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Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2. Phase formation in duplex stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3. Selection of consumable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4. Welding behavior on mechanical and corrosion resistance of DSS (2205) and super
DSS (2507) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5. Dissimilar metals welding of DSS and super DSS with other alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6. Current issues and future perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1. Current issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1. Introduction
The astounding success of duplex stainless steels (DSSs) com- pared to austenitic
stainless steels (ASSs) is a result of nickel (Ni) price volatility in the market year on year [1].
Another issue with ASSs is lower sustainability in many aggressive environments [2].
Therefore, the industries are trying to look for alternatives with low Ni content and
comparable performance as that of conventional ASSs [3]. Duplex stainless steels give a
promising performance in many corrosive environments having superior localized
corrosion resistance due to half ferrite and half austenite percentage [4,5]. The increased
applications in many industries like shipbuilding, offshore, chemical industries, paper and
pulp industries, petro- chemical, desalination plants, oil and gas industries promote DSSs
[6,7].
Apart from that the scientically valuable report is delivered in many conferences,
boosted the huge demand of DSSs worldwide. These conferences were organized regularly
since 1982, that is St. Louis (USA), Den Hauge (Netherland, 1986), Beaune (France, 1991),
Yokohama (Japan) in 1993, York (UK) in the year 1994. Further, in 1997 Maastricht
(Netherland), 2000 Venice (Italy) and Grado (Italy) in 2007 to till now. These conferences
covered an excel- lent combination of valuable scientic contributions and technical
presentations, including metallurgical aspects (i.e. phase precip- itations, corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties of DSSs) on the basis of industrial experiences in
many areas of applica- tions of standard (type 2205), lean (type 2304) and super-duplex
(type 2507) stainless steels. The above grades were conrmed as very valuable grades with
excellent performances were customized by more than 20 years of successful service
applications experi- ence. All the mentioned international conferences nally concluded that
there is a great demand of DSSs in the replacement of 300- series SS [812]. Further, many
countries (like, Malta, Cyprus, Saudi Arabia, Sharjah, Spain and West Indies) implemented
DSSs com- bined with other alloys in different sectors like multi-stage ash (MSF) plants,
large seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plants, brack- ish water reverse osmosis (BWRO),
large multi-effect desalination (MED) plants and bleaching plants [1316].
Among the stainless steel categories, the global production of DSSs represents less than
200 kT, that is around 1% of the total global production of SSs, even though the
consumption is about
100%. International stainless steel forum (ISSF) documented that the production of DSSs
was 0.6% in 2004, which increased to 1% in
2007. In Feinox 2008 conference it was forecasted that the produc- tion of DSSs will be
increased by 4% for the year of next 2020 as it is shown in Fig. 1. On the other hand, the
demand of ASSs was 63.1% in the year 2004 [17], which was 62% in 2007, due to Ni price
uc- tuation and based on this situation, the production was forecasted to 53% till 2020 as it
is illustrated in Fig. 1 [18]. In 2013 the ASSs production was 53.4%, while 54.6% in 2014.
However, the SS producers and end users are greatly affected by the high and volatile
price of Ni, which uctuates day-to-day. The Ni supplies have not been able to keep pace
with the world- wide increased demand of SSs. Since Ni is the major constituent in widely
used classical ASSs (300-series), therefore, the other alter- natives low Ni and/or Ni-free
grades are known as 200-series (201,
202, CrMn) and 400-series (ferritic grades) has been developed and used in many
moderate corrosive environments and structural sectors are illustrated in Fig. 1. From Fig. 1 it
is clear that the produc-
tion of 200-series was around 10% in 2007 and predicted around 6% up to 2020. Moreover, the
production scenario of 200-series in 2013 was 19.8%, which decreased a little bit (18.9%) in
2014. On the other hand, the demand and production of 400-series are increasing due to
low-cost and other favoring reasons such as good thermal con- ductivity, easy to recycle and
helps to save planet resources. In 2007 production of 400-series was around 27%, which was
forecasted
37% up to 2020. In the present situation, the production in 2013 was
25.5% and 25.2% in 2014. Changing from 300-series to 400-series means that the
manufacturer becomes more competitive and the consumer may get a safe product at a
very low price.
In the year 2015, the global real demand for SS products reached
37.7 million tonnes, with a modest increase of around 2% from
37.1 million tonnes in 2014. The annual average growth of SSs was around 8% since 2011
2014. In 2015, total worldwide steel pro- duction was 1.6 billion tonnes in which about
2.6% were only SSs [1921].
The scenario shows the futuristic increasing demand of DSSs, while the 70% market
globally captured by ASSs that enforces the users toward the use of dissimilar
combination with ASSs in the future in many aggressive environments. Even, Matsuyamas
municipal water tank in Japan was constructed by using three dis- similar combinations of
SS (2205 DSS, 304 and 316 ASS) [22]. It is reported [23] that to join the similar and dissimilar
metals, welding is the most important tool and to achieve the large productivity a large
heat input is required (for example to join the oil pipeline). Nowacki and Rybicki [24] have
published the paper on effect of heat input on stainless steel structure, but no systematic
studies on the inuence of large heat input on corrosion behavior for DSSs have been
proposed so far.
The authors have already contributed to studies of welding and corrosion behavior of low
Ni SS in the mild environment [2527]. But, in a highly aggressive environment, low Ni DSSs
are the better choice and this review motivate the authors to further studies on this alloy.
In current review authors try to critically analyze the results of other researchers based
on their investigations on the effect of welding conditions (effect of allowable and exceeding
range of heat input), different processes (including high and low arc energy as well as
solid- state joining processes), and welding consumables on mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance of DSS 2205 and super DSS 2507 (due to its versatility than other grades
of DSSs) and also emphasize its dissimilar combination with carbon steels (CSs), ASSs, ferritic
stainless steels (FSSs) and other popular alloys. The other family of DSS has not been
included in this review because limited work has been carried out. Authors also try to
summarize the results on phase evolution during solidication and selection of consumables
for DSSs and its various combinations incorporating with some of the advanced techniques,
current issues and future perspective.
Table 1
Intermetallic phase formation in DSSs [4850].
solvus [4143,46,47]. Simultaneously, thermal cycles also cause to precipitates the many
other undesirable phases [like, CrN, Cr2 N, M7 C3 , M23 C6 (M = Fe or Cr) known as secondary
phases] and [sigma ( ), chi ( ), , R, and phases known as intermetallics] as it is illus- trated
in Fig. 6 and tabulated in Table 1 [4850]. However, phase is a hard brittle intermetallic
compound enriched with Cr, Mo, Si and more detrimental than other mentioned phases.
Precipitation often starts at triple junctions or at ferrite/austenite boundaries and continues
at incoherent twin boundaries and nally intragranu- larly. The temperature range of
precipitation is from 600 to 1000 C. However, the fastest precipitation rate is in between
9501050 C and below 950 C respectively [50]. On cooling below 1300 C austenite phase
forms by the diffusion mechanism, however, too low welding energy resulted in high
ferrite contents (70 vol.%) in the weld. This is also undesirable due to the formation of
chromium nitride (Cr2 N) pre- cipitation and is prone to occur in the ferrite domains, due to
the low solubility of nitrogen in this phase. The Cr2 N precipitation and high ferrite content
decrease the low-temperature toughness. In addition, Cr2 N precipitates are also believed to
be nucleation sites for pitting [55]. This precipitation takes place at temperatures range of
700900 C [51].
800 C in particular time austenite reformation occurs and critical for achieving the correct
phase balance in DSSs. It was reported that cooling rate 0.2550 ks1 would be best to
achieve the correct ferrite/austenite phase balance, while at the same time it limits the
formation of sigma phase precipitate during the critical 1200800 C range. If the cooling
is too rapid through this 1200800 C zone, then Cr2 N and more ferrite can form, which
lower the corrosion resistance. While slower cooling rate through this range will favor
austenite. However, Wang et al. reported that very fast cooling rate at 139 C/S under the 7 C
plate (in DC pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding technique) increases the austen- ite
phase in the weld and helps to achieve correct phase balance by creating higher driving
energy for nucleation of WA and IGA due to the largest under cooling [42,56,57].
Therefore, it is expected that the different microstructural zones will exhibit corrosion
susceptibility. For life prediction of materials practically in many susceptible environments,
it is very impor- tant to understand the corrosion behavior of the DSSs. However, in recent
years, some advancement in characterization and elec- trochemical techniques like atomic
force microscopy, magnetic force microscopy, scanning kelvin probe force microscopy,
atomic and magnetic force microscopy and scanning electrochemical microscopy
provide an emerging tool for a better study to measure the detrimental and secondary phases
as well as an electrochemical process of DSSs. This fact is based on magnetic saturation
measure- ment, which is the reliable quantication of austenite, ferrite and secondary
phases [58]. Some of the detrimental phases are illus- trated in Fig. 6e and f based on the
open source by using mentioned advance technique [58].
For measurements of ferrite, austenite and secondary phases in real time can also be
successfully done by advanced in-situ technique which is based on a combined work of
time-resolved X- ray diffraction and laser scanning confocal microscopy, which was
developed for direct observation of morphological development and simultaneous
identication of phases, HAZ measurement, dur- ing thermal cycle of welding [59].
In a few cases, solidication cracking (of DSSs) may be a prob- lem if the proper phase
balance was not achieved, since melting and solidication phenomenon in fusion welding
destroy the phase balance [60]. Lippold et al. [61] reported that area near to fusion
boundary is the most susceptible region for hot cracking because the fusion zone (FZ) of
DSSs is fully ferritic during the nal stages of solidication. But, less susceptible than alloys
with fully austenitic microstructures, Fig. 7a and b illustrates the HAZ liquation crack- ing.
Hull [62] also originally hypothesized that boundary wetting by a liquid lm is more
effective along austenite/austenite and fer- rite/ferrite boundaries than that of
ferrite/austenite boundaries. In practice, weld solidication cracking does not seem to be
a serious fabrication problem with DSSs, but interestingly, some of the researchers like
Gooch [63] and Nelson et al. [64] have been reported solidication cracking of DSS, Fig. 7c
illustrates the weld solidication cracking, where the crack appeared mainly in the
austenite phase. However, proper selection of ller metal resists the solidication cracking
in DSSs [65]. Therefore, more attention must be paid during the selection of consumables.
3. Selection of consumable
The selection of consumable for similar and dissimilar welding plays a crucial role in
enhancing the mechanical properties, creat- ing the proper phase balance and avoiding
solidication cracking [66]. Generally, it is recommended that the welding ller metals
have a more austenitic composition with 24% more Ni than the BM for improved
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance due to when freezing speed is very high,
the amount of austen- ite/ferrite ratio most be in balance. The role of Ni is to increase the
austenite to compensate for decreases this phase owing to high cooling rate [67]. The
boosted Ni content ller metals not yet stan- dardized, but also available in various trade
names. Messer et al. [68] reported that the over-alloyed Ni-based ller metals may be
preferred for welding super DSS. However, on the contrary, Gooch [69] addressed that the
over-alloyed ller metal is not suitable with super DSS BM because the weld metal (WM)
may be more sensitive to precipitation of many intermetallic phases, which fur- ther
reduces corrosion resistance and toughness. These statements reect the advance need of
investigation and motivate the authors to further work.
However, due to Ni price uctuation [70], researchers moved toward the replacement of
Ni-based alloy consumable, because it is 10 times more expensive [61], and diversied for
the utiliza- tion of cost-efcient consumables, even it is also recommended that the
carbon, phosphorus and sulphur level in the ller metals should be less or equivalent to
BM [71]. The recommended con- sumable for DSS and super DSS, based on the various
researchers opinions are tabulated in Table 2 [72,73]. Table 2 represents the
recommended consumables for similar and dissimilar weld as per the different welding
community, in sequence ller wire diameter, welding parameters and shielding gases with
different processes for DSS and SDSS are also tabulated in Tables 3 and 4 respectively [74].
For welding of various sections, the consideration of inter- pass temperatures is also
prime importance; the recommended values are mentioned in Table 5 [74]. Interpass
temperature is the temperature of the weld area between passes, also affects the cooling
rate, and it is a very important factor during welding of DSSs, since the maximum
interpass temperature required should
be below 150 C, if interpass temperature are higher than recom-
mended, with excessively reduced cooling rate, which increased HAZ dimensions,
expanded the coarse grain zone and diminishes the tensile and impact toughness. It is
reported that both yield and ultimate tensile strengths of the weld are a function of inter-
pass temperature. Higher interpass temperature reduces the weld strength. Additionally,
higher interpass temperatures will gener- ally improve impact toughness transition
temperature by providing a ner grain structure. However, when interpass temperatures
exceed 260 C, this trend is reversed [75]. For joining the thick
section, the researchers are trying to study the effect of interpass
temperature on the properties of the joint, resulting in a possible increase in productivity
during welding. In this sequence, the recent new technique of joining implemented for
joining pipeline con- struction and installation of thick DSSs (21.4 mm) and reported the
effect of interpass temperature (150 C and 290 C) on thick DSS
2205 weld by applying SAW in lling and nishing passes. Authors concluded that high
interpass temperature (290 C) is more prone
to corrosion and also lowers the impact toughness compared to
150 C, this is due to the imbalance phase proportion and formation
of more precipitated in the weld and HAZ [76].
The consumable such as E/ER 2209 which is most popular and compatible with different
processes for joining similar and dis- similar DSSs shows better corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties [44]. Even in another case when E/ER2209 compared with other
ller like ER316LSi and ER308LSi, in which ER2209 weld showed better resistance to
localized corrosion due to the difference in ller chemical composition. However, in
ER316LSi and ER308LSi llers the presence of Si speed up the intermetallic phases and
enhanced the corrosion. Author also studied the cor- rosion behavior of DSS 2205 BM and
all ller welds in 3.5% NaCl solution and reported that the DSS 2205BM showed critical
pit-
ting temperature (CPT) in the interval of 56.5 C. While ER2209 and
ER316LSi weld illustrated 44 C and 28 C respectively. In compar-
ison to other two llers ER308LSi only manages the mechanical properties [77].
Similarly, in the dissimilar metal combination of 2205 DSS with AISI 316, duplex ER 2205
ller showed more tensile strength as compared to ER 304 ller, due to different chemical
composition,