Biological basis of personality

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The biological basis of personality is the collection of brain systems

and mechanisms that underlie human personality. Human neurobiology,
especially as it relates to complex traits and behaviors, is not well
understood, but research into the neuroanatomical and functional
underpinnings of personality are an active field of research. Animal
models of behavior, molecular biology, and brain imaging techniques
have provided some insight into human personality, especially trait
theories.

Much of the current understanding of personality from a

neurobiological perspective places an emphasis on the biochemistry of
the behavioral systems of reward, motivation, and punishment. This has
led to a few biologically based personality theories such as Eysenck's
three factor model of personality, Grey's reinforcement sensitivity
theory (RST), and Cloninger's model of personality. The Big Five
model of personality is not biologically based; yet some research in the
differences in brain structures provided biological support also for this model.

Contents
1 Defining personality in a biological context
2 History of biology-based personality research
3 Experimental techniques
4 Genetic and molecular correlations to personality
4.1 Neurotransmitters
4.2 Genes
4.3 Synaptic plasticity
5 Personality theories with biological basis
5.1 Eysenck's three-factor model of personality
5.2 Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory
5.3 Cloninger model of personality
5.4 Five factor model of personality
6 See also
7 References

Defining personality in a biological context

Personality can be defined as a set of characteristics or traits that drive individual differences in human
behavior. From a biological perspective, these traits can be traced back to brain structures and neural
mechanisms. However, this definition and theory of biological basis is not universally accepted. There are
many conflicting theories of personality in the fields of psychology, psychiatry, philosophy, and neuroscience.
A few examples of this are the nature vs. nurture debate and how the idea of a 'soul' fits into biological theories
of personality.[1]

History of biology-based personality research

Since the time of the ancient Greeks, humankind has attempted to
explain personality through spiritual beliefs, philosophy, and
psychology. Historically, studies of personality have traditionally come
from the social sciences and humanities, but in the past two decades
neuroscience has begun to be more influential in the understanding of
human personality.[2]

However, the most cited and influential figures in publishing the first
biology-based personality theories are Hans Eysenck and Jeffrey Alan
Gray. Eysenck used both behavioral and psychophysiological
methodologies to test and develop his theories.[3] He published a book
in 1947 called Dimensions of Personality, describing the personality
dimensions of Extraversion and Neuroticism. Gray, a student of
Eysenck, studied personality traits as individual differences in Hans Eysenck
sensitivity to rewarding and punishing stimuli.[3] The significance of
Gray's work and theories was his use of biology to define behavior,
which stimulated a lot of subsequent research.[4]

The idea of biology-based personality research is relatively new, but growing in interest and number of
publications.[5] In August 2004, there was a conference specifically on the topic, called The Biological Basis of
Personality and Individual Differences.[6] This allowed for presenting and sharing of ideas between
psychologists, psychiatrists, molecular geneticists, and neuroscientists, and eventually gave birth to the book
under the same title.[6] The book is a collection of current research (as of 2006) in the field contributed by many
authors and edited by Turhan Canli. Recently, psychology professor Colin G. DeYoung has even named the
idea as the field of 'Personality Neuroscience'.

Experimental techniques
There are many experimental techniques for measuring the biology of the brain, but there are five main
methods used to investigate the biological basis of personality.[7] The biological data from these methods are
commonly correlated with personality traits. These personality traits are often determined by personality
questionnaires. However, personality questionnaires may be biased because they are self-reported. As a result,
scientists emphasize using several different measures of personality,[7][8] rather than solely self-reported
measures of personality. For example, another measure of personality traits is observation of behavior. Both
humans and animals have been observed to measure personality traits, but animals are particularly useful for
studying the long-term behavioral-biological relationship of personality.[9]

Another interesting method that has become more sophisticated and affordable to researchers is the method of
whole genome expression analysis. This method involves collecting data for a large number of genes
simultaneously which provides many advantages in studying personality. In an article written by Alison M. Bell
and Nadia Aubin-Horth, they describe the advantages very clearly by stating, "For one, it is probable that the
genetic basis of personality is polygenic, so it makes sense to simultaneously study many genes. In addition,
gene products rarely act alone. Instead, they perform their function by interacting together in pathways and
networks. As a result, the molecular changes that characterize a phenotype are frequently not based on a single
marker or gene, but rather on an entire pathway. Whole genome expression profiling therefore has the potential
to reveal new candidates genes and pathways."[10]
 Method Function Significance

Before the advent of brain imaging

This method measures electrical activity on the surface of the
Electroencephalography technology, the only method to measure
brain through the scalp, and has the hightemporal
(EEG) brain activity was
resolution.[7]
electroencephalography (EEG).[7]

The method allows for viewing the 3D structure of the brain.

The development of brain imaging
Functional brain imaging allows for viewing 3D brain activity
,
technology has not only allowed for, but
shown as flow of blood or chemicals in the brain. Specific
Brain Imaging has served as a catalyst to the
examples of machines arePositron Emission Tomography
investigation of how the brain
(PET) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI), which both
contributes to personality.[3]
have high spatial resolution.

The use of molecular genetics in

This method is used to analyze a gene-trait link, by measuring
Molecular genetics biology-based personality research is
the structure and function of genes in the brain.[7]
expected to grow.[5]

Together, these two methods can

This method is used to analyze the amount of psychoactive
Molecular assays specifically quantify, define, and
substances, such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
manipulate the effects of brain
molecules on behavior and personality
Pharmacological This method is used to alter the levels of biochemicals, and traits. This has great clinical
Manipulation observe the effects on behavior. significance for treatment ofpersonality
disorders.

Genetic and molecular correlations to personality

Neurotransmitters

The biology-based personality theories (discussed below) are based on

correlating personality traits with behavioral systems related to
motivation, reward, and punishment. On a broad level, this involves the
autonomic nervous system, fear-processing circuits in the amygdala, the
reward pathway from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus
accumbens and prefrontal cortex. All of these circuits heavily rely on
neurotransmitters and their precursors, but there has been the most
research support for dopamine and serotonin pathways:

Dopamine: Dopamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter that has

Dopamine and Serotonin pathways
been found to promote exploratory behavior.[11] Dopaminergic
pathways have been specifically correlated with the extraversion
trait of the Five Factor Model of Personality.[7] The monoamine
oxidase (MAO) enzyme has a preferential affinity for dopamine, and its levels are inversely correlated
with sensation seeking.[8]
Serotonin: Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter, and has been found to promote avoidance
behavior through inhibitory pathways.[11] Specifically, serotonin has been associated with Neuroticism,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (traits defined by the Five Factor Model of Personality).[7]

Genes

Previous studies show that genes account for at most 50 percent of a given trait.[1] However, it is widely
accepted that variance in gene sequence affect behavior, and genes are a significant risk factor for personality
disorders.[12] With the growing interest in using molecular genetics in tracing the biological basis of
personality,[6] there may be more gene-trait links found in the future.
Varying polymorphisms and sequence repeats in the gene for dopamine receptor D4 and serotonin transporter
gene 5-HTTLPR, have both been found to influence the extraversion trait in adults. Specifically, study
participants with at least one copy of the 7-repeat variant of the dopamine receptor D4 gene had higher scores
of self-reported extraversion.[6] This suggests that dopamine and serotonin interact to regulate the conflicting
behavioral traits of careless exploration vs. cautious inhibition.[11]

Synaptic plasticity

Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of neurons to strengthen or weaken the connections between them.
According to Hebbian theory, these connections are strengthened and maintained through repeated stimulation
between neurons. Specifically, there is an emphasis on long-term potentiation (LTP), which is the prolonged
strengthening of synaptic connections that facilitate learning from experience.

On a larger scale, there are many pathways and brain regions that are interdependent and contribute to a
cohesive, stable personality. For example, the amygdala and hippocampus of the limbic system mediate
emotional intensity and consolidate memory of these experiences. But the basic mechanism by which these
pathways and brain regions perform these functions, is synaptic plasticity. Ultimately, it boils down to this
feature of neurons that allows the brain to learn from repeated experiences, retain memories, and ultimately
maintain personality.[13] Joseph LeDoux, an award-winning neuroscientist, asserts that although humans share
the same brain systems, it is the unique wiring of neurons that is different in each person and makes their
personality.[13]

Personality theories with biological basis

There are many theories of personality that on the identification of a set of traits that encompass human
personality. Few however, are biologically based. This section will describe some theories of personality that
have a biological basis. Additionally, it will present biological support for a popular non-biologically based
personality theory, the Five Factor Model.

Eysenck's three-factor model of personality

Eysenck's three-factor model of personality was a causal theory of personality based on activation of reticular
formation and limbic system. The reticular formation is a region in the brainstem that is involved in mediating
arousal and consciousness. The limbic system is involved in mediating emotion, behavior, motivation, and
long-term memory.

1. Extraversion (E) degree to which people are outgoing and are interactive with people, which is
mediated by the activation of the reticular formation.
2. Neuroticism (N) degree of emotional instability, which is associated with the limbic system.
3. Psychoticism (P) degree of aggression and interpersonal hostility.

Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory

Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) is based on the idea that there are three brain systems that all
differently respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli.[3]

1. Fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) mediates the emotion of fear (not anxiety) and active avoidance of
dangerous situations. The personality traits associated with this system is fear-proneness and avoidance.
2. Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) mediates the emotion of anxiety and cautious risk-assessment
behavior when entering dangerous situations due to conflicting goals. The personality traits associated
with this system is worry-proneness and anxiety.
3. Behavioral approach system (BAS) mediates the emotion of 'anticipatory pleasure,' resulting from
reactions to desirable stimuli. The personality traits associated with this system are optimism, reward-
orientation, and impulsivity.
Cloninger model of personality

This model of personality is based on the idea that different responses to

punishing, rewarding, and novel stimuli is caused by an interaction of the
three dimensions below:

1. Novelty Seeking (NS) degree to which people are impulsive,

correlated with low dopamine activity.
2. Harm Avoidance (HA) degree to which people are anxious,
correlated with high serotonin activity.
3. Reward Dependence (RD) degree to which people are approval
Cloninger's biological dimensions of
seeking, correlated with low norepinephrine activity.
personality
In one MRI study,[14] Novelty Seeking correlated with increased grey
matter volume in regions of the cingulate cortex, Harm Avoidance
correlated with decreased grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal, occipital, and parietal cortex. Reward
Dependence correlated with decreased grey matter volume in the caudate nucleus.

Five factor model of personality

The five factor model is a widely used personality assessment that describes five core traits that a person
possesses:

1. Openness degree to which people enjoy experiencing new stimuli

2. Conscientiousness degree to which people are dutiful and goal-oriented
3. Extraversion degree to which people seek stimuli outside of themselves
4. Agreeableness degree to which people aim to cooperate and please others
5. Neuroticism degree to which people are emotionally unstable

Using an MRI, one study[15] found correlation between the volumes of certain brain areas with each of the five
traits in the Five Factor Model. Their results found that Openness/Intellect did not have any significant
correlation with the volume of any brain structures. Conscientiousness was associated with increased volume in
the lateral prefrontal cortex, a region involved in planning and the voluntary control of behavior. Extraversion
was associated with increased volume of medial orbitofrontal cortex, a region involved in processing reward
information. Agreeableness was associated with increased volume in regions that process information about the
intentions and mental states of other individuals. Neuroticism was associated with increased volume of brain
regions associated with threat, punishment, and negative emotions.

See also
Hypostatic model of personality
Neural basis of self
Personality Psychology
Psychophysiology

References

1. LeDoux, J. (2003). "The Self". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1001 (1): 295304.
PMID 14625368 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625368). doi:10.1196/annals.1279.017 (http
s://doi.org/10.1196%2Fannals.1279.017).
2. Davidson, R. J. (2001). "Toward a biology of personality and emotion" (http://www.cogsci.bme.hu/DoC
S/oktatas/kurzusok/olvasoszeminarium/2003/towardabiology.pdf) (PDF). Ann N Y Acad Sci. 935: 191
207. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03481.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2001.tb03481.x).
 3. Corr, Philip J.; Perkins, Adam M. (2006). "The role of theory in the psychophysiology of personality:
From Ivan Pavlov to Jeffrey Gray". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 62 (3): 367376.
ISSN 0167-8760 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0167-8760). doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.01.005 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpsycho.2006.01.005).
4. Fowles, Don (2006). "Chapter 2: Jeffrey Gray's Contributions to Theories of Anxiety, Personality, and
Psychopathology". In Canli, Turhan. Biology of personality and individual differences. Guilford Press.
ISBN 1593852525..
5. Canli, Turhan (2006). "Chapter 5: Genomic Imaging of Extraversion". In Canli, Turhan. Biology of
personality and individual differences. Guilford Press. ISBN 1593852525..
6. Canli, Turhan (2006). "Chapter 1: Introduction". In Canli, Turhan. Biology of personality and individual
differences. Guilford Press. ISBN 1593852525..
7. DeYoung, Colin G. (2010). "Personality Neuroscience and the Biology of Traits". Social and Personality
Psychology Compass. 4 (12): 11651180. ISSN 1751-9004 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1751-9004).
doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00327.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1751-9004.2010.00327.x).
8. Zuckerman, Marvin (2006). "Chapter 3: Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking". In Canli, Turhan.
Biology of personality and individual differences. Guilford Press. ISBN 1593852525..
9. Mehta, Pranjal; Gosling, Samuel (2006). "Chapter 20: How Can Animal Studies Contribute to Research
on the Biological Bases of Personality". In Canli, Turhan. Biology of personality and individual
differences. Guilford Press. ISBN 1593852525..
10. Bell, A.M., & Aubin-Horth, N. (2010). What can whole genome expression data tell us about the ecology
and evolution of personality?. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
Retrieved September 10, 2014, from
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1560/4001.full.pdf+html.
11. Ebstein, Richard P.; Auerbach, Judith G. (2002). "Dopamine D4 receptor and serotonin transporter
promoter polymorphisms and temperament in early childhood". Molecular Genetics and the Human
Personality: 137149.
12. Whittle, S., Allen, N. B., Lubman, D. I., & Yucel, M. (2006). Neurobiological basis of temperament:
Towards a better understanding of psychopathology. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(4),
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13. LeDoux, J. E. (2003). Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are: Penguin Books.
14. Gardini, Simona; Cloninger, C. Robert; Venneri, Annalena (2009). "Individual differences in personality
traits reflect structural variance in specific brain regions". Brain Research Bulletin. 79 (5): 265270.
ISSN 0361-9230 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0361-9230). PMID 19480986 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/19480986). doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2009.03.005 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainres
bull.2009.03.005).
15. DeYoung, C. G.; Hirsh, J. B.; Shane, M. S.; Papademetris, X.; Rajeevan, N.; Gray, J. R. (2010). "Testing
Predictions From Personality Neuroscience: Brain Structure and the Big Five" (http://pss.sagepub.com/co
ntent/21/6/820.short). Psychological Science. 21 (6): 820828. PMC 3049165 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC3049165) . PMID 20435951 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20435951).
doi:10.1177/0956797610370159 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797610370159).

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