red = 670 nm For normal incidence, the angle of diffraction must be 2J to place the specular reflection
on the diffracted beam. (b) When the incident beam is not normal, the specular The important thing in science is not so much to obtain
reflection will coincides with the diffracted beam, when (J + Ti) + J = Tm new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about
Why do the diffraction spots become further separated them.
as you increase the wavelength?
ANSWER Example: A reflection grating

Diffraction Gratings
Consider a reflection grating with a Bragg diffraction condition
period d that is 10 Pm. Find the
diffracted beams if a collimated light Normal incidence
wave of wavelength 1550 nm is incident
on the grating at an angle of 45q to its
normal. What should be the blazing
dsinT = mO ; m = 0, r1, r2, }
angle J if we were to use the blazed
grating with the same periodicity? What Oblique incidence
happens to the diffracted beams if the
dsinT1 = mO
dsinT2 = (m+1)O
d(sinT2sinT1) = O periodicity is reduced to 2 Pm?
d(sinTm sinTi = mO ; m = 0, r1, r2,
Solution: Put, m = 0 to find the zero-order diffraction, T0 = 45q as expected.
sinT|T The general Bragg diffraction condition is sin( 1 k a )
2
sin( 12 Nk y d )
2
d(sinTm sinTi) = mO. I ( y) Io 1 2 y

? (10 Pm)(sinTm sin(45q) = (+1)(1.55 Pm)
2 k y a N sin( 2 k y d )
1
O ? (10 Pm)(sinTm sin(45q) = (1)(1.55 Pm)
Angular separation of spots 'T | T 2 T1 Solving these two equations, we find
d Tm = 59.6q for m = 1 and Tm = 33.5q for m = 1
Diffraction from a single slit ky = (2S/O)sinT Diffraction from N slits
Thin Films Optics Fabry-Perot Interferometer
We can separate wavelengths by using a
diffraction grating
Areflected = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + } Useful in Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Areflected/A0 = r1 + t1tc1r2ejI
t1tc1r1r22ej2I
t1tc1r12r23ej3I Bright rings
} 2nLcosT = mO; m = 0, r

Assume normal incidence
I = (2SO)n2d
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Thin Films Optics Example on Wavelength Separation by Diffraction
A transmission diffraction grating has a periodicity of 3 Pm. The angle of incidence is 30q
with respect to the normal to the diffraction grating. What is the angular separation of the
j 2I
r1 r2 e two wavelength component s at 1550 nm and 1540 nm, separated by 10 nm?
r
1 r1r2 e j 2 I
t1t3e jI
t
1 r1r2 e j 2I
) ko (OAC d ) k d ko OBC
2n1 2n2 2n3
t 1 = t 12 t 2 = t 21 t3 t23
n1 n2 n1 n2 n2 n3 2S
') '( kd ) '( nd ) d(sinTm sinTi) = mO
O
Reflection Coefficient Thin Films Optics Example on Wavelength Separation
r 1 = r2
r1 r2 e j 2 I exp(j2I) = 1
Ti = 45q. Periodicity = d = 3 Pm
r 2Sn2 d
1 r1r2 e j 2 I I m S 1 d(sinTm sinTi) = mO.
O
2
d = 3 Pm, O = 1.550 Pm, Ti = 45q, and calculate the diffraction angle Tm for m = 1
Choose (3 Pm)[sinT1 sin(45q)] = (1)(1.550 Pm)

n2 = (n1n3)1/2 mO ? T1 = 10.978q
? r 1 = r2 d
4n2 A Oc= 1.540Pm, examining the same order, m = 1, we find T1c = 11.173q
Assume normal incidence ? 'T1 = 11.173q10.978q = 0.20q

r=0 n2 = (n1n3)1/2
I = (2SO)n2d
Note, m = 1 gives a complex angle and should be neglected.
Rayleigh Scattering EXAMPLE: Transmission spectra through a thin film (a-Se) on a
glass substrate Transmission Coefficient
I v 1 cos T 2
exp(j2I) = 1
t1t3e jI 2Sn2 d
t I m 12 S
Substrate
1 r1r2 e j 2I O
Thin film interference fringes
mO
(a) Rayleigh scattering involves the polarization of a small dielectric particle or a region d
that is much smaller than the light wavelength. The field forces dipole oscillations in the
Absorption region 4n2
particle (by polarizing it) which leads to the emission of EM waves in "many" directions
so that a portion of the light energy is directed away from the incident beam. (b) A polar
t = Maximum
plot of the dependence of the intensity of the scattered light on the angular direction T with
respect to the direction of propagation, x in Rayleigh scattering. (In a polar plot, the radial
distance OP is the intensity.)
Rayleigh Scattering Example: Thin Film Optics

Minimum and Maximum Reflectance
Consider a semiconductor device with n3 = 3.5 that
Constant intensity contour has been coated with a transparent optical film (a
2 1 cos2 T dielectric film) with n2 = 2.5, n1 = 1 (air). If the film
Iv 2 2
r2 thickness is 160 nm, find the minimum and n22 n1n3 n3 n1
P
maximum reflectances and transmittances and their n1 < n2 < n3 Rmin n 2 n n Rmax n n
r 2
corresponding wavelengths in the visible range. 2 1 3 3 1

T T (Assume normal incidence.)
r
z 0
z
-2 x 0 2
Solution: We have n1 < n2 < n3. Rmin occurs at I= S or odd multiple of S , and n1 < n3 < n2 then Rmin and Rmax equations are interchanged
maximum reflectance Rmax at I= 2S or an integer multiple of 2S .
6 y
-2
2 2
n22 n1n3 2.52 (1)(3.5)
4 Rmin n 2 n n 2.52 (1)(3.5) 0.080 or 8.0% While Rmax appears to be independent from n2, the index n2 is
2 1 3
Scattered intensity contours. Each curve A density plot where the brightness
nonetheless still involved in determining maximum reflection
corresponds to a constant scattered intensity. represents the intensity of the scattered Tmax = 1 Rmin = 0.92 or 92% inasmuch as R reaches Rmax when I = 2(2SO)n2d = Sm);
The intensity at any location such as P on a light at a given point r,T
when I Su(even number)
2 2
given contour is the same. (Arbitrary units. n3 n1 3.5 1
Relative scattered intensities in arbitrary units [Generated on LiveMath (SK)] Rmax n n 0.31 or 31%
are: blue = 1, black = 2 and red = 3) 3 1 3.5 1
(Generated on LiveMath)
Tmin = 1 Rmax = 0.69 or 69%
Rayleigh Scattering Multiple Reflections in Plates and Incoherent Waves Reflectance and Transmittance of a Thin Film Coating
aRz)
I = Ioexp( Tplate = (1R)2
+ R2(1R)2
+ R4(1R)2
+
Tplate = (1R)2[1 + R2 + R4 + }]
(a) Reflectance R and transmittance T vs. I = 2n2d/O, for a thin film on a substrate
where n1 = 1 (air), n2 = 2.5 and n3 = 3.5, and n1 < n2 < n3. (b) R and T vs I for a
(1 R ) 2 4n1n2 ( n1 n2 ) 2
thin film on a substrate where n1 = 1 (air), n2 = 3.5 and n3 = 2.5, and n2 > n3 > n1
When a light beam propagates through a medium in which there are small particles, Tplate Tplate R
it becomes scattered as it propagates and losses power in the direction of
1 R2 n12 n22 plate n12 n22
propagation. The light becomes attenuated.
Photonic Crystals for Light Manipulation
Photonic Crystals Rayleigh Scattering
aRz)
I = Ioexp(
Rayleigh attenuation coefficient
2
6 1
n 2 no2
DR v N a 4 2 2
Eli Yablonovitch (left) at the University of California
at Berkeley, and Sajeev John (below) at the
Sajeev John (left), at the University of Toronto,
along with Eli Yablonovitch (above) carried out
the initial pioneering work in the development of
O n no
University of Toronto, carried out the initial the field of photonics crystals. Sajeev John was
pioneering work on photonic crystals. Eli able to show that it is possible to trap light in a
Yablonovitch has suggested that the name "photonic similar way the electron is captured, that is
crystal" should apply to 2D and 3D periodic localized, by a trap in a semiconductor. Defects
structures with a large dielectric (refractive index) in photonic crystals can confine or localize Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt) was an English physicist (18771919) and a
difference. (E. Yablonovitch, "Photonic crystals: electromagnetic waves; such effects have Nobel Laureate (1904) who made a number of contributions to wave physics of
Schematic illustration of point and line defects in a photonic crystal. A point defect acts what's in a name?", Opt. Photon. News, 18, 12, important applications in quantum computing sound and optics. He formulated the theory of scattering of light by small particles
as an optical cavity, trapping the radiation. Line defects allow the light to propagate 2007.) Their original papers were published in the and integrated photonics. (Courtesy of Sajeev and the dependence of scattering on 1/O4 circa 1871. Then, in a paper in 1899 he
same volume of Physical Review Letters in 1987. John) provided a clear explanation on why the sky is blue. Ludvig Lorentz, around the
along the defect line. The light is prevented from dispersing into the bulk of the crystal According to Eli Yablonovitch, "Photonic Crystals are same time, and independently, also formulated the scattering of waves from a small
since the structure has a full photonic bandgap. The frequency of the propagating light is semiconductors for light. (Courtesy of Eli dielectric particle, though it was published in Danish (1890).40 ( Mary Evans
Yablonovitch) Picture Library/Alamy.)
in the bandgap, that is in the stop-band.
Photonic Crystals Photonic Crystals
Slides on
Questions and
Problems
Photonic crystals in (a) 1D, (b) 2D and (c) 3D, D being the dimension. Grey
Dispersion relation, Z vs k, for waves in a 1D PC along the z-axis. There are and white regions have different refractive indices and may not necessarily be
allowed modes and forbidden modes. Forbidden modes occur in a band of the same size. / is the periodicity. The 1D photonic crystal in (a) is the well-
frequencies called a photonic bandgap. (b) The 1D photonic crystal known Bragg reflector, a dielectric stack.
corresponding to (a), and the corresponding points S1 and S2 with their
stationary wave profiles at Z1 and Z2.
Fermat's principle of least time Photonic Crystals Photonic Crystals

Fermat's principle of least time in simple terms states that when light travels from one point
to another it takes a path that has the shortest time. In going from a point A in some
medium with a refractive index n1 to a point B in a neighboring medium with refractive
index n2, the light path is AOB that involves refraction at O and satisfies Snell's law. The
time it takes to travel from A to B is minimum only for the path AOB such that the
incidence and refraction angles Ti and Tt satisfy Snell's law.
Consider a light wave
traveling from point A
(x1, y2) to B (x1, y2)
through an arbitrary
The photonic bandgaps along x, y and z overlap for all polarizations of the field, which results in a An SEM image of a 3D photonic crystal that is based
point O at a distance x full photonic bandgap 'Z. (An intuitive illustration.) (b) The unit cell of a woodpile photonic An SEM image of a 3D photonic crystal made
from Oc. The principle of crystal. There are 4 layers, labeled 1-4 in the figure, with each later having parallel "rods". The from porous silicon in which the lattice
on the wood pile structure. The rods are polycrystalline
silicon. Although 5 layers are shown, the unit cell has
least time from A to B layers are at right angles to each other. Notice that layer 3 is shifted with respect to 1, and 4 with structure is close to being simple cubic. The 4 layers e.g., the fours layers starting from the bottom
requires that O is such respect to 2. (c) An SEM image of a 3D photonic crystal that is based on the wood pile structure. silicon squares, the unit cells, are connected at layer. Typical dimensions are in microns. In one
that the incidence and The rods are polycrystalline silicon. Although 5 layers are shown, the unit cell has 4 layers e.g., the edges to produce a cubic lattice. This 3D PC similar structure with rod-to-rod pitch d = 0.65 Pm
has a photonic bandgap centered at with only a few layers, the Sandia researchers were
refraction angles obey the fours layers starting from the bottom layer. (Courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories.) (d)
5 Pm and about 1.9 Pm wide. (Courtesy of

Pm
Snell's law. The optical reflectance of a woodpile photonic crystal showing a photonic bandgap between 1.5 centered around 1.6 Pm within the
and 2 Pm. The photonic crystal is similar to that in (c) with five layers and d0.65 oPm. (Source: Max-Planck Institute for Microstructure
telecommunications band. (Courtesy of Sandia
The reflectance spectrum was plotted using the data appearing in Fig. 3 in S-Y. Lin and J.G. Physics.) National Laboratories.)
Fleming, J. Light Wave Technol., 17, 1944, 1999.)
Fermat's principle of least time
Updates and
Fermat's principle of least time in simple terms states that:
Corrected Slides
When light travels from one point to another it takes a
Class Demonstrations path that has the shortest time.
Class Problems
Check authors website Pierre de Fermat (16011665) was a French
http://optoelectronics.usask.ca mathematician who made many significant
contributions to modern calculus, number
theory, analytical geometry, and probability.
(Courtesy of Mary Evans Picture
Email errors and corrections to
Library/Alamy.)
safa.kasap@yahoo.com
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education
2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
Fermat's principle of least time
Let's draw a straight line from A to B cutting the x-axes at Oc. The line AOcB will be our
reference line and we will place the origin of x and y coordinates at Oc. Without invoking
Snell's law, we will vary point O along the x-axis (hence OOc is a variable labeled x), until
the time it takes to travel AOB is minimum, and thereby derive Snell's law. The time t it
takes for light to travel from A to B through O is
AO OB
t
c / n1 c / n2
[( x1 x ) 2 y12 ]1 / 2 [( x2 x ) 2 y22 ]1 / 2

c / n1 c / n2
x1 x
sin T i
[( x1 x ) 2 y12 ]1 / 2
( x2 x)
sin Tt
[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education
2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
AO OB
t
c / n1 c / n2
[( x1 x ) 2 y12 ]1 / 2 [( x2 x ) 2 y22 ]1 / 2

c / n1 c / n2
dt 1/ 2 u 2( x1 x)[( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2 1/ 2 u 2( x2 x)[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2

dx c / n1 c / n2
dt
The time should be minimum so 0
dx
( x1 x)[( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2 ( x2 x)[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2
0
c / n1 c / n2
( x1 x) ( x2 x)
n1 sin Ti n2 sin Tt
c / n1[( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2 c / n2 [( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2
Snells Law
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, 2013 Pearson Education
2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

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Power Point for Optoelectronics and

Ex = Eo cos(Ztkz + IR) Important Note Photonics: Principles and Practices

(Ztkz + IR) = I = Phase of the wave

This is a monochromatic plane wave of infinite extent ISBN-10: 0133081753

Chapter 1 Wave Nature of Light

A surface over which the phase of a wave is constant is

Light is an electromagnetic wave

Wave Vector k Phase change over a distance 'z

Examples of possible EM waves If this phase difference is 0 or multiples of 2S then

Gaussian Beams Exponential Notation

Real Gaussian Beams Gaussian Beams

The stronger is the interaction between the field and

Somewhat arbitrary range:

Omedium = O /n Roughly 1012 Hz to 1016 Hz

Phase Velocity and Hr

Refractive Index and Propagation Constant

Group Velocity and Group Index

There are no perfect monochromatic

We have to consider the way in which

Group Velocity and Group Index

In general, for many materials the refractive index n and dz GZ or

The group velocity therefore defines the speed with which

If v is the phase velocity of an EM wave in an isotropic

Snells Law or Descartess Law? A Gaussian Beam Average Irradiance or Intensity

The instantaneous irradiance can only be measured if the

Power in a Gaussian Beam

sin T t n1 Perfect spherical wave

Prisms Snells Law

Snells Law Snells Law

Any phase changes such as Ir and It in the reflected

Light travels by total internal reflection in optical fibers

The electric and magnetic fields anywhere on the wave must

We use boundary conditions

Further, the above coefficients are related by

r// + nt// = 1 and rA + 1 = tA

For convenience we take Eio to be a real number so that phase

Brewster's angle Fresnel's Equations

Applying the boundary conditions to the EM wave going

reflection, TIR. Et 0,// 2n cos Ti

with y, and is called the evanescent wave. 2 cos Ti

Phase change upon total internal reflection

Virtual reflecting plane n2

Intensity, Reflectance and Beam splitter cubes

At normal incidence Optical Tunneling

Solution Reflection and Transmission An Example Transmittance

change in Er,A is given by IA. different due to refraction.

Reflection and Transmission An Example

Since Oc = O /n2, where O is the free-space wavelength, the phase difference n  n 2

30% of the light is reflected and is not available for

O We can coat the surface of the

2 0 + S + 2k2d2 = 0 + S + 2(2Sn2/Oo)(Oo/4n2) 2S.

Dielectric Mirror or Bragg Reflector Dielectric mirrors

N = 12. For 12 pairs of layers, the maximum reflectance R12 is 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

R4 = 94.0% and R12 = 100% (to two decimal places).

The refractive index contrast is important. For the TiO2-SiO2 stack we

Temporal and Spatial Coherence

n2  K2 = H rc and 2nK = Hrs E = Eoexp(ksz)expj(Zt  kcz)

Interference between incoherent waves and its coherence length l = c't,

Interference between coherent waves Interference Temporal and Spatial Coherence

E1 = Eo1sin(Zt kr1 I1) and E2 = Eo2sin(Zt kr2 I2)

Optical Resonator Interference Temporal and Spatial Coherence

Fabry-Perot etalons can be made to operate from UV to IR wavelengths with optical

Xm = m(c/2L) = mXf = Mode frequency

Ex = Eo cos(Ztkz + IR) Important Note Photonics: Principles and Practices

(Ztkz + IR) = I = Phase of the wave

Since Oc = O /n2, where O is the free-space wavelength, the phase difference n n 2

n2 K2 = H rc and 2nK = Hrs E = Eoexp(ksz)expj(Zt kcz)

Ecavity = A + B + } = A + Ar2exp(j2kL) + Ar4exp(j4kL) + Ar6exp(j6kL) + }

(1 R ) 2 Maxima at kmL = mS

E (T ) C Gy exp( jky sin T )

Further, for m = 2, there is a second order

d(sinTm sinTi) = mO. I ( y) Io 1 2 y

} 2nLcosT = mO; m = 0, r

Choose (3 Pm)[sinT1 sin(45q)] = (1)(1.550 Pm)

Assume normal incidence ? 'T1 = 11.173q10.978q = 0.20q

dt 1/ 2 u 2( x1 x)[( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2 1/ 2 u 2( x2 x)[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2