Truth of the Bible

Reliability of the Bible

Is Our Copy of the Bible a Reliable Copy of the Original? - Has the Christian church changed the Bible
over the years or does it represent a reliable copy of the original autographs?
Prophecies of Jesus Christ as Messiah - Hundreds of years before the birth of Jesus, the Old Testament
prophecies told of His coming.
o Jesus Christ - Messiah of the Rabbinical Writers - Even the Rabbinical writers identified Old
Testament prophecies are referring to the Messiah.
Did the Original New Testament Manuscripts still exist in the Second Century? By: Daniel B. Wallace ,
Th.M., Ph.D.
Misquoting Jesus: Does Bart Ehrman Prove the New Testament is Corrupt? - Contrary to Ehrman's
claims, the New Testament canon was established in the early second century, and scribal errors/changes did not affect
any significant Christian doctrine.
History of the Bible: How The Bible Came To Us - Manuscripts 101 - Where do they come from and why are there
different "versions" of the Bible?
Is the Bible Really the Word of God? - Some of the evidence that the claims of the Bible are true.

Is Christianity a Made-up Myth Written by the Disciples? - Now really - would the disciples write about all
their shortcomings, make the Christian church into a female, design heaven with no sex in it, and say
that they were going to be married to Jesus in heaven? I don't know about you guys, but this is not
what I would have written if I had made up the Bible!
Science and the Bible: Does the Bible Contradict Scientific Principles?- What the Bible says about nature.

Are the Biblical Documents Reliable? by Jimmy Williams from Probe Ministries
The Historicity of the New Testament by JP Moreland
Jesus Christ as God and the Trinity Was Not Invented Until the Fourth Century? Is Dan Brown (The Da Vinci Code) right
about the origin of Christianity?
The "Gospel of Judas": National Geographic Attacks Christianity With Biased "Research"
"The Lost Tomb of Jesus": Have the Bones of Jesus Christ Been Found in Jerusalem?
Is the Biblical Flood Account a Modified Copy of the Epic of Gilgamesh?
Christ on Scripture by Richard L. Routh, Ph.D. - What did Jesus say about the Scripture?
Christian CADRE (Christian Colligation of Apologetics Debate Research & Evangelism)

Cold-Case Christianity: A Homicide Detective Investigates the Claims of the Gospels Book Review

Archaeology and the Bible

Gabriel's Vision Stone Tablet: Prophecy of the Coming Messiah Jesus?

Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's Persecutors
No Proof for the Exodus? - The potential role of Thera and 14
C dating of the destruction of Jericho
Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating - Archeological skeptics are refuted by modern
scientific dating methods

Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeology

Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King Shishak Confirmed by Archeology
Carbon-14 Dating of Copper Smelting in Edom (Jordan) Confirm Biblical Date of King Solomon's
Kingdom
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims
Archeology Confirms Biblical Commandments in 10th Century at Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel
 Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Cuneiform Receipt from King Nebuchadnezzar's Court Confirms Detail of Old Testament Book of Jeremiah
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Useful Archaeology Links from BIBARCH Biblical Archaeology Website - lots of good papers
Is the Bible true? Extraordinary insights from archaeology and history by Jeffrey L. Sheler
Archaeology and the New Testament by Pat Zukeran
The Book of Acts and Archaeology by Craig Hawkins

Archaeology Websites

Bible History Online - A great looking website with good information and links focusing on, but not limited to, history and
the Bible.
Fallen Empires - Archaeological Discoveries and the Bible - What the name suggests.
ISRAEL'S ORIGINS (beginning ca. 1400 BC) by Dr. David Livingston - Is there no evidence for the conquest of Canaan by
the Israelites.
Khirbet Nisya: The Search for Biblical Ai, 1979-2002 by Dr. David Livingston

Is Our Copy of the Bible a Reliable Copy of the Original?

by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

Many skeptics believe that the Bible has been drastically changed over the centuries. In reality, the Bible has been translated into a
number of different languages (first Latin, then English and other languages, see History of the Bible). However, the ancient
manuscripts (written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek) have been reliably copied over the centuries - with very few alterations.

Old Testament

How do we know the Bible has been kept in tact for over 2,000 years of copying? Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, our
earliest Hebrew copy of the Old Testament was the Masoretic text, dating around 800 A.D. The Dead Sea Scrolls date to the time of
Jesus and were copied by the Qumran community, a Jewish sect living around the Dead Sea. We also have the Septuagint which is
a Greek translation of the Old Testament dating in the second century B.C. When we compare these texts which have an 800-1000
years gap between them we are amazed that 95% of the texts are identical with only minor variations and a few discrepancies.

New Testament

There are tens of thousands of manuscripts from the New Testament, in part or in whole, dating from the second
century A.D. to the late fifteenth century, when the printing press was invented. These manuscripts have been found in Egypt,
Palestine, Syria, Turkey, Greece, and Italy, making collusion unlikely. The oldest manuscript, the John Rylands manuscript, has
been dated to 125 A.D. and was found in Egypt, some distance from where the New Testament was originally composed in Asia
Minor. Many early Christian papyri, discovered in 1935, have been dated to 150 A.D., and include the four gospels. The Papyrus
Bodmer II, discovered in 1956, has been dated to 200 A.D., and contains 14 chapters and portions of the last seven chapters of the
gospel of John. The Chester Beatty biblical papyri, discovered in 1931, has been dated to 200-250 A.D. and contains the Gospels,
Acts, Paul's Epistles, and Revelation. The number of manuscripts is extensive compared to other ancient historical writings, such as
Caesar's "Gallic Wars" (10 Greek manuscripts, the earliest 950 years after the original), the "Annals" of Tacitus (2 manuscripts, the
earliest 950 years after the original), Livy (20 manuscripts, the earliest 350 years after the original), and Plato (7 manuscripts).

Manuscript Evidence for Ancient Writings

 Author Written Earliest Copy Time Span # Mss.

Caesar 100-44 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,000 yrs 10

Plato 427-347 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,200 yrs 7

Thucydides 460-400 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,300 yrs 8

Tacitus 100 A.D. 1100 A.D. 1,000 yrs 20

Suetonius 75-160 A.D. 950 A.D. 800 yrs 8

Homer (Iliad) 900 B.C. 400 B.C. 500 yrs 643

New Testament 40-100 A.D. 125 A.D. 25-50 yrs 24,000

Thousands of early Christian writings and lexionaries (first and second century) cite verses from the New
Testament. In fact, it is nearly possible to put together the entire New Testament just from early Christian
writings. For example, the Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians (dated 95 A.D.) cites verses from the Gospels,
Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Ephesians, Titus, Hebrews, and 1 Peter. The letters of Ignatius (dated 115 A.D.)
were written to several churches in Asia Minor and cites verses from Matthew, John, Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians,
Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus. These letters indicate that the entire New Testament
was written in the first century A.D. In addition, there is internal evidence for a first century date for the writing
of the New Testament. The book of Acts ends abruptly with Paul in prison, awaiting trial (Acts 28:30-31 (1)). It is
likely that Luke wrote Acts during this time, before Paul finally appeared before Nero. This would be about 62-63
A.D., meaning that Acts and Luke were written within thirty years of ministry and death of Jesus. Another internal evidence is that
there is no mention of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. Although Matthew, Mark and Luke record Jesus' prophecy that the
temple and city would be destroyed within that generation (Matthew 24:1-2 (2),Mark 13:1-2 (3), Luke 21:5-9,20-24,32(4)), no
New Testament book refers to this event as having happened. If they had been written after 70 A.D., it is likely that letters written
after 70 A.D. would have mentioned the fulfillment of Jesus' prophecy. As stated by Nelson Glueck, former president of the Jewish
Theological Seminary in the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, and renowned Jewish archaeologist, "In my opinion, every book of
the New Testament was written between the forties and eighties of the first century A.D."

CONCLUSION

With all of the massive manuscript evidence you would think there would be massive discrepancies - just the opposite is true. New
Testament manuscripts agree in 99.5% (5) of the text (compared to only 95% for the Iliad). Most of the discrepancies are in
spelling and word order. A few words have been changed or added. There are two passages that are disputed but no discrepancy is
of any doctrinal significance (i.e., none would alter basic Christian doctrine). Most Bibles include the options as footnotes when
there are discrepancies. How could there be such accuracy over a period of 1,400 years of copying? Two reasons: The scribes that
did the copying had meticulous methods for checking their copies for errors. 2) The Holy Spirit made sure we would have an
accurate copy of God's word so we would not be deceived. The Mormons, theological liberals as well as other cults and false
religions such as Islam that claim the Bible has been tampered with are completely proven false by the extensive, historical
manuscript evidence.

Prophecies of Jesus Christ as Messiah

by Rich Deem

Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ

Prophetic Scripture Subject Fulfilled

And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and But when the fullness of the time came, God sent forth His Son,
between your seed and her seed; He shall bruise you born of a woman, born under the Law, (Galatians 4:4)
seed of a woman
on the head, and you shall bruise him on the heel."
(Genesis 3:15)

And I will bless those who bless you, and the one who The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the
descendant of
curses you I will curse. And in you all the families of the son of Abraham. (Matthew 1:1)
Abraham
earth shall be blessed." (Genesis 12:3)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
But God said, "No, but Sarah your wife shall bear you a
son, and you shall call his name Isaac; and I will
establish My covenant with him for an everlasting
covenant for his descendants after him. (Genesis
17:19)
"I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near; a
star shall come forth from Jacob, and a scepter shall
rise from Israel, and shall crush through the forehead of
Moab, and tear down all the sons of Sheth. (Numbers
24:17)
"The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler's
staff from between his feet, until Shiloh comes, and to
him shall be the obedience of the peoples. (Genesis
49:10)
Then it will come about in that day that the nations will
resort to the root of Jesse, Who will stand as a signal
for the peoples; and His resting place will be glorious.
(Isaiah 11:10)
"Behold, the days are coming," declares the LORD,
"When I shall raise up for David a righteous Branch;
and He will reign as king and act wisely and do justice
and righteousness in the land. In His days Judah will be
saved, and Israel will dwell securely; and this is His
name by which He will be called, `The LORD our
righteousness.'" (Jeremiah 23:5-6)
"And My servant David will be king over them, and they
will all have one shepherd; and they will walk in My
ordinances, and keep My statutes, and observe them."
(Ezekiel 37:24)
There will be no end to the increase of His government
or of peace, on the throne of David and over his
kingdom, to establish it and to uphold it with justice and
righteousness from then on and forevermore. The zeal
of the LORD of hosts will accomplish this. (Isaiah 9:7)
Thy throne, O God, is forever and ever; A scepter of
uprightness is the scepter of Thy kingdom. Thou hast
loved righteousness, and hated wickedness; therefore
God, Thy God, has anointed Thee with the oil of joy
above Thy fellows. (Psalm 45:6-7)
"Of old Thou didst found the earth; and the heavens are
the work of Thy hands. Even they will perish, but Thou
dost endure; and all of them will wear out like a
garment; like clothing Thou wilt change them, and they
will be changed. But Thou art the same, and Thy years
will not come to an end." (Psalm 102:25-27)
"But as for you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, too little to be
among the clans of Judah, from you One will go forth
for Me to be ruler in Israel. His goings forth are from
long ago, from the days of eternity." (Micah 5:2)
"So you are to know and discern that from the issuing
of a decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until
Messiah the Prince there will be seven weeks and sixty-
two weeks; it will be built again, with plaza and moat,
Subject Fulfilled
the son of Jacob, the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham, the son of
Terah, the son of Nahor, (Luke 3:34)
descendant of
Isaac
To Abraham was born Isaac; and to Isaac, Jacob; and to Jacob,
Judah and his brothers; (Matthew 1:2)
descendant of
Jacob
the son of Amminadab, the son of Admin, the son of Ram, the son
from the tribe of of Hezron, the son of Perez, the son of Judah, (Luke 3:33)
Judah
And again Isaiah says, "THERE SHALL COME THE ROOT OF
descendent of JESSE, AND HE WHO ARISES TO RULE OVER THE GENTILES,
Jesse IN HIM SHALL THE GENTILES HOPE." (Romans 15:12)
The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the
son of Abraham. (Matthew 1:1)
descendant of
David
"`And you, Bethlehem, land of Judah, Are by no means least
will shepherd His among the leaders of Judah; For out of you shall come forth a
people Ruler, Who will shepherd My people Israel.'" (Matthew 2:6)
"He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High; and
the Lord God will give Him the throne of His father David; and He
heir to the throne
will reign over the house of Jacob forever; and His kingdom will
of David
have no end." (Luke 1:32-33)
But of the Son He says, "Thy throne, O God, is forever and ever,
and the righteous scepter is the scepter of His kingdom. Thou hast
loved righteousness and hated lawlessness; therefore God, Thy
God, hath anointed Thee with the oil of gladness above Thy
companions." And, "Thou, Lord, in the beginning didst lay the
anointed and foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the works of Thy
eternal hands; They will perish, but Thou remainest; and they all will
become old as a garment, and as a mantle Thou wilt roll them up;
as a garment they will also be changed. But Thou art the same,
and Thy years will not come to an end." (Hebrews 1:8-12)
And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to
Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he
was of the house and family of David, in order to register, along
born in Bethlehem with Mary, who was engaged to him, and was with child.... And she
gave birth to her first-born son; and she wrapped Him in cloths, and
laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the
inn. (Luke 2:4-5, 7)
Now it came about in those days that a decree went out from
Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth.
time for His birth
This was the first census taken while Quirinius was governor of
Syria. (Luke 2:1-2)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
even in times of distress. (Daniel 9:25)
"Therefore the LORD Himself will give you a sign:
Behold, a virgin will be with child and bear a son, and
she will call His name Immanuel. (Isaiah 7:14)
Let the nomads of the desert bow before him; And his
enemies lick the dust. (Psalm 72:9)
Let the kings of Tarshish and of the islands bring
presents; The kings of Sheba and Seba offer gifts... So
may he live; and may the gold of Sheba be given to
him; And let them pray for him continually; Let them
bless him all day long. (Psalm 72:10, 15)
"And nations will come to your light, And kings to the
brightness of your rising." (Isaiah 60:3)
Thus says the LORD, "A voice is heard in Ramah,
lamentation and bitter weeping. Rachel is weeping for
her children; she refuses to be comforted for her
children, because they are no more." (Jeremiah 31:15)
When Israel was a youth I loved him, and out of Egypt I
called My son. (Hosea 11:1)
A voice is calling, "Clear the way for the LORD in the
wilderness; make smooth in the desert a highway for
our God. Let every valley be lifted up, and every
mountain and hill be made low; and let the rough
ground become a plain, and the rugged terrain a broad
valley; Then the glory of the LORD will be revealed, and
all flesh will see it together; for the mouth of the LORD
has spoken." (Isaiah 40:3-5)
"Behold, I am going to send My messenger, and he will
clear the way before Me. And the LORD, whom you
seek, will suddenly come to His temple; and the
messenger of the covenant, in whom you delight,
behold, He is coming," says the LORD of hosts.
(Malachi 3:1)
"Behold, I am going to send you Elijah the prophet
before the coming of the great and terrible day of the
LORD. And he will restore the hearts of the fathers to
their children, and the hearts of the children to their
fathers, lest I come and smite the land with a curse."
Subject Fulfilled
Now in the sixth month the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a
city in Galilee, called Nazareth, to a virgin engaged to a man whose
name was Joseph, of the descendants of David; and the virgin's
to be born of a
name was Mary.... And the angel said to her, "Do not be afraid,
virgin Mary; for you have found favor with God. And behold, you will
conceive in your womb, and bear a son, and you shall name Him
Jesus." (Luke 1:26-27, 30-31)
And in the same region there were some shepherds staying out in
the fields, and keeping watch over their flock by night. And an
angel of the Lord suddenly stood before them, and the glory of the
Lord shone around them; and they were terribly frightened. And the
angel said to them, "Do not be afraid; for behold, I bring you good
worshipped by news of a great joy which shall be for all the people; for today in the
shepherds city of David there has been born for you a Savior, who is Christ
the Lord."... And it came about when the angels had gone away
from them into heaven, that the shepherds began saying to one
another, "Let us go straight to Bethlehem then, and see this thing
that has happened which the Lord has made known to us." (Luke
2:8-15)
Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of
Herod the king, behold, magi from the east arrived in Jerusalem,
saying, "Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we
honored by great saw His star in the east, and have come to worship Him."... And
kings they came into the house and saw the Child with Mary His mother;
and they fell down and worshiped Him; and opening their treasures
they presented to Him gifts of gold and frankincense and myrrh.
(Matthew 2:1-11)
Then when Herod saw that he had been tricked by the magi, he
became very enraged, and sent and slew all the male children who
were in Bethlehem and in all its environs, from two years old and
slaughter of under, according to the time which he had ascertained from the
children magi. Then that which was spoken through Jeremiah the prophet
was fulfilled, saying, "A voice was heard in Ramah, weeping and
great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children; and she refused
to be comforted, because they were no more." (Matthew 2:16-18)
And he arose and took the Child and His mother by night, and
departed for Egypt; and was there until the death of Herod, that
flight to Egypt
what was spoken by the Lord through the prophet might be fulfilled,
saying, "Out of Egypt did I call My Son." (Matthew 2:14-15)
And he came into all the district around the Jordan, preaching a
baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins; as it is written in
the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet, "The voice of one
crying in the wilderness, `Make ready the way of the Lord, make
the way prepared
His paths straight. `Every ravine shall be filled up, and every
mountain and hill shall be brought low; and the crooked shall
become straight, and the rough roads smooth; and all flesh shall
see the salvation of God.'" (Luke 3:3-6)
And when the messengers of John had left, He began to speak to
the multitudes about John, "What did you go out into the wilderness
preceded by a to look at? A reed shaken by the wind?... "This is the one about
forerunner whom it is written, `Behold, I send My messenger before Your face,
Who will prepare Your way before You.'" (Luke 7:24, 27)
"For all the prophets and the Law prophesied until John. And if you
care to accept it, he himself is Elijah, who was to come." (Matthew
preceded by Elijah 11:13-14)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
(Malachi 4:5-6)
"I will surely tell of the decree of the LORD: He said to
Me, `Thou art My Son, today I have begotten Thee.'"
(Psalm 2:7)
Who has ascended into heaven and descended? Who
has gathered the wind in His fists? Who has wrapped
the waters in His garment? Who has established all the
ends of the earth? What is His name or His son's
name? Surely you know! (Proverbs 30:4)
But there will be no more gloom for her who was in
anguish; in earlier times He treated the land of Zebulun
and the land of Naphtali with contempt, but later on He
shall make it glorious, by the way of the sea, on the
other side of Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles. The
people who walk in darkness will see a great light;
those who live in a dark land, the light will shine on
them. (Isaiah 9:1-2)
I will open my mouth in a parable; I will utter dark
sayings of old, which we have heard and known, and
our fathers have told us. We will not conceal them from
their children, but tell to the generation to come the
praises of the LORD, and His strength and His
wondrous works that He has done. (Psalm 78:2-4)
...For My house will be called a house of prayer for all
the peoples. " (Isaiah 56:7)
"Has this house, which is called by My name, become a
den of robbers in your sight? Behold, I, even I, have
seen it," declares the LORD. (Jeremiah 7:11)
For zeal for Thy house has consumed me, and the
reproaches of those who reproach Thee have fallen on
me. (Psalm 69:9)
"The LORD your God will raise up for you a prophet like
me from among you, from your countrymen, you shall
listen to him." (Deuteronomy 18:15)
And on that day the deaf shall hear words of a book,
and out of their gloom and darkness the eyes of the
blind shall see. (Isaiah 29:18)
Then the eyes of the blind will be opened, And the ears
of the deaf will be unstopped. Then the lame will leap
like a deer, and the tongue of the dumb will shout for
joy. For waters will break forth in the wilderness and
streams in the Arabah. (Isaiah 35:5-6)
"He will not cry out or raise His voice, Nor make His
voice heard in the street. "A bruised reed He will not
break, And a dimly burning wick He will not extinguish;
He will faithfully bring forth justice. (Isaiah 42:2-3)
He was oppressed and He was afflicted, Yet He did not
open His mouth; like a lamb that is led to slaughter, and
like a sheep that is silent before its shearers, so He did
not open His mouth. (Isaiah 53:7)
Subject Fulfilled
"He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High; and
the Lord God will give Him the throne of His father David;" (Luke
1:32)
declared the Son
and behold, a voice out of the heavens, saying, "This is My beloved
of God Son, in whom I am well-pleased." (Matthew 3:17)
and leaving Nazareth, He came and settled in Capernaum, which is
by the sea, in the region of Zebulun and Naphtali. This was to fulfill
what was spoken through Isaiah the prophet, saying, "The land of
Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, By the way of the sea, beyond
Galilean ministry
the Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles-- "The people who were sitting
in darkness saw a great light, and to those who were sitting in the
land and shadow of death, upon them a light dawned." (Matthew
4:13-16)
All these things Jesus spoke to the multitudes in parables, and He
did not speak to them without a parable, so that what was spoken
through the prophet might be fulfilled, saying, "I will open My mouth
speaks in parables
in parables; I will utter things hidden since the foundation of the
world." (Matthew 13:34-35)
And He said to them, "It is written, `My house shall be called a
temple becomes a house of prayer'; but you are making it a robbers' den." (Matthew
house of 21:13)
merchandise
instead of prayer
zeal of Jews for His disciples remembered that it was written, "Zeal for Thy house
the temple instead will consume me." (John 2:17)
of God
and that He may send Jesus, the Christ appointed for you...
"Moses said, `The Lord God shall raise up for you a prophet like
a prophet
me from your brethren; to Him you shall give heed in everything He
says to you.'" (Acts 3:20, 22)
And He answered and said to them, "Go and report to John what
you have seen and heard: the blind receive sight, the lame walk,
the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear, the dead are raised up,
the poor have the gospel preached to them." (Luke 7:22)
blind, deaf, and
lame are healed by and said to Him, "Are You the Expected One, or shall we look for
the Messiah someone else?" And Jesus answered and said to them, "Go and
report to John what you hear and see: the blind receive sight and
the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the
dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to
them. (Matthew 11:3-5)
"Behold, My Servant whom I have chosen; My Beloved in whom
My soul is well-pleased; I will put My Spirit upon Him, And He shall
proclaim justice to the Gentiles. He will not quarrel, nor cry out; Nor
will anyone hear His voice in the streets. A battered reed He will
Messiah will be not break off, And a smoldering wick He will not put out, Until He
meek and mild leads justice to victory." (Matthew 12:18-20)
"Take My yoke upon you, and learn from Me, for I am gentle and
humble in heart; and you shall find rest for your souls.
Matthew 11:29)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
"Behold, My Servant, whom I uphold; My chosen one in
whom My soul delights. I have put My Spirit upon Him;
He will bring forth justice to the nations. (Isaiah 42:1)
Listen to Me, O islands, and pay attention, you peoples
from afar. The LORD called Me from the womb; from
the body of My mother He named Me. (Isaiah 49:1)
The Spirit of the LORD God is upon me, because the
LORD has anointed me to bring good news to the
afflicted; He has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted,
to proclaim liberty to captives, and freedom to
prisoners; to proclaim the favorable year of the LORD,
and the day of vengeance of our God; to comfort all
who mourn, (Isaiah 61:1-2)
Therefore, I will allot Him a portion with the great, And
He will divide the booty with the strong; Because He
poured out Himself to death, And was numbered with
the transgressors; Yet He Himself bore the sin of many,
And interceded for the transgressors. (Isaiah 53:12)
And He saw that there was no man, And was
astonished that there was no one to intercede; Then
His own arm brought salvation to Him; And His
righteousness upheld Him. (Isaiah 59:16)
As the cattle which go down into the valley, The Spirit of
the LORD gave them rest. So didst Thou lead Thy
people, To make for Thyself a glorious name. (Isaiah
63:14)
Thus says the LORD, "Stand by the ways and see and
ask for the ancient paths, Where the good way is, and
walk in it; And you shall find rest for your souls. But they
said, `We will not walk in it.'" (Jeremiah 6:16)
He was despised and forsaken of men, a man of
sorrows, and acquainted with grief; and like one from
whom men hide their face, He was despised, and we
did not esteem Him. (Isaiah 53:3)
"Then He shall become a sanctuary; But to both the
houses of Israel, a stone to strike and a rock to stumble
over, And a snare and a trap for the inhabitants of
Jerusalem." (Isaiah 8:14)
Therefore thus says the LORD God, "Behold, I am
laying in Zion a stone, a tested stone, A costly
cornerstone for the foundation, firmly placed. He who
believes in it will not be disturbed." (Isaiah 28:16)
The stone which the builders rejected Has become the
chief corner stone. (Psalm 118:22)
The LORD has sworn and will not change His mind,
"Thou art a priest forever according to the order of
Melchizedek." (Psalm 110:4)
Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout in triumph, O
daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your king is coming to
you; He is just and endowed with salvation, Humble,
and mounted on a donkey, even on a colt, the foal of a
donkey. (Zechariah 9:9)
Subject Fulfilled
MAT 12:18 "Behold, My Servant whom I have chosen; My Beloved
in whom My soul is well-pleased; I will put My Spirit upon Him, and
He shall proclaim justice to the Gentiles... "And in His name the
will minister to
Gentiles will hope." (Matthew 12:18-21)
Gentiles
A light of revelation to the Gentiles, And the glory of Thy people
Israel. " (Luke 2:32)
"He has sent Me to proclaim release to the captives, and recovery
of sight to the blind, to set free those who are downtrodden, to
proclaim the favorable year of the Lord." (Luke 4:18-19)
to bind up the
brokenhearted
who is the one who condemns? Christ Jesus is He who died, yes,
rather who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who also
intercedes for us. (Romans 8:34)
to intercede for the Hence, also, He is able to save forever those who draw near to
people God through Him, since He always lives to make intercession for
them. (Hebrews 7:25)
"Take My yoke upon you, and learn from Me, for I am gentle and
humble in heart; and YOU SHALL FIND REST FOR YOUR
SOULS. For My yoke is easy, and My load is light." (Matthew
11:29-30)
gives rest to our
souls
He came to His own, and those who were His own did not receive
Him. (John 1:11)
But they cried out all together, saying, "Away with this man, and
release for us Barabbas!" (Luke 23:18)
He is the stone which was rejected by you, the builders, but which
rejected by His became the very corner stone. (Acts 4:11)
own people, the
Jews For this is contained in Scripture: "Behold I lay in Zion a choice
stone, a precious corner stone, And he who believes in Him shall
not be disappointed." This precious value, then, is for you who
believe. But for those who disbelieve, "The stone which the builders
rejected, This became the very corner stone," and, "A stone of
stumbling and a rock of offense"; for they stumble because they are
disobedient to the word, and to this doom they were also
appointed. (1 Peter 2:6-8)
So also Christ did not glorify Himself so as to become a high priest,
priest after the
but He who said to Him, "Thou art My Son, Today I have begotten
order of
Thee"; just as He says also in another passage, "Thou art a priest
Melchizedek forever according to the order of Melchizedek." (Hebrews 5:5-6)
And they brought the colt to Jesus and put their garments on it; and
He sat upon it.... And those who went before, and those who
followed after, were crying out, "Hosanna! Blessed is He who
triumphal entry comes in the name of the Lord;"... And He entered Jerusalem and
came into the temple; and after looking all around, He departed for
Bethany with the twelve, since it was already late. (Mark
11:7, 9, 11)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
"Behold, I am going to send My messenger, and he will
clear the way before Me. And the LORD, whom you
seek, will suddenly come to His temple; and the
messenger of the covenant, in whom you delight,
behold, He is coming," says the LORD of hosts.
(Malachi 3:1)
From the mouth of infants and nursing babes Thou hast
established strength, because of Thine adversaries, to
make the enemy and the revengeful cease. (Psalm 8:2)
Who has believed our message? And to whom has the
arm of the LORD been revealed? (Isaiah 53:1)
"Awake, O sword, against My Shepherd, And against
the man, My Associate," Declares the LORD of hosts.
"Strike the Shepherd that the sheep may be scattered;
and I will turn My hand against the little ones."
(Zechariah 13:7)
Even my close friend, in whom I trusted, who ate my
bread, has lifted up his heel against me. (Psalm 41:9)
For it is not an enemy who reproaches me, Then I could
bear it; Nor is it one who hates me who has exalted
himself against me, Then I could hide myself from him.
But it is you, a man my equal, My companion and my
familiar friend. (Psalm 55:12-13)
"And one will say to him, 'What are these wounds
between your arms?' Then he will say,' Those with
which I was wounded in the house of my friends.'
(Zechariah 13:6)
And I said to them, "If it is good in your sight, give me
my wages; but if not, never mind!" So they weighed out
thirty shekels of silver as my wages. (Zechariah 11:12)
Then the LORD said to me, "Throw it to the potter, that
magnificent price at which I was valued by them." So I
took the thirty shekels of silver and threw them to the
potter in the house of the LORD. (Zechariah 11:13)
Malicious witnesses rise up; they ask me of things that I
do not know. (Psalm 35:11)
He was oppressed and He was afflicted, yet He did not
open His mouth; like a lamb that is led to slaughter, and
like a sheep that is silent before its shearers, so He did
not open His mouth. (Isaiah 53:7)
I gave My back to those who strike Me, and My cheeks
to those who pluck out the beard; I did not cover My
face from humiliation and spitting. (Isaiah 50:6)
Subject Fulfilled
And Jesus entered the temple and cast out all those who were
buying and selling in the temple, and overturned the tables of the
entered the temple moneychangers and the seats of those who were selling doves.
with authority (Matthew 21:12)
But when the chief priests and the scribes saw the wonderful things
that He had done, and the children who were crying out in the
temple and saying, "Hosanna to the Son of David," they became
adored by infants indignant, and said to Him, "Do You hear what these are saying?"
And Jesus said to them, "Yes; have you never read, `Out of the
mouth of infants and nursing babes Thou hast prepared praise for
Thyself?'" (Matthew 21:15-16)
But though He had performed so many signs before them, yet they
were not believing in Him; that the word of Isaiah the prophet might
not believed be fulfilled, which he spoke, "Lord, who has believed our report?
And to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?" (John 12:37-
38)
Then Jesus said to them, "You will all fall away because of Me this
sheep of the night, for it is written, `I will strike down the shepherd, and the
Shepherd sheep of the flock shall be scattered.'" (Matthew 26:31)
scattered
"The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me, Because He anointed Me to
preach the gospel to the poor." While He was still speaking, behold,
a multitude came, and the one called Judas, one of the twelve, was
preceding them; and he approached Jesus to kiss Him. But Jesus
said to him, "Judas, are you betraying the Son of Man with a kiss?"
(Luke 22:47-48)
betrayed by a
close friend
And immediately he went to Jesus and said, "Hail, Rabbi!" and
kissed Him. And Jesus said to him, "Friend, do what you have
come for." Then they came and laid hands on Jesus and seized
Him. (Matthew 26:49-50)
Then one of the twelve, named Judas Iscariot, went to the chief
betrayed for thirty priests, and said, "What are you willing to give me to deliver Him up
pieces of silver to you?" And they weighed out to him thirty pieces of silver.
(Matthew 26:14-15)
And the chief priests took the pieces of silver and said, "It is not
betrayal money
lawful to put them into the temple treasury, since it is the price of
used to buy
blood." And they counseled together and with the money bought
Potter's field the Potter's Field as a burial place for strangers. (Matthew 27:6-7)
And some stood up and began to give false testimony against Him,
accused by false saying, "We heard Him say, `I will destroy this temple made with
witnesses hands, and in three days I will build another made without hands.'"
(Mark 14:57-58)
And Pilate was questioning Him again, saying, "Do You make no
silent to answer? See how many charges they bring against You!" But
accusations Jesus made no further answer; so that Pilate was amazed. (Mark
15:4-5)
Then they spat in His face and beat Him with their fists; and others
slapped Him, (Matthew 26:67)
spat on and struck
And they spat on Him, and took the reed and began to beat Him on
the head. (Matthew 27:30)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
But He was pierced through for our transgressions, He
was crushed for our iniquities; The chastening for our
well-being fell upon Him, and by His scourging we are
healed. (Isaiah 53:5)
Do not let those who are wrongfully my enemies rejoice
over me; neither let those who hate me without cause
wink maliciously. (Psalm 35:19)
But He was pierced through for our transgressions, He
was crushed for our iniquities; The chastening for our
well-being fell upon Him, and by His scourging we are
healed. (Isaiah 53:5)
Therefore, I will allot Him a portion with the great, and
He will divide the booty with the strong; because He
poured out Himself to death, and was numbered with
the transgressors; yet He Himself bore the sin of many,
and interceded for the transgressors. (Isaiah 53:12)
"And I will pour out on the house of David and on the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, the Spirit of grace and of
supplication, so that they will look on Me whom they
have pierced; and they will mourn for Him, as one
mourns for an only son, and they will weep bitterly over
Him, like the bitter weeping over a first-born. (Zechariah
12:10)
For dogs have surrounded me; A band of evildoers has
encompassed me; They pierced my hands and my feet.
(Psalm 22:16)
All who see me sneer at me; they separate with the lip,
they wag the head, saying, "Commit yourself to the
LORD; let Him deliver him; let Him rescue him, because
He delights in him." (Psalm 22:7-8)
For zeal for Thy house has consumed me, and the
reproaches of those who reproach Thee have fallen on
me. (Psalm 69:9)
I also have become a reproach to them; When they see
me, they wag their head. (Psalm 109:25)
They also gave me gall for my food, And for my thirst
they gave me vinegar to drink. (Psalm 69:21)
In return for my love they act as my accusers; but I am
in prayer. (Psalm 109:4)
yet He Himself bore the sin of many, and interceded for
the transgressors. (Isaiah 53:12)
I can count all my bones. They look, they stare at me;
they divide my garments among them, and for my
clothing they cast lots. (Psalm 22:17-18)
My God, my God, why hast Thou forsaken me? Far
from my deliverance are the words of my groaning.
(Psalm 22:1)
Subject Fulfilled
Then he released Barabbas for them; but after having Jesus
scourged, he delivered Him to be crucified. (Matthew 27:26)
scourged
"If I had not done among them the works which no one else did,
they would not have sin; but now they have both seen and hated
hated without
Me and My Father as well. But they have done this in order that the
reason word may be fulfilled that is written in their Law, `They hated Me
without a cause.'" (John 15:24-25)
For while we were still helpless, at the right time Christ died for the
ungodly.... But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that
vicarious sacrifice
while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:6, 8)
And they crucified two robbers with Him, one on His right and one
on His left. [And the Scripture was fulfilled which says, "And He
crucified with
was numbered with transgressors."] (Mark 15:27-28)
malefactors
The other disciples therefore were saying to him, "We have seen
the Lord!" But he said to them, "Unless I shall see in His hands the
imprint of the nails, and put my finger into the place of the nails,
and put my hand into His side, I will not believe."... Then He said to
Thomas, "Reach here your finger, and see My hands; and reach
pierced through
here your hand, and put it into My side; and be not unbelieving, but
hands and feet believing." (John 20:25-27)
And the people stood by, looking on. And even the rulers were
sneered and sneering at Him, saying, "He saved others; let Him save Himself if
mocked this is the Christ of God, His Chosen One." (Luke 23:35)
For even Christ did not please Himself; but as it is written, "The
was reproached reproaches of those who reproached Thee fell upon Me." (Romans
15:3)
people shook their And those passing by were hurling abuse at Him, wagging their
heads heads, (Matthew 27:39)
After this, Jesus, knowing that all things had already been
accomplished, in order that the Scripture might be fulfilled, said, "I
given vinegar for
am thirsty." A jar full of sour wine was standing there; so they put a
His thirst sponge full of the sour wine upon a branch of hyssop, and brought
it up to His mouth. (John 19:28-29)
But Jesus was saying, "Father, forgive them; for they do not know
what they are doing." And they cast lots, dividing up His garments
prayer for His
among themselves. (Luke 23:34)
enemies
And when they had crucified Him, they divided up His garments
soldiers gambled
among themselves, casting lots; and sitting down, they began to
for His clothing keep watch over Him there. (Matthew 27:35-36)
And about the ninth hour Jesus cried out with a loud voice, saying,
forsaken by God "Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani?" that is, "My God, My God, why hast
Thou forsaken Me?" (Matthew 27:46)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ
Prophetic Scripture
Into Thy hand I commit my spirit; Thou hast ransomed
me, O Lord, God of truth. (Psalm 31:5)
My loved ones and my friends stand aloof from my
plague; And my kinsmen stand afar off. (Psalm 38:11)
He keeps all his bones; not one of them is broken.
(Psalm 34:20)
"And I will pour out on the house of David and on the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, the Spirit of grace and of
supplication, so that they will look on Me whom they
have pierced; and they will mourn for Him, as one
mourns for an only son, and they will weep bitterly over
Him, like the bitter weeping over a first-born. (Zechariah
12:10)
"And it will come about in that day," declares the Lord
God, "That I shall make the sun go down at noon And
make the earth dark in broad daylight. (Amos 8:9)
His grave was assigned with wicked men, yet He was
with a rich man in His death, because He had done no
violence, nor was there any deceit in His mouth. (Isaiah
53:9)
For Thou wilt not abandon my soul to Sheol; Neither
wilt Thou allow Thy Holy One to undergo decay. (Psalm
16:10)
O LORD, Thou hast brought up my soul from Sheol;
Thou hast kept me alive, that I should not go down to
the pit. (Psalm 30:3)
But God will redeem my soul from the power of Sheol;
for He will receive me. Selah. (Psalm 49:15)
I shall not die, but live, And tell of the works of the
LORD. (Psalm 118:17)
`For I will pour out water on the thirsty land and streams
on the dry ground; I will pour out My Spirit on your
offspring, and My blessing on your descendants;'
(Isaiah 44:3)
sent the Holy Spirit
"And it will come about after this That I will pour out My
Spirit on all mankind; And your sons and daughters will
prophesy, Your old men will dream dreams, Your young
men will see visions. (Joel 2:28)
"Incline your ear and come to Me. Listen, that you may
live; And I will make an everlasting covenant with you,
According to the faithful mercies shown to David.
Behold, I have made him a witness to the peoples, a
leader and commander for the peoples. (Isaiah 55:3-4)
Behold, days are coming," declares the LORD, "when I
Subject Fulfilled
And Jesus, crying out with a loud voice, said, "Father, into Thy
committed His
hands I commit My spirit." And having said this, He breathed His
Spirit to God last. (Luke 23:46)
And all His acquaintances and the women who accompanied Him
friends stood afar
from Galilee, were standing at a distance, seeing these things.
off
(Luke 23:49)
The soldiers therefore came, and broke the legs of the first man,
and of the other man who was crucified with Him; but coming to
Jesus, when they saw that He was already dead, they did not
no bones broken
break His legs;... For these things came to pass, that the Scripture
might be fulfilled, "Not a bone of Him shall be broken." (John
19:32, 33, 36)
but one of the soldiers pierced His side with a spear, and
immediately there came out blood and water. (John 19:34)
His side pierced
Now from the sixth hour darkness fell upon all the land until the
Darkness over the
ninth hour. (Matthew 27:45)
Land
And when it was evening, there came a rich man from Arimathea,
named Joseph, who himself had also become a disciple of Jesus.
This man went to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus. Then
buried with the Pilate ordered it to be given over to him. And Joseph took the body
rich and wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and laid it in his own new
tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock; and he rolled a large
stone against the entrance of the tomb and went away. (Matthew
27:57-60)
And he said to them, "Do not be amazed; you are looking for Jesus
the Nazarene, who has been crucified. He has risen; He is not
here; behold, here is the place where they laid Him. But go, tell His
disciples and Peter, `He is going before you into Galilee; there you
will see Him, just as He said to you.'" (Mark 16:6-7)
to be resurrected
And when He had said this, He breathed on them, and said to
them, "Receive the Holy Spirit." (John 20:22)
"but this is what was spoken of through the prophet Joel: `And it
shall be in the last days,' God says, 'That I will pour forth of My
Spirit upon all mankind; and your sons and your daughters shall
prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men
shall dream dreams;'" (Acts 2:16-17)
for this is My blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many
for forgiveness of sins. (Matthew 26:28)
Establishes a new
And in the same way He took the cup after they had eaten, saying,
covenant
"This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in My
blood. (Luke 22:20)
 Prophecies of Fulfilled by Jesus Christ

Prophetic Scripture Subject Fulfilled

will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and
with the house of Judah,...But this is the covenant
which I will make with the house of Israel after those
days," declares the LORD, "I will put My law within
them, and on their heart I will write it; and I will be their
God, and they shall be My people. (Jeremiah 31:31)
But now He has obtained a more excellent ministry, by as much as
He is also the mediator of a better covenant, which has been
enacted on better promises... For this is the covenant that I will
make with the house of Israel After those days, says the Lord: I will
put My laws into their minds, And I will write them upon their hearts.
And I will be their God, And they shall be My people. (Hebrews 8:6-
10)

Thou hast ascended on high, Thou hast led captive Thy
captives; Thou hast received gifts among men, even
among the rebellious also, that the LORD God may
dwell there. (Psalm 68:18)
His ascension to
God's right hand
The LORD says to my Lord: "Sit at My right hand, until I
make Thine enemies a footstool for Thy feet." (Psalm
110:1)
So then, when the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, He was
received up into heaven, and sat down at the right hand of God.
(Mark 16:19)
and that He was buried, and that He was raised on the third day
according to the Scriptures, (1 Corinthians 15:4)
Therefore it says, "When He ascended on high, He led captive a
host of captives, And He gave gifts to men." (Ephesians 4:8)

The people who walk in darkness Will see a great light; For I do not want you, brethren, to be uninformed of this mystery,
Those who live in a dark land, The light will shine on lest you be wise in your own estimation, that a partial hardening
them. (Isaiah 9:2) has happened to Israel until the fullness of the Gentiles has come
in; (Romans 11:25)
Then it will come about in that day that the nations will
resort to the root of Jesse, Who will stand as a signal "THE PEOPLE WHO WERE SITTING IN DARKNESS SAW A
the Gentiles will
for the peoples; and His resting place will be glorious. GREAT LIGHT, AND TO THOSE WHO WERE SITTING IN THE
(Isaiah 11:10)
seek the Messiah LAND AND SHADOW OF DEATH, UPON THEM A LIGHT
DAWNED." (Matthew 4:16)
"I permitted Myself to be sought by those who did not
ask for Me; I permitted Myself to be found by those who
did not seek Me. I said, 'Here am I, here am I,' To a
nation which did not call on My name." (Isaiah 65:1)

Jesus Christ - Messiah of the Rabbinical Writers1

by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

The charge is often made that the prophetic scriptures cited by the writers of the New Testament do not refer to
the Messiah, but to other people, places, or events. However, this paper demonstrates that even the rabbinical
writers2recognized the messianic nature of these prophecies. Some of these writings are, of themselves
prophetic, and contain prophecies not even found in the Old Testament scriptures.

Subject Prophetic Scripture Rabbinical Writing2 Fulfilled

seed of a And I will put enmity between
woman you and the woman, and
between your seed and her
seed; He shall bruise you on
the head, and you shall
bruise him on the heel."
(Genesis 3:15)
And I will put enmity between thee But when the fullness of the time
and the WOMAN, and between the came, God sent forth His Son,
seed of thy sons, and between the born of a woman, born under the
SEED of her sons; and shall be Law, (Galatians 4:4)
when the sons of the WOMAN
keep the commandments of the
LAW. Thou wilt be prepared to
smite thee on thy HEAD; but if they
forsake ;the commandments of the
LAW, thou wilt be prepared to
wound them in the heel.
Nevertheless for them there shall
be a MEDICINE; and they shall
make a REMEDY for the heel in
the days of the KING MESHIHA
(Targum Palestine, Targum
 Jerusalem)

And I will put enmity between thee and

descendant of "And in your seed [Abraham's] all
Abraham the nations of the earth shall be
blessed, because you have obeyed
My voice." (Genesis 22:18)
between the WOMAN, and between thy
son and her SON. HE will remember thee
and what thou didst to HIM from (at) the
beginning, and thou shalt be observant
unto HIM at the end." (Targum Onkelos)
The promise in Gen. 22:18 is also The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ,
explained messianically in Bermid Rabbah the son of David, the son of Abraham.
2 (ed. Warsh., p. 5, b.) (Matthew 1:1)

descendant of "I see him, but not now; I behold
Jacob him, but not near; a star shall come
forth from Jacob, and a scepter
shall rise from Israel, and shall
crush through the forehead of
Moab, and tear down all the sons
of Sheth. (Numbers 24:17)
"The Israelites said to God: How long shall To Abraham was born Isaac; and to Isaac,
we be in bondage? He replied: "Till the day Jacob; and to Jacob, Judah and his
comes of which it is said: 'There shall brothers; (Matthew 1:2)
come a star out of Jacob.'"
Debarim Rabba, (Sec. 1.).
When a king shall arise out of Jakob And
the Messiah be anointed from Israel, He
will slay the princes of Moab, and reign
over all the children of man.
Targum Onkelos.

from the tribe "The scepter shall not depart from
of Judah Judah, nor the ruler's staff from
between his feet, until Shiloh
comes, and to him shall be the
obedience of the peoples. (Genesis
49:10)
"Kings shall not cease, nor rulers from the the son of Amminadab, the son of Admin,
house of Judah, nor sapherim teaching the the son of Ram, the son of Hezron, the son
Law from his seed, till the time that the of Perez, the son of Judah, (Luke 3:33)
King the messiah shall come, who will
arise from Jehudah. How beauteous is the
king, the messiah who will arise from
Jehuda."
Targum Palestine.

descendent of Then it will come about in that day
Jesse that the nations will resort to the
root of Jesse, Who will stand as a
signal for the peoples; and His
resting place will be glorious.
(Isaiah 11:10)
"From the children's children of Jesse shall
proceed Messiah, and 'His works shall be
among you as flying serpents."
Jonathan (on Isaiah 14:29).
And there shall go forth a King from the
Sons of Jesse, and the Messiah shall be
anointed from his children's children.
Targum Jonathan.
And again Isaiah says, "THERE SHALL
COME THE ROOT OF JESSE, AND HE
WHO ARISES TO RULE OVER THE
GENTILES, IN HIM SHALL THE
GENTILES HOPE." (Romans 15:12)

descendant of "Behold, the days are coming,"
David declares the LORD, "When I shall
raise up for David a righteous
Branch; and He will reign as king
and act wisely and do justice and
righteousness in the land. In His
days Judah will be saved, and
Israel will dwell securely; and this is
His name by which He will be
called, `The LORD our
righteousness.'" (Jeremiah 23:5-6)
"As thou wentest forth for the salvation of The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ,
thy people by the hands of the Meshiha, the son of David, the son of Abraham.
the son of David. Who shall wound Satan (Matthew 1:1)
who is the head, the King and Prince of the
house of the wicked, and shall raze up
(overturn) all his strength, power, policy
and dominion." R. David Kimchi.
"Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that
I will raise up to David the Messiah, who is
righteous, and He shall reign a King, and
shall prosper, and execute the Judgment of
truth and Justice in the earth."
Targum Jonathan.
"And they shall worship before the Lord
their God, and they shall hearken to
Messiah, the Son of David, their King,
whom I will raise up to them."-Jonathan
(on Jer. 30:9, 21).

will shepherd "And My servant David will be king
His people over them, and they will all have
one shepherd; and they will walk in
My ordinances, and keep My
statutes, and observe them."
(Ezekiel 37:24)
This is the faithful Shepherd; Of ,thee it is
said, "Kiss the Son," thou art the Prince of
the Israelites, the Lord of the earth... the
Son of the Most High, the Son of the holy
God - -and the gracious Shekinah.
Zohar (Gen. f6l. 88, c. 348).
"`And you, Bethlehem, land of Judah, Are
by no means least among the leaders of
Judah; For out of you shall come forth a
Ruler, Who will shepherd My people
Israel.'" (Matthew 2:6)
 heir to the There will be no end to the
throne of increase of His government or of
David peace, on the throne of David and
over his kingdom, to establish it
and to uphold it with justice and
righteousness from then on and
forevermore. The zeal of the LORD
of hosts will accomplish this.
(Isaiah 9:7)
anointed and Thy throne, O God, is forever and
eternal ever; A scepter of uprightness is
the scepter of Thy kingdom. Thou
hast loved righteousness, and
hated wickedness; therefore God,
Thy God, has anointed Thee with
the oil of joy above Thy fellows.
(Psalm 45:6-7)
"Of old Thou didst found the earth;
and the heavens are the work of
Thy hands. Even they will perish,
but Thou dost endure; and all of
them will wear out like a garment;
like clothing Thou wilt change
them, and they will be changed.
But Thou art the same, and Thy
years will not come to an end."
(Psalm 102:25-27)
born in "But as for you, Bethlehem
Bethlehem Ephrathah, too little to be among
the clans of Judah, from you One
will go forth for Me to be ruler in
Israel. His goings forth are from
long ago, from the days of eternity."
(Micah 5:2)
time for His "So you are to know and discern
birth that from the issuing of a decree to
restore and rebuild Jerusalem until
Messiah the Prince there will be
seven weeks and sixty-two weeks;
it will be built again, with plaza and
moat, even in times of distress.
(Daniel 9:25)
to be born of "Therefore the LORD Himself will
a virgin give you a sign: Behold, a virgin will
be with child and bear a son, and
she will call His name Immanuel.
(Isaiah 7:14)
preceded by "Behold, I am going to send you
Elijah Elijah the prophet before the
coming of the great and terrible day
"Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that
I will raise up to David the Messiah, who is
righteous, and He shall reign a King, and
shall prosper, and execute the Judgment of
truth and Justice in the earth."
(Targum Jonathan)
When the mighty King of Jacob's house
shall reign and the Meshiha, the Power
Sceptre of Israel, be anointed He shall slay
the princes of Moabee.
Targum Jerusalem
"Out of thee Bethlehem shall messiah go
forth before me, to exercise dominion over
Israel. Whose name has been spoken from
of Old from the day of Eternity."
Targum Jonathan.
"Out of thee (Bethlehem) shall come forth
unto me Messiah, the Son of David."
R. Jarchi.
God has decreed to build up Jerusalem
and show a star... This star is the Messiah.
Sohar (Num. fol. 85, c. 340).
"I have examined and searched all the
Holy Scriptures, and have not found -the
time for the coming of messiah, clearly
fixed, except In the words of Gabriel to the
prophet Daniel, which are written in the
ninth chapter of the prophecy of Daniel."
R. Moses Abraham Levi.
"Behold, a Virgin shall conceive." There
are some who say that this was made a
sign , because a Virgin "fuit non apta
generationi."
Jarchi.
"Malachi 3:1 is applied to Elijah as the
forerunner of the Messiah in Pirke de R.
Eliezer, c. 29.
"He will be great, and will be called the Son
of the Most High; and the Lord God will
give Him the throne of His father David;
and He will reign over the house of Jacob
forever; and His kingdom will have no
end." (Luke 1:32-33)
But of the Son He says, "Thy throne, O
God, is forever and ever, and the righteous
scepter is the scepter of His kingdom.
Thou hast loved righteousness and hated
lawlessness; therefore God, Thy God, hath
anointed Thee with the oil of gladness
above Thy companions." And, "Thou, Lord,
in the beginning didst lay the foundation of
the earth, and the heavens are the works
of Thy hands; They will perish, but Thou
remainest; and they all will become old as
a garment, and as a mantle Thou wilt roll
them up; as a garment they will also be
changed. But Thou art the same, and Thy
years will not come to an end." (Hebrews
1:8-12)
And Joseph also went up from Galilee,
from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the
city of David, which is called Bethlehem,
because he was of the house and family of
David, in order to register, along with Mary,
who was engaged to him, and was with
child.... And she gave birth to her first-born
son; and she wrapped Him in cloths, and
laid Him in a manger, because there was
no room for them in the inn. (Luke 2:4-
5, 7)
Now it came about in those days that a
decree went out from Caesar Augustus,
that a census be taken of all the inhabited
earth. This was the first census taken while
Quirinius was governor of Syria. (Luke 2:1-
2)
Now in the sixth month the angel Gabriel
was sent from God to a city in Galilee,
called Nazareth, to a virgin engaged to a
man whose name was Joseph, of the
descendants of David; and the virgin's
name was Mary.... And the angel said to
her, "Do not be afraid, Mary; for you have
found favor with God. And behold, you will
conceive in your womb, and bear a son,
and you shall name Him Jesus." (Luke
1:26-27, 30-31)
"For all the prophets and the Law
prophesied until John. And if you care to
accept it, he himself is Elijah, who was to
 of the LORD. And he will restore
the hearts of the fathers to their
children, and the hearts of the
children to their fathers, lest I come
and smite the land with a curse."
(Malachi 4:5-6)
Edersheim, app. 9. p. 736 come." (Matthew 11:13-14)
"And Israel will not make great repentance
till Elijah-his memory for blessings!- come,
as it is said in Malachi 4:5, 6, 'Behold, I will
send you Elijah, the prophet'."
Pirke de R. Elieser (c. 43).

declared the "I will surely tell of the decree of the
Son of God LORD: He said to Me, `Thou art My
Son, today I have begotten Thee.'"
(Psalm 2:7)
Who has ascended into heaven
and descended? Who has
gathered the wind in His fists? Who
has wrapped the waters in His
garment? Who has established all
the ends of the earth? What is His
name or His son's name? Surely
you know! (Proverbs 30:4)
This is the faithful Shepherd; Of ,thee it is
said, "Kiss the Son," thou art the Prince of
the Israelites, the Lord of the earth... the
Son of the Most High, the Son of the holy
God - -and the gracious Shekinah.
Zohar (Gen. f6l. 88, c. 348).
R. Huni in the name of R. Ide and R.
Joshua said, that this man is the King
Messiah of whom it is said, Psa. 2:7, "This
day have I begotten thee."
Talmud Babylonian
"He will be great, and will be called the Son
of the Most High; and the Lord God will
give Him the throne of His father David;"
(Luke 1:32)
and behold, a voice out of the heavens,
saying, "This is My beloved Son, in whom I
am well-pleased." (Matthew 3:17)

a prophet "The LORD your God will raise up
for you a prophet like me from
among you, from your countrymen,
you shall listen to him."
(Deuteronomy 18:15)
"A prophet from among thee, of thy and that He may send Jesus, the Christ
brethren, like unto me, will the Lord thy appointed for you... "Moses said, `The Lord
God raise up unto thee, to Him shall ye God shall raise up for you a prophet like
hearken." me from your brethren; to Him you shall
Targum Onkelos. give heed in everything He says to you.'"
"And a right prophet (prophet of (Acts 3:20, 22)
Righteousness) will the Lord your God give
you, a prophet from among you of your
brethren like unto Me with the Holy Spirit,
will the Lord your God raise up unto you; to
Him shall ye be obedient."
Targum Palestine.

will minister "Behold, My Servant, whom I
to Gentiles uphold; My chosen one in whom
My soul delights. I have put My
Spirit upon Him; He will bring forth
justice to the nations. (Isaiah 42:1)
Listen to Me, O islands, and pay
attention, you peoples from afar.
The LORD called Me from the
womb; from the body of My mother
He named Me. (Isaiah 49:1)
"And in that day there shall be a Root of MAT 12:18 "Behold, My Servant whom I
Jesse, which shall stand for an Ensign of have chosen; My Beloved in whom My soul
the people; to it shall the Gentiles seek: is well-pleased; I will put My Spirit upon
and His rest shall be glorious." If so, then Him, and He shall proclaim justice to the
why should the messiah come, and what Gentiles... "And in His name the Gentiles
will he do to the congregation of Israel? He will hope." (Matthew 12:18-21)
will redeem Israel, and give them thirty
commandments according to Zech. 11:12 A light of revelation to the Gentiles, And
Edersheim the glory of Thy people Israel. " (Luke
When the king messiah shall be revealed 2:32)
all the nations of all the world shall be
gathered to Him"
R. Simeon ben Jochai
"In fact the messiah is such a prophet as it
is stated in the Midrash on the verse,
"Behold my servant shall prosper... Moses
by the miracles which he wrought drew but
a single nation to the worship of God, but
the Messiah will draw all nations to the
worship of God."
R. Levi ben Gershom.

to intercede Therefore, I will allot Him a portion
for the with the great, And He will divide
people the booty with the strong; Because
He poured out Himself to death,
And was numbered with the
transgressors; Yet He Himself bore
the sin of many, And interceded for
the transgressors. (Isaiah 53:12)
And He saw that there was no
man, And was astonished that
there was no one to intercede;
"and with the mighty he shall divide the
spoils," which the Messiah and his sons
will take, and some of it will be given to the
"wise ones." "Jesus was numbered with
the transgressors, in the penalty which
befell them.
Jacob ben Ruben (The Quarate).
He (Messiah) shall intercede for many sins,
and the rebellious for His sake shall be
forgiven.
Targum Jonathan.
And when Israel is sinful, the Messiah
who is the one who condemns? Christ
Jesus is He who died, yes, rather who was
raised, who is at the right hand of God,
who also intercedes for us. (Romans 8:34)
Hence, also, He is able to save forever
those who draw near to God through Him,
since He always lives to make intercession
for them. (Hebrews 7:25)
 Then His own arm brought
salvation to Him; And His
righteousness upheld Him. (Isaiah
59:16)
rejected by He was despised and forsaken of
His own men, a man of sorrows, and
people, the acquainted with grief; and like one
Jews from whom men hide their face, He
was despised, and we did not
esteem Him. (Isaiah 53:3)
"Then He shall become a
sanctuary; But to both the houses
of Israel, a stone to strike and a
rock to stumble over, And a snare
and a trap for the inhabitants of
Jerusalem." (Isaiah 8:14)
Therefore thus says the LORD
God, "Behold, I am laying in Zion a
stone, a tested stone, A costly
cornerstone for the foundation,
firmly placed. He who believes in it
will not be disturbed." (Isaiah
28:16)
The stone which the builders
rejected Has become the chief
corner stone. (Psalm 118:22)
priest after The LORD has sworn and will not
the order of change His mind, "Thou art a priest
Melchizedek forever according to the order of
Melchizedek." (Psalm 110:4)
triumphal Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion!
entry Shout in triumph, O daughter of
Jerusalem! Behold, your king is
coming to you; He is just and
endowed with salvation, Humble,
and mounted on a donkey, even on
a colt, the foal of a donkey.
(Zechariah 9:9)
entered the "Behold, I am going to send My
temple with messenger, and he will clear the
authority way before Me. And the LORD,
whom you seek, will suddenly
come to His temple; and the
messenger of the covenant, in
whom you delight, behold, He is
coming," says the LORD of hosts.
(Malachi 3:1)
sheep of the "Awake, O sword, against My
seeks for mercy upon them, as it is written,
"By His stripes we were healed, and he
carried the sins of many; and made
intercession for the transgressors."
B'reshith Rabbah (pp. 430, 671.)
"Then he (my servant Messiah) will
become despised, and will cut off the glory
of all the Kingdoms; they will be prostrate
and mourning, like a man of pains, and like
One destined for sickness; and as though
the presence of the Shekinah had been
withdrawn from us, they will be despised,
and esteemed not."
Targum Jonathan.
" Likewise we find (Zech. 4:14): 'These are
the two sons of the clear-oil, that stand by
the Lord of the whole earth." This refers to
Aaron and the Messiah and we do not
know who is more beloved; but as it is
written, (Psa. 110:4): 'The Lord hath sworn
and will not repent of it, 'Thou shalt be a
Priest forever after the order of
Melchizedek."
Talmud Babylonian (Aboth p. 112).
"R. Hillel says there will be no Messiah for
Israel, because they have enjoyed him
already (fol. 99, col. 1) in the days of
Hezekiah. Said Rav. Joseph, may God
pardon R. Hillel. When was Hezekiah? In
the first house, but Zechariah (9:9)
prophesied in the second house. Rejoice
greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout O
daughter of Jerusalem; behold thy King
cometh unto thee: he is just, having
Salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass,
and upon a colt, the foal of an ass."
(Talmud Babylonian Sanh. fol. 99, c. 1).
"What is to be the manner of Messiah's
coming, and where will be the place of his
first appearance? He will make his first
appearance in the land of Israel, as it is
written, 'the Lord whom ye seek will come
suddenly to His Temple."
R. Mosheh ben Maimon.
"I fear, O my Lord, that that which
He came to His own, and those who were
His own did not receive Him. (John 1:11)
But they cried out all together, saying,
"Away with this man, and release for us
Barabbas!" (Luke 23:18)
He is the stone which was rejected by you,
the builders, but which became the very
corner stone. (Acts 4:11)
For this is contained in Scripture: "Behold I
lay in Zion a choice stone, a precious
corner stone, And he who believes in Him
shall not be disappointed." This precious
value, then, is for you who believe. But for
those who disbelieve, "The stone which the
builders rejected, This became the very
corner stone," and, "A stone of stumbling
and a rock of offense"; for they stumble
because they are disobedient to the word,
and to this doom they were also appointed.
(1 Peter 2:6-8)
So also Christ did not glorify Himself so as
to become a high priest, but He who said
to Him, "Thou art My Son, Today I have
begotten Thee"; just as He says also in
another passage, "Thou art a priest forever
according to the order of Melchizedek."
(Hebrews 5:5-6)
And they brought the colt to Jesus and put
their garments on it; and He sat upon it....
And those who went before, and those who
followed after, were crying out, "Hosanna!
Blessed is He who comes in the name of
the Lord;"... And He entered Jerusalem
and came into the temple; and after looking
all around, He departed for Bethany with
the twelve, since it was already late. (Mark
11:7, 9, 11)
And Jesus entered the temple and cast out
all those who were buying and selling in
the temple, and overturned the tables of
the moneychangers and the seats of those
who were selling doves. (Matthew 21:12)
Then Jesus said to them, "You will all fall
 Shepherd Shepherd, And against the man,
scattered My Associate," Declares the LORD
of hosts. "Strike the Shepherd that
the sheep may be scattered; and I
will turn My hand against the little
ones." (Zechariah 13:7)
Zechariah, the prophet said, 'I will smite away because of Me this night, for it is
the Shepherd, and the sheep of the flock written, `I will strike down the shepherd,
shall be scattered,' was fulfilled when we and the sheep of the flock shall be
smote the Shepherd of those little ones, scattered.'" (Matthew 26:31)
and holy apostles.
R. Samuel Marochinanus, apud Burkium in
loco e Mullero

betrayed for And I said to them, "If it is good in
thirty pieces your sight, give me my wages; but
of silver if not, never mind!" So they
weighed out thirty shekels of silver
as my wages. (Zechariah 11:12)
Is Messianically explained in Bermid Rab.
98 fol. 85, 3), but with this remark, that the
thirty pieces of silver apply to thirty
precepts, the messiah is to give to Israel.
Edersheim (App. 9, p. 736).
Then one of the twelve, named Judas
Iscariot, went to the chief priests, and said,
"What are you willing to give me to deliver
Him up to you?" And they weighed out to
him thirty pieces of silver. (Matthew 26:14-
15)

accused by Malicious witnesses rise up; they "And afterward the Holy One will reveal to
false ask me of things that I do not know. them Messiah, the Son of David, whom
witnesses (Psalm 35:11) Israel will desire to stone, saying, 'Thou
speakest falsely; already is the Messiah
slain and there is none other Messiah to
stand and so they will despise him.'"
Shim'on ben Yohai.
And some stood up and began to give
false testimony against Him, saying, "We
heard Him say, `I will destroy this temple
made with hands, and in three days I will
build another made without hands.'" (Mark
14:57-58)

vicarious But He was pierced through for our
sacrifice transgressions, He was crushed for
our iniquities; The chastening for
our well-being fell upon Him, and
by His scourging we are healed.
(Isaiah 53:5)
"And Messiah the King, who was For while we were still helpless, at the right
chastened and suffered for the time Christ died for the ungodly.... But God
transgressors, as It is said, "He was demonstrates His own love toward us, in
wounded for our transgressions. and so on that while we were yet sinners, Christ died
- how much more shall He justify all for us. (Romans 5:6, 8)
generations, and thus is what is meant
when it is written, "And Jehovah made to
meet upon Him the sins of us all."
Pugio Fidei (p. 675).

crucified with Therefore, I will allot Him a portion
malefactors with the great, and He will divide
the booty with the strong; because
He poured out Himself to death,
and was numbered with the
transgressors; yet He Himself bore
the sin of many, and interceded for
the transgressors. (Isaiah 53:12)
"The fact is that it (Isa 52:53) refers to the And they crucified two robbers with Him,
king messiah, who will come in the latter one on His right and one on His left. [And
days, when it will be the Lord's good the Scripture was fulfilled which says, "And
pleasure to redeem Israel from among the He was numbered with transgressors."]
different nations of the earth... "He was (Mark 15:27-28)
counted with the transgressors," because
they appointed his grave by the side of the
wicked.
Herz Homberg.

pierced "And I will pour out on the house of
through David and on the inhabitants of
hands and Jerusalem, the Spirit of grace and
feet of supplication, so that they will
look on Me whom they have
pierced; and they will mourn for
Him, as one mourns for an only
son, and they will weep bitterly over
Him, like the bitter weeping over a
first-born. (Zechariah 12:10)
For dogs have surrounded me; A
band of evildoers has
encompassed me; They pierced
my hands and my feet. (Psalm
22:16)
"And the heathen will look unto me to see The other disciples therefore were saying
what I will do to those who have pierced to him, "We have seen the Lord!" But he
messiah, the son of Joseph." said to them, "Unless I shall see in His
Aben Ezra. hands the imprint of the nails, and put my
"It must be granted 'him that says, for finger into the place of the nails, and put
Messiah the son of Joseph that shall be my hand into His side, I will not believe."...
slain as it is written, 'And they shall look Then He said to Thomas, "Reach here
upon me whom they have pierced.'" your finger, and see My hands; and reach
Talmud Babylonian (Succah 52, 1). here your hand, and put it into My side;
"The earliest Talmudic reference to this and be not unbelieving, but believing."
Second Messiah (son of Joseph) dates (John 20:25-27)
from the Third century of our era, and
contains the strange and almost
blasphemous notices that the prophecy of
Zechariah concerning the mourning for him
whom they have pierced, refer to Messiah
the son of Joseph, who would be killed in
the war of Gog and Magog, and, that,
when Messiah the son of David, saw it He
,asked life of God, who gave it to Him, as it
is written in Psa. 2: 'Ask Me and I will give
Thee,' upon which God informed the
messiah that His Father David had already
asked and obtained this for him according
to Psalm 21:4.-Sukka (52, a. and b)"
 Edersheim (Vol. 2, p. 434).

prayer for His In return for my love they act as my
enemies accusers; but I am in prayer.
(Psalm 109:4)
yet He Himself bore the sin of
many, and interceded for the
transgressors. (Isaiah 53:12)
"He (Messiah) shall intercede for many But Jesus was saying, "Father, forgive
sins, and the rebellious for His sake shall them; for they do not know what they are
be forgiven." doing." And they cast lots, dividing up His
Targum Jonathan. garments among themselves. (Luke
And when Israel is sinful, the Messiah 23:34)
seeks for mercy upon them, as it is written,
"By His stripes we were healed, and he
carried the sins of many; and made
intercession for the transgressors."
B'reshith Rabbah (pp. 430, 671.)

His side "And I will pour out on the house of
pierced David and on the inhabitants of
Jerusalem, the Spirit of grace and
of supplication, so that they will
look on Me whom they have
pierced; and they will mourn for
Him, as one mourns for an only
son, and they will weep bitterly over
Him, like the bitter weeping over a
first-born. (Zechariah 12:10)
"And the heathen will look unto me to see but one of the soldiers pierced His side
what I will do to those who have pierced with a spear, and immediately there came
Messiah, the Son of Joseph. out blood and water. (John 19:34)
Aben Ezra.
"It must be granted 'him that says, for
messiah the son of Joseph that shall be
slain as it is written, And they shall look
upon me whom they have pierced."
Talmud Babylonian (Succah 52, 1).

buried with His grave was assigned with
the rich wicked men, yet He was with a rich
man in His death, because He had
done no violence, nor was there
any deceit in His mouth. (Isaiah
53:9)
"The fact is that it (Isa 52:53) refers to the And when it was evening, there came a
King Messiah, who will come in the latter rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph,
days, when it will be the Lord's good who himself had also become a disciple of
pleasure to redeem Israel from among the Jesus. This man went to Pilate and asked
different nations of the earth... "He was for the body of Jesus. Then Pilate ordered
counted with the transgressors," because it to be given over to him. And Joseph took
they appointed his grave by the side of -the the body and wrapped it in a clean linen
wicked. Herz Homberg. cloth, and laid it in his own new tomb,
By the rich are meant the powerful men which he had hewn out in the rock; and he
among the Gentiles, who are rich, while rolled a large stone against the entrance of
Israel in exile, is spoken of as poor and the tomb and went away. (Matthew 27:57-
needy: at that time some of them will 60)
perish, and the prophet here declares, how
the Messiah will resign himself to die, and
be buried in their tomb.
Yapheth ben Ali.
Hence it is here said that he himself "Made
His grave with the wicked"; he also made it
with the rich in his death; he was not poor,
but in His death could be . counted with the
rich.
R. Sh'muel Lanyado. "The sense of the
whole is, And He made in His deaths His
grave with the wicked, and the rich: the
plural "deaths" is used because Piercing
Him as cruel men do, through and through,
they would, so speak, be putting Him to
death again and again."
Herz Homberg.

sent the Holy `For I will pour out water on the
Spirit thirsty land and streams on the dry
ground; I will pour out My Spirit on
your offspring, and My blessing on
your descendants;' (Isaiah 44:3)
"And it will come about after this
That I will pour out My Spirit on all
mankind; And your sons and
daughters will prophesy, Your old
men will dream dreams, Your
young men will see visions. (Joel
2:28)
"And a right prophet (prophet of
Righteousness) will the Lord your God give
you, a prophet from among you of your
brethren like unto me with the Holy Spirit,
will the Lord your God raise up unto you; to
Him shall ye be obedient."
Targum Palestine
And when He had said this, He breathed
on them, and said to them, "Receive the
Holy Spirit." (John 20:22)
"but this is what was spoken of through
the prophet Joel: `And it shall be in the last
days,' God says, 'That I will pour forth of
My Spirit upon all mankind; and your sons
and your daughters shall prophesy, and
your young men shall see visions, and your
old men shall dream dreams;'" (Acts 2:16-
17)
Establishes a "Incline your ear and come to Me.
new Listen, that you may live; And I will
covenant make an everlasting covenant with
you, According to the faithful
mercies shown to David. Behold, I
have made him a witness to the
peoples, a leader and commander
for the peoples. (Isaiah 55:3-4)
"The Lord is both the Divine Majesty, and
the Angel of the Covenant, for the
sentence is doubled." Aben Ezra.
"'The lord' is the King Messiah; He is also
the Angel of the Covenant."
Kimchi.
for this is My blood of the covenant, which
is poured out for many for forgiveness of
sins. (Matthew 26:28)
And in the same way He took the cup after
they had eaten, saying, "This cup which is
poured out for you is the new covenant in
My blood. (Luke 22:20)

Behold, days are coming," But now He has obtained a more excellent
declares the LORD, "when I will ministry, by as much as He is also the
make a new covenant with the mediator of a better covenant, which has
house of Israel and with the house been enacted on better promises... For this
of Judah,...But this is the covenant is the covenant that I will make with the
which I will make with the house of house of Israel After those days, says the
Israel after those days," declares Lord: I will put My laws into their minds,
the LORD, "I will put My law within And I will write them upon their hearts. And
them, and on their heart I will write I will be their God, And they shall be My
it; and I will be their God, and they people. (Hebrews 8:6-10)
shall be My people. (Jeremiah
31:31)

His ascension Thou hast ascended on high, Thou
to God's right hast led captive Thy captives; Thou
hand hast received gifts among men,
even among the rebellious also,
that the LORD God may dwell
there. (Psalm 68:18)
The LORD says to my Lord: "Sit at
My right hand, until I make Thine
enemies a footstool for Thy feet."
(Psalm 110:1)
"And this is the messiah our
Righteousness, as it is said, "The Lord said
unto my Lord, Sit on my right hand until I
make thine enemies thy footstool.
R. Sa'adah Gaon
So then, when the Lord Jesus had spoken
to them, He was received up into heaven,
and sat down at the right hand of God.
(Mark 16:19)
and that He was buried, and that He was
raised on the third day according to the
Scriptures, (1 Corinthians 15:4)
Therefore it says, "When He ascended on
high, He led captive a host of captives, And
He gave gifts to men." (Ephesians 4:8)

the Gentiles The people who walk in darkness
will seek the Will see a great light; Those who
Messiah live in a dark land, The light will
shine on them. (Isaiah 9:2)
Then it will come about in that day
that the nations will resort to the
root of Jesse, Who will stand as a
signal for the peoples; and His
resting place will be glorious.
(Isaiah 11:10)
"I permitted Myself to be sought by
those who did not ask for Me; I
permitted Myself to be found by
those who did not seek Me. I said,
'Here am I, here am I,' To a nation
which did not call on My name."
(Isaiah 65:1)
"And in that day there shall be a Root of
Jesse, which shall stand for an Ensign of
the people; to it shall the Gentiles seek:
and His rest shall be glorious." If so, then
why should the Messiah come, and what
will he do to the congregation of Israel? He
will redeem Israel, and give them thirty
commandments according to Zech. 11:12"
Edersheim.
For I do not want you, brethren, to be
uninformed of this mystery, lest you be
wise in your own estimation, that a partial
hardening has happened to Israel until the
fullness of the Gentiles has come in;
(Romans 11:25)
"THE PEOPLE WHO WERE SITTING IN
DARKNESS SAW A GREAT LIGHT, AND
TO THOSE WHO WERE SITTING IN THE
LAND AND SHADOW OF DEATH, UPON
THEM A LIGHT DAWNED." (Matthew
4:16)

NOTES

1. Much of the information in this paper is from a book by Dr. F. Kenton Beshore, who graciously agreed to allow the
material to be used in this paper. The complete reference appears below:
Beshore, F. Kenton , D.D., LL.D., Ph.D. 1971. Messiah of the Tanach, Targums, Talmuds, World Bible Society.
2. The rabbinical writings include the Targums, Talmuds, and writings of individual rabbis. A brief description is included
below (from reference 1):
The Targum is the Aramaic translation of the Old Testament. It forms a part of the Jewish traditional literature, and in its
inception is as early as the time of the second temple. The use of the term "Targum" by itself was restricted to the
Aramaic Version of the Bible. As an interpretation of the Hebrew text of the Bible the Targum had its place both in the
 synagogual liturgy and in Biblical instruction, while the reading of the Bible text combined with the Targum in the
presence of the congregation assembled for public worship was an ancient institution which dated from the time of the
second temple, and was traced back to Ezra by Rab when he interpreted the word "Meforash" as referring to the Targum.
"Palestine Targum" or Targum Yerushalmi). "A responsum of Hai Gaon already cited with reference to the Targumim,
answers the question concerning the Targum of the land of Israel (Palestine) in the following words: "We do not know
who composed it, nor do we even know this Targum of which we have heard only a few passages. If there is a tradition
among them (the Palestinians) that it has been made the subject of public discourse since the days of the ancient sages it
must be held in the same esteem as our Targum, for otherwise they would not have allowed it. But if it is less ancient, it
is not authoritative."
The Talmuds are two works which have been presented to posterity as the product of the Palestinian and Babylonian
schools during the Amoraic period which extended from the third to the fifth century, C.E. One of these compilations is
entitled, "Talmud Jerusalami" (Jerusalem Talmud), and the other Talmud Babli (Babylonian Talmud). Linguistically, the
Palestinian Talmud is Aramaic. The Aramaic, which assumed a fixed literary form in Yerusalami, is almost the same as
that of the earliest Palestinian midrashic works, differing from them only in a few peculiarities, mostly orthographic. The
first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed at Venice, 1520-23, by Daniel Bomberg, and has become the
basis, down to the present day, of a very large number of editions.
3.

Approximate Dates of Pseudepigraphic and Apocryphal

Books
NAME B.C. A.D.

Book of Enoch 400-40

Book of Tobit 350

Book of Esdras 336-100

Book of Maccabees (Vols. I-II) 200-70

Book of Jesus, Son of- Sirach (Phys.) 200-175

Book of Judith 147-145

Book of Baruch 150

Book of Wisdom 150-140

Book of Jubilees 137-64

Septuagint (LXX) 287

Psalms of Solomon 187-4

Jonathan ben Uzziel Targum 30 50

Onkelos 4 40

Aquilla 128

Philo Judaeus (Claudius Caesar) 20 41

 Approximate Dates of Pseudepigraphic and Apocryphal
Books
NAME B.C. A.D.

Flavius Josephus 37--103

Mishna 105--220

Talmud (Jerusalem) 320--350

Talmud (Babylon) 427--550

Joseph ben Gorion 900

R. Saadiah Gaon 936

R. Solomon Jarchi (Rashi) 1040-1105

R Aben Ezra 1092-1167

R. Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides) 1135-1204

R. David Kimchi 1160-1240

R. Abarbanel (Abrabanel) 1437--1508

Zohar 70--1306

Did the Original New Testament Manuscripts still

exist in the Second Century?
Related Media
There are two or three places that address whether the originals survived into the second century. Tertullian, writing in c. 180 CE, said,
Come now, you who would indulge a better curiosity, if you would apply it to the business of your salvation, run over [to] the apostolic
churches, in which the very thrones of the apostles are still pre-eminent in their places, in which their own authentic writings are read,
uttering the voice and representing the face of each of them severally 1 The key term here is authenticae (authentic). Schaff has a note
on this as follows: This much disputed phrase may refer to the autographs or the Greek originals(rather than the Latin translations), or
full unmutilated copies as opposed to the garbled ones of the heretics. The second sense is probably the correct one. However, Schaffs
view is not the only one out there. For example, the Oxford Latin Dictionary offers this definition for the nominal cognate, authenticum:
An original document, autograph. There is no other definition given. For the adjective, authenticus, which is used by
Tertullian, OLD gives the meaning as (of documents) Original. Again, no alternative is given. I have not done a TLG-like search
on authenticae litterae, which would be what is needed to settle the issue most likely.
Tertullian goes on to discuss each of these authentic writings as being found in the very churches to which they were written. He
mentions Corinth, Philippi, Thessalonica, Ephesus, and Rome. He urges his reader to visit these sites to check out these authentic
writings. This seems to suggest that he believed that these documents were the autographs. In the least, it suggests that by his day
carefully done copies of the originals were considered important for verifying what the apostles meant, and such copies had a strong
connection to the churches to which they were originally written. One still has to wonder why Tertullian focuses on the very churches
which received the originals if he didnt mean by the comment that these churches still preserved the autographs. Perhaps Schaff was
trying to salvage the credibility of Tertullians testimony by shifting the normative meaning of authenticus to a copy that was reliable.
My sense, however, both from the context and from lexical usage, is that Tertullian meant the autographa.
Of course, whether Tertullians testimony actually represents the facts may be a different matter. Most scholars would reject his
testimony as apologetically motivated and not in line with the facts (see especially Scriveners discussion). Even if that is the case, by
Tertullians day carefully done copies of the originals were apparently considered important for verifying what the New Testament
authors wrote. There was an awareness of the variants and an appreciation for the original text. Even taking the worst case scenario,
Tertullians statement tells us that some early Christians were concerned about having accurate copies and that the earliest ones still in
existence were not quietly put on the shelf. But that there is no reliable witness after the time of Tertullian with similar claims suggests
that the originals were by the early third century, at the latest, disappearing.
Although it would have taken the early church some decades to recognize, say, Pauls letters as scripture, there would still seem to be a
sense from very early on that his letters were important and needed to be preserved if at all possible. At the same time, this cannot be
pressed too far: First, the early Christians were the first known group to adopt the codex form of the book, and perhaps were even the
ones to invent it. One of the possible reasons suggested for the quick adoption of the codex form by Christians is that their religion was
one of an embattled faith. They would thus need to find the passages that supported their views as easily as possible. The codex provided
that far better than the roll, which continued to be used for hundreds of years after the Christians adopted the codex by the rest of the
Greco-Roman (not to mention Jewish) world. Second, only two of Pauls four letters to the Corinthians have been preserved in
manuscript copies, and most likely several other letters have not been preserved. Yet there are reasons why two of the Corinthian letters
have gone missing,2 and as for the rest there is the likelihood that until Pauls letters had circulated to some degree (sometimes at his
own instruction3), the churches receiving them might not have prized them at first as much as they would later. 4 Certainly, as the years
wore on, and especially when Pauls letters began to get copied by more than the original recipients, there would be a sense of the
importance of the autographs and especially of what was written in them. But since they were no doubt written on papyrus, and were not
preserved in particularly dry climates, they could not have lasted more than two or three hundred years even under the best conditions in
the ancient world (although papyrus is more durable than paper). The likelihood that they only lasted for several decades at the most
strongly suggests that they were repeatedly examined and copied by interested parties struggling for their faith in a hostile environment.
Irenaeus devotes an entire chapter to a discussion of the variant in Rev 13:18 (AH 5.30). He does not speak of the original text, however,
but does address the earliest copies that he had seen. He compares the two readings, 616 and 666, and gives the palm to 666. However,
since he also gives it a spiritual interpretation, one has to wonder whether his motives clouded his judgment and whether the church,
under his spell, began to copy out 666 here instead of 616. Until just a few years ago, the only known manuscript to have 616 in Rev
13:18 was Ephraemi Rescriptus (codex C), a fifth century codex and the second most important manuscript of the Apocalypse. Then,
with the discovery of sixteen or seventeen NT papyri at the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford University just a few years ago, confirmation
of this reading appeared. The earliest manuscript on Rev 13, now P115 from the third or perhaps fourth century, also has the reading 616. I
looked at the papyrus in 2003 while visiting Oxford, examining it under a microscope. Clearly, it had the reading 616 in the original
handno erasures, no alterations. Nevertheless, back to Irenaeus: It is a curious thing that he doesnt appeal to the original text of
Revelation, which would end all dispute. He only appeals to early copies. Perhaps the reason is simply his distance from the source. By
comparing what he says with what Tertullian says, access to the original church(es) seems to have been considered crucial for
verification of the original wording. Hence, the reason Irenaeus only speaks of the copies may well be due to his geographical location.
But if Irenaeus was speaking in absolute terms, then the original draft of the Apocalypse had disappeared. If so, this certainly puts some
doubt on Tertullians statement about some of the letters of Paul still existing. One other item that may be important here: Revelation
was copied less often than any other book of the NT, and yet Irenaeus admits that it was already corruptedwithin just a few decades of
the writing of the Apocalypse. Scribal corruption is to be expected, of course, but that Irenaeus best argument is to appeal to early
manuscripts rather than to the originaleven if he had not seen the originalmight suggest that it no longer existed. And if Revelation
no longer existed, how much more likely is it that Pauls letters no longer existed by the middle of the second century?
There is at least one other reference to the original documents still existing into the early fourth century, this time by Peter, Bishop of
Alexandria (who died in the last year of the Diocletian persecution, 311 CE). In fragment 1, he speaks of the autograph of the Gospel of
John as still existing in his day: the copy itself that was written by the hand of the evangelist, which, by the divine grace, has been
preserved in the most holy church of Ephesus, and is there adored by the faithful. He is here discussing a textual variant at John 19:14,
but his statement about the reading and his assessment of what was at Ephesus are both almost surely incorrect. By the fourth century,
relics became quite important to the growing church, and claims were often made to bolster a churchs prestige. The question that I
cannot yet answer is how soon such veneration of relics and documents became the norm. (Im sure the answer is out there somewhere;
if anyone knows what it is, please write to me!) But as I suggested above, I think the early church did not immediately have such
adoration for the apostolic writings, though surely by the end of the first century they would have. Further (again, as alluded above), for
the Christian community, at least in the first several decades of the churchs existence, it seemed to be more important to disseminate
copies of the NT documents than to venerate them. The very form of the codex suggests that the early Christians were far more interested
in what the text had to say than in treating the original documents as some sort of lucky charm. This would thus both contribute to the
demise of the autographs but also would mean that the very process that brought about their destruction was one in which they were
examined and copied. Otherwise, they would have survived longer and remained in cases to be worshiped from afar, just like so many
countless relics that are found in Orthodox and Catholic churches in Europe are doing to this day.
An important ramification of all this is as follows: By the middle of the second century, when canon conscientiousness was on the rise,
the Christian community regarded the autographs, or at least the earliest copies of the New Testament documents, as important
witnesses. They were concerned about the purity of the text with regard to select textual variants. Most likely, this implies that the
copying of the manuscripts in the early decades of the Christian faith was not that of strictly linear descent (one copy of another copy of
another copy). Rather, there would be times when at least a few scribes would want to check behind their exemplar and look at its
exemplar. This would especially occur whenever a disputed reading cropped up. So, there seems to have been a bit of a check on the
quality of the transmission of the text from very early on. Of course, those scribes far removed from the churches that received the
autographs, and far removed from the disputes about their wording, would have created copies that were simply copies of other copies,
without thought of making sure that the wording reflected the original. Yet even into the medieval ages, we know of occasional scribes
who undertook to find the earliest and best copies they could locate and use them as their exemplar. The scribe Ephraim who penned
codex 1739 and codex 1582 was one such scribe. How many more nameless scribes who came hundreds of years before him attended to
their duties in the same way? In the least, historical probabilities would tell us that at least some of them did.

1De Praescriptione Haereticorum, Chapter 36; Schaffs translation. The Latin reads as follows: Age iam, qui uoles curiositatem melius
exercere in negotio salutis tuae, percurre ecclesias apostolicas apud quas ipsae adhuc cathedrae apostolorum suis locis praesident, apud
quas ipsae authenticae litterae eorum recitantur sonantes uocem et repraesentantes faciem uniuscuiusque.
2 Most likely, they caused the Corinthians so much embarrassment that they were unwilling to expose their own dirty laundry to this
degree by having copies made for other churches. With what is already in 1-2 Corinthians, the tongue-lashing that Paul gave them must
have been brutal. (Of course, if 2 Corinthians is a composite letter with part of one of the lost letters incorporated into it, this scenario
would change a bit. I take it, however, that 2 Corinthians is a literary unit.)
3 See Col 4.16. Although it is often suggested that the letter to the Laodiceans is lost, there is a good chance that this refers to the letter to
the Ephesians. This has some plausibility to it because (a) the earliest witnesses to Ephesians have no recipient mentioned, though
grammatically leaving the recipient blank is quite awkward. This suggests that the letter was meant to be circulated among several
churches, and Ephesians was just the first one. Each church after that would make a copy of the original document and fill in its own
name. See my note in the NET Bible on this point. (b) Marcions canon list mentions the letter to the Laodiceans, but not the letter to the
Ephesians. This is almost surely the same letter and serves as some confirmation on our suspicions in the first point. (c) Going counter-
clockwise in Asia Minor, beginning at Ephesus, Laodicea would be the stop prior to Colossae. If Tychicus gave instructions to the
Ephesian church to make a copy of the letter, leaving the recipient line blank, and then sending on the letter to Laodicea with instructions
for them to fill in the blank, he could have made his way to Colossae knowing that the letter from Laodicea would be soon coming.
Somewhere along the line, the instructions got garbled and hence the earliest textual variant that leaves the recipient blank. Perhaps one
reason this scenario is not often considered today is because many scholars do not regard Ephesians to be Pauline.
4 Two indications suggest this. First, in 2 Thess 3.17 Paul refers to every letter that he has written to churches. Yet, only Galatians
(assuming the South Galatian theory) and 1 Thessalonians are prior to 2 Thessalonians in the corpus Paulinum! Surely, this indicates that
Paul had written other letters to churches that are no longer preserved. But second, if 2 Peter is authentic, then its almost casual reference
to Pauls letters as scripture suggests that by the mid-60s at least one or two folks in the nascent church recognized that Pauls letters
were so authoritative as to deserve such nomenclature. (The problem with this second point is that even if authentic, we have to wonder
why 2 Peter made almost no impact on patristic writers for nearly a century in terms of identifying Pauls letters as scripture. I personally
believe that Peter did write this letter, but I also think that it did not circulate widely, and thus would have had minimal impact on
patristic assessments of Pauls writings.)
 Misquoting Jesus: Does Bart Ehrman Prove the New Testament is Corrupt?
by Daniel McCarthy

INTRODUCTION
Was Jesus Misquoted?

According to Bart Ehrman, not only was Jesus misquoted, but we have no real way of knowing anything He said, since the apostles and scribes
basically wrote whatever they wanted. Accordingly, these people, and later Christian leaders, chose from among a plethora of writings to "create"
Christianity. Does the evidence show that this is how Christianity originated or is Ehrman just reflecting his own personal biases?

Rich Deem, editor

In his best selling book, Misquoting Jesus, Dr. Bart Ehrman, a well known New Testament scholar and critic, seeks
to show that the New Testament is a corrupt document changed through the evolutionary process of scribal
alteration, early Christian theological apologetics, and poor scholarship. Since he contends that if God had set out
to write a book, he would have preserved an uncorrupted and inerrant work, Dr. Ehrman seeks to show that the
New Testament is riddled with errors. By showing it is riddled with errors, Ehrman seeks to prove that the Bible is
not the inerrant word of God, but strictly a human book reflecting human hopes, dreams and aspirations. This
paper reviews his arguments and rebuts several of his claims.

Ehrman's conversion

At the beginning of Misquoting Jesus, Dr. Ehrman outlines his conversion from a believer in orthodox Christianity to agnosticism. He
goes on to set the stage that he grew up in a conservative place and time 1 with very conservative, somewhat naive friends. While
a sophomore in high school, he believes he had a genuine born-again experience. He claims this experience led him to become so
passionate about the Bible that he chose to attend Moody Bible Institute.

Errors in the Bible?

It is at this point in the book Dr. Ehrman introduces the central theme of his book to the reader: the Bible is error-ridden.
Therefore; one cannot know what the Bible actually means. The beginning of this revelation came to him in one of the first classes
at Moody. He learned that, None of the copies is completely accurate, since the scribes who produced them inadvertently and/or
intentionally changed them in place. So, rather than actually having the inspired words of the autographs of the Bible, what we
have are the error-ridden copies of the autographs.2 Becoming defensive, Ehrman decided to study even harder so he could
become a New Testament scholar to help recover Gods words. Once he had recovered these words, he could become an
evangelical voice in secular circles.3

After graduating from Moody Bible Institute, Dr. Ehrman enrolled at Wheaton College. To pursue his goal of finding the true words
of the Bible, he delved deeply into Greek and the original biblical languages. He states, The full meaning and nuance of the Greek
text of the New Testament could be grasped only when it is read and studied in the original language. 4 Therefore, by pursuing the
languages, he could recover the original meaning and text.

His study of the original languages helped him research the developmental history of the manuscripts of the New Testament
documents. Through this study, he learned that, We have only error-ridden copies, and the vast majority of these are centuries
removed from the originals and different from them, evidently in thousands of ways. 5 At this point, Dr. Ehrman began having
serious doubts about the inspiration of the New Testament and whether he could recover the original words. These doubts drove
Ehrman to dig deeper and deeper into the history and text of the New Testament ultimately leading him to go to Princeton
Seminary to study with the worlds leading expert in the field of New Testament, Dr. Bruce Metzger.

At Princeton Seminary, he recounts one of the first experiences he had with a conservative professor Dr. Cullen Story. Dr. Ehrman
had been given the task to discover a solution to the textual variant in Mark 2. Jesus cites the Old Testament to show the Pharisees
that the Sabbath was made for humans, not humans for the Sabbath. 6 David had gone into the temple when Abiathar was high
priest, seemingly in violation of the Sabbath according to the Pharisees. The problem seems to be that Abiathar was not the high
priest, but rather, his father, Ahimelch. Ehrman recounts how he arduously labored over a long and complicated 7 and ultimately
convoluted8 story to show that this was, in fact, not a mistake. Shockingly, Professor Story wrote back, Maybe Mark just made a
mistake.9 At this point, Dr. Ehrman says he could not accept the Bible as the Word of God and rejected Christianity.

Ehrman's error
Dr. Craig Evans cites Ehrmans quote in Fabricating Jesus. He states that Ehrmans line of reasoning is so typical of brittle
fundamentalism.10 He continues by stating rigid ideas about the verbal inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture
underlie Ehrmans problem.11 Evans summarizes that the truth of the Christian message hinges not on the
inerrancy of Scripturebut on the resurrection of Jesus. 12 Throughout Fabricating Jesus, Evans points out that
many people, like Ehrman, have lost their faith because they have an inflexible understanding of what inerrancy
and verbal inspiration mean.

Evolution of the Bible?

Dr. Ehrman goes on to tie Christianity to Judaism as a religion that relied on letters and books. And as such, Early
Christian books were purported to have been written by a small group of religious elites who used them to control uneducated
people. He claims Christians, like most other people throughout the empire (including Jews!), were illiterate. 13 Due to widespread
illiteracy, the common people had to rely upon well-educated people like Paul and the scribes to tell them what was true. These
evangelists unified the faith and the practices of the Christians; they indicated what the Christians were supposed to believe and
how they were supposed to behave.14

Dr. Ehrman goes into depth to show that people like Paul and the scribes defined what became known as orthodox and heresy.
Ehrman suggests that the fight over orthodoxy is a fight over books which were presented to illiterate and superstitious people. Like
an archetype of himself, Ehrman shows that better educated Greeks like Celsus, the learned critic, 15 pointed out that the earliest
Christians were poor and uneducated. Orthodoxy eventually won out because theologically motivated apologists like Origen
defeated those who chose the wrong way to understand their faith 16 and labeled them as heretics.

Throughout Misquoting Jesus, Ehrman builds his case to try to prove that the process of developing the New Testament was fatally
flawed. He portrays the compilation of the New Testament documents like a two to three hundred year game of telephone tag
among illiterate people. Before Jerome and the advent of professional scribes, the manuscripts of the New Testament were copied
when one of their members could, cobble together enough free time to make a copy of a text.17 Therefore, the New Testament
Documents were developed in a completely untrustworthy manner.

Textual critics

Dr. Ehrmans bleak outlook of the text is not shared by the majority of textual critics. Daniel Wallace PhD, a
fellow textual critic, is quick to point out, that, Here (chapter 2) Ehrman mixes standard text-critical information with his own
interpretation, an interpretation that is by no means shared by all textual critics, nor even most of them. 18 In Misquoting Jesus and
on primetime television, Dr. Ehrman deceptively leads the audience to believe his questionable interpretation is how all or the great
majority textual critics view the scribal process. In The Historical Reliability of the Gospels, Dr. Blomberg counters that, one of the
better kept secrets19 is how reliable the New Testament documents are. 20 In Misquoting Jesus, Dr. Ehrman never references
conservative counterpoints, like Drs. Wallace or Blomberg, to his assertions, though he does consistently bring up more liberal
counterpoints to make himself look more moderate.

NT variants

Dr. Ehrman attempts to demonstrate dramatic flaws in modern versions of the Bible. He accuses Erasmus, whose work heavily
influenced modern versions of the Bible like the King James Version, as being a sloppy scholar who was under competitive pressure
to complete the work and, rushed out rather than edited 21 his final manuscript. He sums up by saying that Erasmus interpretation
of the texts, entered into the English stream of consciousness merely by a chance of history, based upon manuscripts that
Erasmus just happened to have handy to him and one that was manufactured for his benefit. 22

Due to all of these various changes to the text, Ehrman claims that there are more variants in the New Testament text than there
are words in the text. Ehrman has loudly proclaimed in several appearances on the television show Primetime that since there are
an enormous amount of variants in the New Testament, we cannot know what the original authors meant. Daniel Wallace agrees
with Ehrman that there are about 400,000 variants; he goes on to say but by itself is misleading. Anyone who teaches NT textual
criticism knows that this fact is only part of the picture and that, if left dangling in front of the reader without explanation is a
distorted view. Once it is revealed that the great majority of these variants are inconsequentialinvolving spelling differences that
cannot even be translated, articles with proper nouns, word order changes, and the likeand that only a very small minority of the
variants alter the meaning of the text, the whole picture begins to come into focus. Indeed, only about 1% of the textual var iants
are both meaningful and viable.23
Attempting to demonstrate that textual critics face an insurmountable hurdle when attempting to reconstruct the original text,
Ehrman cites Celsus again who, argued that Christians changed the text at will, as if drunk from a drinking bout. 24 He also points
out that discrepancies in the Bible were acknowledged in the early Church. Pope Damascus was so concerned about varieties of
Latin manuscripts that he commissioned Jerome to produce a standardized translation. 25

What seems to evade Ehrman is that there appears to have been a standard against which to compare these variants. Otherwise,
how could one know that there were variants or the text was changed? Ehrman dubiously cites a chief critic of Christianity as if
what Celsus says is uncritically true. Ehrman criticizes the manuscripts that were available to Jerome as, manuscripts that cannot
be trusted.26

While criticizing the process of transmission, Ehrman ignores the massive variety of New Testament manuscripts and commentaries
on the New Testament available to textual critics. Craig Blomberg points out there are more than 5000 manuscripts available in
Greek to help identify textual variants and move close to the original text. Unlike Ehrman who give the impression that all textual
scholars seem to think that the original text is unrecoverable due to the questionable transmission process, Scholars of almost
every theological stripe attest to the profound care with which the NT books were copied in the Greek language, and later
transmitted and preserved in Syriac, Coptic, Latin and a variety of other ancient European and Middle Eastern languages. 27

Moreover, critics have other sources of ancient information to reconstruct much of what is contained in the New Testament. As
Professor Kenneth Samples points out, Even without these thousands of manuscripts, virtually the entire New Testament text
could be reproduced from specific scriptural citations within written (and preserved) sermons, commentaries, and various other
works of the early church fathers. 28 Ehrmans apologetic intentions become clear as he seeks to mislead the reader into believing
that the New Testament was compiled by a group of illiterate, lazy scribes who cannot be trusted.

Marginalizing textual critics

After reviewing the problems of recovering the text in the early church, Ehrman considers how 18 th century textual critics including
Johann Bengel and Johann Wettstein approached the text. Ehrman views Bengel as, a classically trained, extremely careful
interpreter of the biblical text.29 Not only is he perhaps the best known biblical commentator, but he wrote extensive notes on
every book of the New Testament.30 Though Bengel was meticulous and intellectually accomplished, Ehrman points out that, his,
religious commitments permeated his life and thought. 31 Vital to Ehrmans apologetic, he amazingly links Bengel to Hal Lindsey
and Tim Lahaye because Bengel believed that the Olivet Discourse may be used in predicting end time events. The goal of Ehrman
is to discredit Bengel by showing that the only way he could believe the Bible was the inspired word of God was due to his wacky
religious presuppositions.

In contrast to Bengel, Ehrman picks what he most likely sees as a person who parallels his life, Johann Wettstein. He is described
by Ehrman as starting out in University as a devoted evangelical who saw that God had, bestowed this book (Bible) once and for
all on the world as an instrument for perfection of human character.32 Wettsteins goal was to become expert on the Bible and
further its cause for mankind. On a trip to England where was he was given full access to the Codex Alexandrinus, he had his faith
shaken. While studying the text, he found that many of the references to Jesus divinity involved textual variants. Similar to
Ehrmans loss of faith due to his loss of trust in the inerrancy of the Bible, Wettstein lost his faith because of the problems he saw
the text posed in verses like 1 John 5:7-8, the Johannine Comma.

Dr. Ehrman turns next to modern textual critics use of internal evidence to evaluate the manuscripts. Internal evidence is the
evaluation and study of the authors writing style, use of vocabulary and the theology perspective. Ehrman holds much in common
with scholars like Rudolph Bultmann believing the writers were more concerned about faith and the application of the Christian
message to daily concerns than about the actual events in the life of Jesus. 33 Ehrmans post-modern worldview is relevant in his
analysis because he views the documents as more reflective of the interpretive community developing the manuscripts rather than
being committed to what the original authors had to say.

Ehrman's worldview

As Professor Samples points out, the foundation of a post modern worldview is based upon, the individuals perceptions, opinions,
experiences, inclinations and desires. 34 This is further corroborated by Wallace who points out, Its almost as if external evidence
is a nonstarter for Ehrman.35 There is internal evidence for Ehrmans worldview in chapter 5 because Ehrman immediately
attempts to show that three different authors within the New Testament seem to have three completely different pictures of Jesus.
He believes the words they penned to make sense of the world were purely subjective because they seemed to have conflicting
viewpoints of Jesus.

Ehrman supports this thesis through the lens of Mark 1:41. He compares the seemingly angry Jesus in Mark 1:41 to a parallel
passage which portrays an imperturbable Jesus in Luke 22:39-46. Then he compares both passages to another parallel in Hebrews
2:8-9 where Jesus seems forsaken by God, not angry or imperturbable. Ehrman uses this comparison to attempt to prove that
these interpretive communities highlight a subjective and disjointed picture of the Jesus. Ehrman sums up, Lukes portrayal of
Jesus stands in contrast not only to that of Mark, but also to that of other New Testament authors, including the unknown author of
the Epistle to the Hebrews.36

According to Ehrman, this discontinuity raises a powerful challenge to those who see the Bible as not only inerrant, but inspired by
God. In his bookInerrancy, Gordon Lewis briefly attempts to address this question by discussing how the human authors may have
interfaced with divine inspiration. Lewis acknowledges this objection cited by Dr. Ehrman. Because of the complexity of the
subject, this chapter must be considered merely a preliminary draft of a major book or books needed on this issue, with all of its
ramifications.37 Lewis continues on to quote B.B. Warfield who provides an excellent illustration of why each of these authors
described Jesus differently by comparing each of the authors to colors, What if the colors of the stained glass window have been
designed by the architect for the express purpose of giving to the light that floods the cathedral precisely by the tone and quality it
receives from them.38 In other words, each author of scripture is able to illuminate the audience to another facet of the divine
picture of God.

NT canon

Ehrman then returns to the early church period where he suggests that the Bible we have today is the result of a theological battle
between diverse groups of people. Just Ehrman believes that the New Testament writers seem to have a diverse set of beliefs,
outside groups of people, with different backgrounds and ideologies, saw him even more differently. According to Ehrman, naturally
they had, lots of other gospels, acts, epistles and apocalypses having very different perspectives from those found in the books
that eventually came to be called the New Testament. 39 Ehrman states, All these groups claimed to be Christian, insisting that
their views were true and had been taught by Jesus and his followers. 40

All of these groups that claimed to be Christians warred until Constantine ratified what became known as orthodoxy. The group
that established itself as orthodox (as always in quotation marks) then determined what future Christian generations would believe
and read as scripture.41 He states, Only one group eventually won out in these debates. It was this group that decided what the
Christian creeds would bethis was the group that decided which books would be included in the canon of scripture. 42

Dr. Ehrman is unbalanced in his presentation and never discusses challenges to his hypothesis. For instance, Richard Bauckham has
strongly argued that the Gospels were based on eyewitness testimony. Bauckham argues the Gospels identify eyewitnesses to the
whole ministry of Jesus, from its beginning. 43 Gary Habermas states that even most critical scholars believe 1 Corinthians 15 was
written within 5 years of Jesus death. Dr. Craig Blomberg states Paul believed and confirmed the content or kerugma of 1
Corinthians 15 and that he was telling the truth.44

Darrell Bock and Daniel Wallace sum it up well when they state that Bart Ehrman confuses second and third century gospel and
gospel-like texts as giving us an equally relevant picture of this early period 45 with the New Testaments with roots in the earliest
era of belief in Jesus.46 They further point out extensive scholarly work devoted to why certain books were included and why
different books were excluded. They conclude that Ehrman misleads his readers because he ignores the massive body of scholarly
material contradicting his thesis in Misquoting Jesus.

Scribal input?

Dr. Ehrman finishes Misquoting Jesus by attempting to show that the text of the New Testament is heavily influenced by the
apologetic interpretations of the scribes. He portrays the New Testament writers as anti-women and anti-pagan. Most flamboyantly,
Ehrman attempts to show that the early Christians were anti-Jewish. Ehrman first states that Jesus had no intention of starting a
new religion, but as his followers were increasingly excluded from the Temple, they became anti-Jewish. Within just a few decades
of his death, Jesus followers had formed a religion that stood over-against Judaism.47

Ehrman then turns his guns at the apostles and tries to show that there was conflict within their ranks over whether to be pro
Jewish or anti-Jewish. Here we see a bizarre conspiracy theory floated by Ehrman grounded in his post modern worldview. Early
Christians, of course, had other opinions-as they did on nearly every issue of the day! 48 Dr. Ehrman contrasts Matthews position in
which Jesus, followers naturally kept the Law, just as Jesus did himself 49 with Pauls position that keeping the Law had no role in
salvation.50 What Ehrman conveniently leaves out is that Matthew does not imply that you had to keep the Law to attain salvation.
Darrell Bock agrees and states that in Acts we see this tension between different practices within the earliest Christian movement,
But Paul, Peter, and James did share the same faith, as Paul himself notes in Galatians. 51

Perhaps the most offensive (my wife is a Messianic Jew) and ignorant assertion made by Dr. Ehrman is when he asks the question,
Why would Jesus pray for forgiveness for this recalcitrant people who had willfully rejected God himself?52 Clearly, Dr. Ehrman
does not understand the character of God himself. For throughout the Old Testament, the Jews continually rejected God, yet they
were in fact forgiven. Jesus himself stated that he wept over Jerusalem rejecting him as Messiah. Even Paul stated in Romans that
He is a Jew first and there would be a future time when the Jews would turn back to their Messiah.

Dr. Ehrman concludes his book in the vein of a post-modern manifesto. He declares that scribes had changed the texts of the New
Testament both to suit their theological and social circumstances, as well as due to their ineptitude. Furthermore, Dr. Ehrman
states that the scribes were constrained by subjective and normal human tendencies by stating, What they were doing with the
text was not all that different from what each of us does every time we read a text. 53 Ehrman asserts that there is no absolute
truth to be found. His position is well stated in his conclusion. I began to see that since each of these authors is different, it was
not appropriate to think that anyone of them meant the same thing as some other author meant. 54 In other words, the work of the
New Testament is not the work of God and man in inerrant harmony, but the work of the New Testament is simply the work of
human hands. Moreover, the reason the New Testament was written was not to reveal the God of the Bible in the person of Jesus,
but so that the writers, texts might have significance for them, and how they might help them make sense of their own situation
and their own lives.55
CONCLUSION

Dr. Bart Ehrman claims that the New Testament has been altered by scribes and religious leaders to reflect their own brand of
religious belief. However, a critique of Dr. Ehrman's Misquoting Jesus, shows that he grossly exaggerates New Testament textual
differences and fails to cite textual critics who disagree with his undocumented claims about possible changes. Contrary to Dr.
Ehrman's assertions, it is clear that the New Testament canon was already accepted by the Church by the early second century,
and textual comparison shows that no major doctrinal statements were changed or added after that time.

Bibliography

Archer, Gleason. 1982. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Bauckham, Richard. 2006 Jesus and the Eyewitnesses The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Blomberg, Craig L. 2007. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels. Downers Grove: Intervarsity.
Bruce, F. F. 1998. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove: Intervarsity.
Carson, D.A. and Moo, Douglas J. 1992. Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan.
Craig, William L. 1991. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Wheaton. Crossway.

Ehrman, Bart D. 2005. Misquoting Jesus. San Francisco: HarperCollins.

Evans, Craig. 2006. Fabricating Jesus: How Modern Scholars Distort the Gospels. Downers Grove:
Intervarsity.
Geisler, Norman. 1980. Inerrancy. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
Green, Joel B, McKnight, Scot and Marshall, Howard I. 1992. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Grand
Rapids: Intervarsity.
Habermas, Gary. 1996. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ. Joplin: College
Press Publishing Co.
Kaiser, Walter C. 1996. Hard Sayings of the Bible. Downers Grove: Intervarsity.
Samples, Kenneth. 2005. Without A Doubt: Answering the 20 Toughest Faith Questions. Colorado Springs: Navpress.

RELATED PAGES

Did Paul Invent Christianity? Is the Founder of the Christian Religion Paul of Tarsus or Jesus of
Nazareth?
Is Christianity a Made-up Myth Written by the Disciples?
Jesus Christ as God and the Trinity Was Not Invented Until the Fourth Century?
Is the Bible Really the Word of God?
History of the Bible: How The Bible Came To Us by Wes Ringer
Is Our Copy of the Bible a Reliable Copy of the Original?
Ehrman Project

REFERENCES

1. Ehrman, Bart Misquoting Jesus, page 1.

2. Ibid, page 5.
3. Ibid, page 5.
4. Ibid, page 6.
5. Ibid, page 7.
6. Ibid, page 9.
7. Ibid, page 9.
8. Ibid, page 9.
 9. Ibid, page 9.
10. Evans, Craig Fabricating Jesus: How Modern Scholars Distort the Gospels, Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove IL 2006,
page 31.
11. Ibid, page 27.
12. Ibid, page 31.
13. Ibid, page 20-1.
14. Ibid, page 22.
15. Ibid, page 40.
16. Ibid, page 28.
17. Ehrman, page 73.
18. The Gospel according to Bart By: Daniel B. Wallace , Th.M., Ph.D.
19. Blomberg, Craig Historical Reliability of the Gospels, Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove, IL, 2007, page 17.
20. Ibid, page 17.
21. Ibid, page 79.
22. Ibid, page 82.
23. The Gospel according to Bart By: Daniel B. Wallace , Th.M., Ph.D.
24. Ehrman, page 101.
25. Ibid, page 101.
26. Ibid, page 103.
27. Craig, William L. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics, Moody Press, Wheaton Il, 1994, page 193.
28. Samples, Kenneth Without A Doubt: Answering the 20 Toughest Faith Questions, NavPress, Colorado Springs, CO, 2005,
page 92.
29. Ehrman, page 109.
30. Ibid, page 109.
31. Ibid, page 109.
32. Ibid, page 112.
33. Habermas, Gary The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ, College Press Publishing Co; Joplin, MO.
1996, page 47.
34. Samples, page 230.
35. The Gospel according to Bart By: Daniel B. Wallace , Th.M., Ph.D.
36. Ehrman, page 144.
37. Geisler, Norman Inerrancy, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI 1980, page 229.
38. Ibid, page 250.
39. Ehrman, page 153.
40. Ibid, page 152.
41. Ibid, page 154.
42. Ibid, page 154.
43. Bauckham, Richard Jesus and the Eyewitnesses The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony; Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI,
2006 Page 116.
44. Blomberg, Craig Historical Reliability of the Gospels; Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove, IL 2007, page 145.
45. A Look at the Two Christian Faiths in Our Public Square: Christianity and Jesusanity April 1, 08 by Dr. Darrell Bock.
46. A Look at the Two Christian Faiths in Our Public Square: Christianity and Jesusanity April 1, 08 by Dr. Darrell Bock.
47. Ehrman, page 187.
48. Ibid, page 189.
49. Ibid, page 189.
50. Ibid, page 189.
51. A Look at the Two Christian Faiths in Our Public Square: Christianity and Jesusanity April 1, 08 by Dr. Darrell Bock.
52. Ehrman, page 193.
53. Ibid, page 216.
54. Ibid, page 212.
55. Ibid, page 218.

History of the Bible: How The Bible Came To Us

by Wesley Ringer

INTRODUCTION

Why should we have some understanding of how the Bible came to us? Young children often think that milk comes in cartons from
the grocery store. As they grow up they learn that milk comes from cows on the farm. Likewise many Christians have become so
used to having Bibles that they have bought at a book store that they have almost no knowledge of where the present English
translations of the Bible came from.

A. Understanding how the Bible came to us gives us a confident foundation for our faith in the reliability the Bible. Evidence
presented in a criminal case must be shown to have been protected by a proper chain of custody from being tampered
with.
B. We will be able to answer to critics when they claim that the New Testament contains 200,000 errors.
C. We will have some understanding of why the newer translations such as the NIV and NASV differ from the King James
Versions at various points.
Important terms to remember:

Skeptics often claim that the Bible has been changed. However, it is important to define the terms that apply to the source of our
English Bible.

Autographs: The original texts were written either by the author's own hand or by a scribe under their personal
supervision.
Manuscripts: Until Gutenberg first printed the Latin Bible in 1456, all Bibles were hand copied onto papyrus, parchment,
and paper.
Translations: When the Bible is translated into a different language it is usually translated from the original Hebrew and
Greek. However some translations in the past were derived from an earlier translation. For example the first English
translation by John Wycliffe in 1380 was prepared from the Latin Vulgate.

Old Testament

The Bible comes from two main sources - Old and New Testaments - written in different languages. The Old Testament was written
primarily in Hebrew, with some books written in Aramaic. The following are brief snap shots of the beginning and ending of the Old
Testament and the reasons for the first two translations of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Aramaic and Greek

1875 B.C. Abraham was called by God to the land of Canaan.

1450 B.C. The exodus of the Children of Israel from Egypt.

Autographs

There are no known autographs of any books of the Old Testament. Below is a list of the languages in which the Old Testament
books were written.

1450-1400 B.C. The traditional date for Moses' writing of Genesis-Deuteronomy written in Hebrew.
586 B.C. Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. The Jews were taken into captivity to
Babylon. They remained in Babylon under the Medo-Persian Empire and there began to speak Aramaic.
555-545 B.C. The Book of Daniel Chapters. 2:4 to 7:28 were written in Aramaic.
425 B.C. Malachi, the last book of the Old Testament, was written in Hebrew.
400 B.C. Ezra Chapters. 4:8 to 6:18; and 7:12-26 were written in Aramaic.

Manuscripts

The following is a list of the oldest Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament that are still in existence.

The Dead Sea Scrolls: date from 200 B.C. - 70 A.D. and contain the entire book of Isaiah and portions of every other
Old Testament book but Esther.
Geniza Fragments: portions the Old Testament in Hebrew and Aramaic, discovered in 1947 in an old synagogue in
Cairo, Egypt, which date from about 400 A.D.
Ben Asher Manuscripts: five or six generations of this family made copies of the Old Testament using the Masoretic
Hebrew text, from 700-950 A.D. The following are examples of the Hebrew Masoretic text-type.
o Aleppo Codex: contains the complete Old Testament and is dated around 950 A.D. Unfortunately over one
quarter of this Codex was destroyed in anti-Jewish riots in 1947.
o Codex Leningradensis: The complete Old Testament in Hebrew copied by the last member of the Ben Asher
family in A.D. 1008.

Translations

The Old Testament was translated very early into Aramaic and Greek.

400 B.C. The Old Testament began to be translated into Aramaic. This translation is called the Aramaic Targums. This
translation helped the Jewish people, who began to speak Aramaic from the time of their captivity in Babylon, to
understand the Old Testament in the language that they commonly spoke. In the first century Palestine of Jesus'
 day, Aramaic was still the commonly spoken language. For example maranatha: "Our Lord has come," 1 Corinthians
16:22 is an example of an Aramaic word that is used in the New Testament.
250 B.C. The Old Testament was translated into Greek. This translation is known as the Septuagint. It is sometimes
designated "LXX" (which is Roman numeral for "70") because it was believed that 70 to 72 translators worked to
translate the Hebrew Old Testament in Greek. The Septuagint was often used by New Testament writers when they
quoted from the Old Testament. The LXX was translation of the Old Testament that was used by the early Church.

1. The following is a list of the oldest Greek LXX translations of the Old Testament that are still in existence.
o Chester Beatty Papyri: Contains nine Old Testament Books in the Greek Septuagint and dates between 100-
400 A.D.
o Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus each contain almost the entire Old Testament of the Greek
Septuagint and they both date around 350 A.D.

The New Testament

Autographs

45- 95 A.D. The New Testament was written in Greek. The Pauline Epistles, the Gospel of Mark, the Gospel of Luke, and the book of
Acts are all dated from 45-63 A.D. The Gospel of John and the Revelation may have been written as late as 95 A.D.

Manuscripts

There are over 5,600 early Greek Manuscripts of the New Testament that are still in existence. The oldest manuscripts were
written on papyrus and the later manuscripts were written on leather called parchment.

125 A.D. The New Testament manuscript which dates most closely to the original autograph was copied around 125 A.D,
within 35 years of the original. It is designated "p 52" and contains a small portion of John 18. (The "p" stands for
papyrus.)
200 A.D. Bodmer p 66 a papyrus manuscript which contains a large part of the Gospel of John.
200 A.D. Chester Beatty Biblical papyrus p 46 contains the Pauline Epistles and Hebrews.
225 A.D. Bodmer Papyrus p 75 contains the Gospels of Luke and John.
250-300 A.D. Chester Beatty Biblical papyrus p 45 contains portions of the four Gospels and Acts.
350 A.D. Codex Sinaiticus contains the entire New Testament and almost the entire Old Testament in Greek. It was
discovered by a German scholar Tisendorf in 1856 at an Orthodox monastery at Mt. Sinai.
350 A.D. Codex Vaticanus: {B} is an almost complete New Testament. It was cataloged as being in the Vatican Library
since 1475.

Translations

Early translations of the New Testament can give important insight into the underlying Greek manuscripts from which they were
translated.

180 A.D. Early translations of the New Testament from Greek into Latin, Syriac, and Coptic versions began about 180
A.D.
195 A.D. The name of the first translation of the Old and New Testaments into Latin was termed Old Latin, both
Testaments having been translated from the Greek. Parts of the Old Latin were found in quotes by the church father
Tertullian, who lived around 160-220 A.D. in north Africa and wrote treatises on theology.
300 A.D. The Old Syriac was a translation of the New Testament from the Greek into Syriac.
300 A.D. The Coptic Versions: Coptic was spoken in four dialects in Egypt. The Bible was translated into each of these
four dialects.
380 A.D. The Latin Vulgate was translated by St. Jerome. He translated into Latin the Old Testament from the Hebrew
and the New Testament from Greek. The Latin Vulgate became the Bible of the Western Church until the Protestant
Reformation in the 1500's. It continues to be the authoritative translation of the Roman Catholic Church to this day. The
Protestant Reformation saw an increase in translations of the Bible into the common languages of the people.
Other early translations of the Bible were in Armenian, Georgian, and Ethiopic, Slavic, and Gothic.
1380 A.D. The first English translation of the Bible was by John Wycliffe. He translated the Bible into English from the
Latin Vulgate. This was a translation from a translation and not a translation from the original Hebrew and Greek. Wycliffe
was forced to translate from the Latin Vulgate because he did not know Hebrew or Greek.
The Advent of Printing

Printing greatly aided the transmission of the biblical texts.

1456 A.D. Gutenberg produced the first printed Bible in Latin. Printing revolutionized the way books were made. From
now on books could be published in great numbers and at a lower cost.
1514 A.D. The Greek New Testament was printed for the first time by Erasmus. He based his Greek New Testament
from only five Greek manuscripts, the oldest of which dated only as far back as the twelfth century. With minor revisions,
Erasmus' Greek New Testament came to be known as the Textus Receptus or the "received texts."
1522 A. D. Polyglot Bible was published. The Old Testament was in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin and the New
Testament in Latin and Greek. Erasmus used the Polyglot to revise later editions of his New Testament. Tyndale made
use of the Polyglot in his translation on the Old Testament into English which he did not complete because he was
martyred in 1534.
1611 A.D. The King James Version into English from the original Hebrew and Greek. The King James translators of the
New Testament used the Textus Receptus as the basis for their translations.
1968 A.D. The United Bible Societies 4th Edition of the Greek New Testament. This Greek New Testament made
use of the oldest Greek manuscripts which date from 175 A.D. This was the Greek New Testament text from which the
NASV and the NIV were translated.
1971 A.D. The New American Standard Version (NASV) was published. It makes use of the wealth of much older
Hebrew and Greek manuscripts now available that weren't available at the time of the translation of the KJV. Its wording
and sentence structure closely follow the Greek in more of a word for word style.
1983 A.D. The New International Version (NIV) was published. It also made use of the oldest manuscript evidence. It
is more of a "thought-for-thought" translation and reads more easily than the NASV.
o As an example of the contrast between word-for-word and thought-for-thought translations, notice below the
translation of the Greek word "hagios-holy"
NASV Hebrews 9:25. "...the high priest enters the holy place year by year with blood not his own."
NIV Hebrews 9:25. "...the high priest enters the Most Holy Place every year with blood that is not his own."
o The NIV supplies "understood" information about the Day of Atonement, namely that the high priest's duties
took place in the compartment of the temple known specifically as the Most Holy Place. Note that the NASV
simply says "holy place" reflecting the more literal translation of "hagios."

The Integrity of the Manuscript Evidence

As with any ancient book transmitted through a number of handwritten manuscripts, the question naturally arises as to how
confident can we be that we have anything resembling the autograph. Let us now look at what evidences we have for the integrity
of the New Testament manuscripts. Let us look at the number of manuscripts and how close they date to the autographs of the
Bible as compared with other ancient writings of similar age.

A. Tacitus, the Roman historian, wrote his Annals of Imperial Rome in about A.D. 116. Only one manuscript of his work
remains. It was copied about 850 A.D.
B. Josephus, a Jewish historian, wrote The Jewish War shortly after 70 A.D. There are nine manuscripts in Greek which date
from 1000-1200 A.D. and one Latin translation from around 400 A.D.
C. Homer's Iliad was written around 800 B.C. It was as important to ancient Greeks as the Bible was to the Hebrews. There
are over 650 manuscripts remaining but they date from 200 to 300 A.D. which is over a thousand years after the
Iliad was written.
D. The Old Testament autographs were written 1450 - 400 B. C.
1. The Dead Sea Scrolls date between 200 B.C. to 70 A. D and date within 300 years from when the last book of
the Old Testament was written.
2. Two almost complete Greek LXX translations of the Old Testament date about 350 A. D.
3. The oldest complete Hebrew Old Testament dates about 950 A. D.
4. Genesis-Deuteronomy were written over 1200 years before the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Codex Vaticanus is an almost complete Greek translation of the Old Testament dating around 350 A.D. The
Aleppo Codex is the oldest complete Old Testament manuscript in Hebrew and was copied around 950 A.D. The
Dead Sea Scrolls date from within 200-300 years from the last book of the Old Testament. However since the
five books of Moses were written about 1450- 1400 B.C. the Dead Sea Scrolls still come almost 1200 years
after the first books of the Old Testament were written.

E. The New Testament autographs were written between 45-95 A. D.

1. There are 5,664 Greek manuscripts some dating as early as 125 A. D. and an complete New Testament that
dates from 350 A. D.
2. 8,000 to 10,000 Latin Vulgate manuscripts.
3. 8,000 manuscripts in Ethiopic, Coptic, Slavic, Syriac, and Armenian.
4. In addition, the complete New Testament could be reproduced from the quotes that were made from it by the
early church fathers in their letters and sermons.
Authorship and dating of the New Testament books

Skeptics and liberal Christian scholars both seek to date the New Testament books as late first century or early second century
writings. They contend that these books were not written by eyewitnesses but rather by second or third hand sources. This allowed
for the development of what they view as myths concerning Jesus. For example, they would deny that Jesus actually foretold the
destruction of Jerusalem. Rather they would contend that later Christian writers "put these words into his mouth."

A. Many of the New Testament books claim to be written by eyewitnesses.

1. The Gospel of John claims to be written by the disciple of the Lord. Recent archeological research has confirmed
both the existence of the Pool of Bethesda and that it had five porticoes as described in John 5:2. This correct
reference to an incidental detail lends credibility to the claim that the Gospel of John was written by John who
as an eyewitness knew Jerusalem before it was destroyed in 70 A. D.
2. Paul signed his epistles with his own hand. He was writing to churches who knew him. These churches were
able to authenticate that these epistles had come from his hands (Galatians 6:11). Clement an associate of
Paul's wrote to the Corinthian Church in 97 A. D. urging them to heed the epistle that Paul had sent them.
B. The following facts strongly suggest that both the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts were written prior to 65 A.D. This
lends credibility to the author's (Luke) claim to be an eyewitness to Paul's missionary journeys. This would date Mark
prior to 65 A.D. and the Pauline epistles between 49-63 A.D.
1. Acts records the beginning history of the church with persecutions and martyrdoms being mentioned
repeatedly. Three men; Peter, Paul, and James the brother of Jesus all play leading roles throughout the book.
They were all martyred by 67 A.D., but their martyrdoms are not recorded in Acts.
2. The church in Jerusalem played a central role in the Book of Acts, but the destruction of the city in 70 A.D. was
not mentioned. The Jewish historian Josephus cited the siege and destruction of Jerusalem as befalling the
Jews because of their unjust killing of James the brother of Jesus.
3. The Book of Acts ends with Paul in Rome under house arrest in 62 A.D. In 64 A.D., Nero blamed and
persecuted the Christians for the fire that burned down the city of Rome. Paul himself was martyred by 65 A.D.
in Rome. Again, neither the terrible persecution of the Christians in Rome nor Paul's martyrdom are mentioned.

Conclusion: These books, Luke-Acts, were written while Luke was an eyewitness to many of the events, and
had opportunity to research portions that he was not an eyewitness to.

The church fathers bear witness to even earlier New Testament manuscripts

The earliest manuscripts we have of major portions of the New Testament are p 45, p 46, p66, and p 75, and they date
from 175-250 A. D. The early church fathers (97-180 A.D.) bear witness to even earlier New Testament manuscripts by quoting
from all but one of the New Testament books. They are also in the position to authenticate those books, written by the apostles or
their close associates, from later books such as the gospel of Thomas that claimed to have been written by the apostles, but were
not.

A. Clement (30-100 A.D.) wrote an epistle to the Corinthian Church around 97 A.D. He reminded them to heed the epistle
that Paul had written to them years before. Recall that Clement had labored with Paul (Philippians 4:3). He quoted
from the following New Testament books: Luke, Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Ephesians, Titus, 1 and 2 Peter, Hebrews,
and James.
B. The apostolic fathers Ignatius (30-107 A.D.), Polycarp (65-155 A.D.), and Papias (70-155 A.D.) cite verses from every
New Testament book except 2 and 3 John. They thereby authenticated nearly the entire New Testament. Both Ignatius
and Polycarp were disciples of the apostle John.
C. Justin Martyr, (110-165 A.D.), cited verses from the following 13 books of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke,
John, Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, 2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1 and 2 Peter, and Revelation.
D. Irenaeus, (120-202 A.D.), wrote a five volume work Against Heresies in which,
1. He quoted from every book of the New Testament but 3 John.
2. He quoted from the New Testament books over 1,200 times.

How was the New Testament canon determined?

The Early church had three criteria for determining what books were to be included or excluded from theCanon of the New
Testament.

1. First, the books must have apostolic authority-- that is, they must have been written either by the apostles
themselves, who were eyewitnesses to what they wrote about, or by associates of the apostles.
2. Second, there was the criterion of conformity to what was called the "rule of faith." In other words, was the
document congruent with the basic Christian tradition that the church recognized as normative.
3. Third, there was the criterion of whether a document had enjoyed continuous acceptance and usage by the church at
large.
4. The gospel of Thomas is not included in the Canon of the New Testament for the following reasons.
a. The gospel of Thomas fails the test of Apostolic authority. None of the early church fathers from Clement to
Irenaeus ever quoted from the gospel of Thomas. This indicates that they either did not know of it or that they
rejected it as spurious. In either case, the early church fathers fail to support the gospel of Thomas' claim to
 have been written by the apostle. It was believed to by written around 140 A.D. There is no evidence to
support its purported claim to be written by the Apostle Thomas himself.
b. The gospel of Thomas fails to conform to the rule of faith. It purports to contain 114 "secret sayings" of
Jesus. Some of these are very similar to the sayings of Jesus recorded in the Four Gospels. For example the
gospel of Thomas quotes Jesus as saying, "A city built on ahigh hill cannot be hidden." This reads the same as
Matthew's Gospel except that high is added. But Thomas claims that Jesus said, "Split wood; I am there. Lift
up a stone, and you will find me there." That concept is pantheistic. Thomas ends with the following saying
that denies women salvation unless they are some how changed into being a man. "Let Mary go away from us,
because women are not worthy of life." Jesus is quoted as saying, "Lo, I shall lead her in order to make
her male, so that she too may become a living spirit, resembling you males. For every woman who makes
herself male will enter into the kingdom of heaven."
c. The gospel of Thomas fails the test of continuous usage and acceptance. The lack of manuscript evidence
plus the failure of the early church fathers to quote from it or recognize it shows that it was not used or
accepted in the early Church. Only two manuscripts are known of this "gospel." Until 1945 only a single fifth-
century copy translation in Coptic had been found. Then in 1945 a Greek manuscript of the Gospel of Thomas
was found at Nag Hammadi in Egypt. This compares very poorly to the thousands of manuscripts that
authenticate the Four Gospels.

Textual Criticism: What Is It And Why It Is Necessary

Important terms:

Textual criticism is the method used to examine the vast number of manuscripts to determine the probably composition of the
original autographs.

"Lower" Textual Criticism: the practice of studying the manuscripts of the Bible with the goal of reproducing the
original text of the Bible from this vast wealth of manuscripts. This is a necessary task because there exists minor
variations among the biblical manuscripts. So, unless one manuscript is arbitrarily chosen as a standard by which to
judge all others, then one must employ textual criticism to compare all manuscripts to derive the reading which would
most closely reflect the autographs.
"Higher" criticism: "The Jesus Seminar" is a group of liberal Christian higher critics who vote on which of the sayings of
Christ they believe to have actually been spoken by Him. This is an example of "higher" criticism. It is highly subjective
and is colored by the view points of various "higher" critics.
Textual Variants: Since all Greek manuscripts of the New Testament prior to Erasmus' first printed Greek New
Testament were copied by hand scribal errors or variants could have crept into the texts.. When these Greek New
Testament manuscripts are compared with each other we find evidence of scribal errors and places where the different
manuscripts differ with one another.

Textual variants and the integrity of the New Testament text

Many scholars have spent a lifetime of study of the textual variants. The following is the conclusion of the
importance of these variants as they relate to the integrity of the New Testament text.

A. There are over 200,000 variants in the New Testament alone. How do these variants effect our
confidence that the New Testament has been faithfully handed down to us?
B. These 200,000 variants are not as large as they seem. Remember that every misspelled word or an
omission of a single word in any of the 5,600 manuscript would count as a variant.
C. Johann Bengel 1687-1752 was very disturbed by the 30,000 variants that had recently been noted in Mill's edition of the
Greek Testament. After extended study he came to the conclusion that the variant readings were fewer in number than
might have been expected and that they did not shake any article of Christian doctrine.
D. Westcott and Hort, in the 1870's, state that the New Testament text remains over 98.3 percent pure no matter whether
one uses the Textus Receptus or their own Greek text which was largely based on Codex Sinaiticus and Codex
Vaticanus.
E. James White, on p. 40 of his book The King James Only Controversy states: "The reality is that the amount of variation
between the two most extremely different manuscripts of the New Testament would not fundamentally altar the message
of the Scriptures! I make this statement (1) fully aware of the wide range of textual variants in the New Testament, and
(2) painfully aware of the strong attacks upon those who have made similar statements in the past."
F. Scholars Norman Geisler and William Nix conclude, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more
manuscripts that any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book-a form
that is 99.5 percent pure."
G. When textual critics look at all 5,600 Greek New Testament manuscripts they find that they can group these manuscripts
into text-types or families with other similar manuscripts. There are four text-types.
 Figure 1. Age differences between Alexandrian and Byzantine manuscripts.

1. The Alexandrian text-type, found in most papyri and in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus all of which
date prior to 350 A.D.
2. The Western text-type, found both in Greek manuscripts and in translations into other languages, especially
Latin.
3. The Byzantine text-type, found in the vast majority of later Greek manuscripts. Over 90 percent of all 5,600
Greek New Testament manuscripts are of the Byzantine text-type. The Byzantine text-type is "fuller" or
"longer" than other text-types, and this is taken as evidence of a later origin. The reason that we have so
many manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type is because the Byzantine Empire remained Greek speaking and
Orthodox Christian until Islamic Turks overran its capital, Constantinople, in 1453. Constantinople is now called
Istanbul and is Turkey's largest city, although no longer its capital.
4. The Caesaarean text-type, disputed by some, found in p 45 and a few other manuscripts.

Why does the KJV differ from the NIV?

The reason the King James version differ from the NASV and the NIV in a number of readings is because it is translated from a
different text-type than they are.

A. The King James Version was translated from Erasmus' printed Greek New Testament which made use of only five Greek
manuscripts the oldest of which dated to the 1,100 A.D. These manuscripts were examples of the Byzantine text-type.
B. The NASV and the NIV make use of the United Bible Societies 4 th Edition 1968 of the New Testament. This edition of the
Greek New Testament relies more heavily on the Alexandrian text-type while making use of all 5,664 Greek
manuscripts. The reasons that the NASV and NIV find the Alexandrian text-type more reliable are the following:
1. This text-type uses manuscripts date from 175-350 A.D. which includes most of the papyri, Codex Sinaiticus
and Codex Vaticanus.
2. The church fathers from 97-350 A.D. used this text-type when they quoted the New Testament.
3. The early translations of the New Testament used the Alexandrian text-type.

Examples that show why the KJV differs from the NIV and NASV in certain verses

In the following examples the King James Version differs from the NIV, and NASV. because it bases it's
translation on the Byzantine text-type and the NIV and NASV base theirs on theAlexandrian text-type.

A. KJV 1 John 5:7-8 "For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and Holy Ghost: and these
three are one. And there are three that bear witness in earth, the spirit, and the water, and the blood; and these
three agree in one."
NIV 1 John 5:7 "For there are three that testify: v. 8 the Spirit, the water and the blood: and the three are in
agreement."
 1. When Erasmus first printed the Greek New Testament in 1514 it did not contain the words "in heaven, the
Father, the Word, and Holy Ghost: and these three are one. And there are three that bear witness in
earth," because they were not found in any of the Greek manuscripts that Erasmus looked at.
2. These words were not quoted by any of the Greek church fathers. They most certainly would have been used
by the church fathers in their 3rd and 4th century letters if found in the Greek manuscripts available to them.
3. These words are not found in any ancient versions of the New Testament. These include Syriac, Coptic,
Armenian, Ethiopic, Arabic, Slavonic, nor in the Old Latin in its early form.
4. These words begin to appear in marginal notes in the Latin New Testament beginning in the fifth century. From
the sixth century onward these words are found more and more frequently.
5. Erasmus finally agreed to put these words into new editions of his Greek New Testament if his critic's could find
one Greek manuscript that contained these words. It appears that his critics manufactured manuscripts to
include these words.
6. These additional words are found in only eight manuscripts as a variant reading written in the margin. Seven of
these manuscripts date from the sixteenth century and one is a tenth century manuscript.
7. Erasmus' New Testament became the basis for the Greek New Testament, "Textus Receptus", which the King
James translators used as the basis for their translation of the New Testament into English.
B. Mark 16 verses 9-20 are found in the King James Version. However, both the NASV and the NIV note that these verses
are not found in the earliest manuscripts of the Gospel of Mark (see The Authenticity of Mark 16:9-20).
1. Neither Codex Sinaiticus nor Codex Vaticanus have Mark 16:9-20.
2. Mark 16:9-20 is also absent from some Old Latin, Syriac, Armenian, and Georgian manuscripts.
3. Clement of Alexandria and Origen show no knowledge of the existence of these verses.
4. 4. The earliest church father to note the longer ending of Mark 16:9-20 was Irenaeus, around 180 A. D.
C. Luke 2:14 reads:

KJV: "Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace, good will toward men."
NIV: "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to men on whom his favor rests."

The Greek text from which these two versions are translated differ by only one letter. The NIV is translated from
manuscripts that have an "s" on the end of the Greek word for good will. This reading is supported by the oldest
Alexandrine text-types.

Is the Bible Really the Word of God?

The Proper Cure for the Disease

John Warwick Montgomery tells us a parable:

A great king (God) had a son (mankind) who had grown up out of contact with his father. While journeying in a distant province the
son fell seriously ill. The doctor accompanying him (reason) was incapable of treating the disease, but the king, learning of his son's
plight, sent instructions (the gospel) for the healing of the boy. However, the king's numerous enemies also discovered what had
happened, and they likewise sent remedies - purporting to come from the king - which were actually poisonous (non-Christian
religious and philosophical options). The son's solution to this dilemma was to evaluate the remedies by three tests: first, what each
remedy revealed about his father (comparison being made with the likeness to the father possessed by the son himself); second,
how accurately each remedy pictured the nature of the disease; and thirdly, how sound the various curative methods appeared to
be. With the help of the doctor, the son finally made his decision in terms of the remedy that best satisfied all three tests. (1)

Montgomery proposes three tests. The first test is "What each remedy revealed about the son's father." Evidence from the
creation (2) strongly argues for the existence of a god who is personal, powerful, eternal, wise, and moral. The Bible declares all of
these attributes of God.

Montgomery's second test is "How accurate each remedy pictures the nature of the disease." Many of the liberal
and humanistic religions stress the basic goodness of man's nature. They say corruption comes from society. This
goes contrary to the facts of history and logic (see 'People are Basically Good' - Proof to the Contrary). History
reveals that man is not basically good; he is basically selfish and sinful. The liberal view is also illogical because
society is a group of individual people. To blame the situation of the world on society is to blame it on people.
This is exactly what the Bible teaches: "For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23).

Montgomery's third test is "How sound the various curative methods appear to be." If God has revealed Himself
in propositional form, that revelation would have certain properties due to His infinite knowledge and moral
perfection:

1. It would be entirely true - His infinite knowledge would prevent errors and His truthfulness would keep Him from
deception.
2. It would be a coherent unity, therefore not self- contradictory.
 3. It would contain God's will for man, and provide the motivation to live according to that will (3).

God has revealed Himself in the Bible without error. The Bible itself claims this inerrancy (2 Timothy 3:16-17 (4); Matthew
5:18 (5); etc.). Let's look at some of the proofs for the Bible's claim to be the infallible word of God.

Archaeological evidence

The first proof we have testifying to the reliability of the Bible is the archaeological evidence. Nelson Glueck, a
respected Jewish archaeologist claims: "It may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery has ever contradicted a
biblical reference." (6) The liberals made wild claims against the Bible a hundred years ago but now they are silent. This is not true
of other religions. The Mormon claim for inspiration of the Book of Mormon has been categorically condemned by the Smithsonian
Institute because of the fallacies shown by archaeology; this is not so with the Bible. A.N. Sherwin-White, a respected classical
historian at Oxford says, "For Acts the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming...", although, not being a Christian, he still
regarded it as being "propaganda."(7)

Historicity of Jesus

A case in point is the historicity of Jesus. Although many atheists state that Jesus never lived, He is mentioned by many
contemporary, non-Christian historians. Let us look at the evidence.

Flavius Josephus, a first century Jewish historian wrote of Jesus and the Christians:

"so he [Ananus, son of Ananus the high priest] assembled the sanhedrin of judges, and brought before him the brother of Jesus,
who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others (or some of his companions) and when he had formed an
accusation against them, he delivered them to be stoned." (8)

Other Jewish rabbinical writings, including Rabbi Eliezer and writers of the Talmud, talk about Jesus and his miracles. Surprisingly
to many atheists, they never denied that miracles took place, but attempted to explain them as a result of evil (9). More
information about Jesus in the Talmud can be found at Jesus Christ In The Talmud.

Cornelius Tacitus wrote about Jesus and the first century Christians in his Annals (a history of the Roman empire):

"Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our
procurators, Pontius Pilatus." (10)

Thallus, a Samaritan historian, wrote ca. 52 A.D. attempting to give a natural explanation for the earthquake and darkness which
occurred at the crucifixion of Jesus. Mara Bar-Seraphon wrote a letter to his son in 73 A.D. which tells of the deaths of Socrates,
Pythagoras, and of Jesus, "What advantage did the Jews gain from executing their wise king?...Nor did the wise king die for good;
he lived on in the teaching which he had given." Jesus is also mentioned by Phlegon, a first-century historian, Lucian of Samosata
(in The Passing Peregrinus), and Plinius Secundus, (Pliny the Younger).

Scholars have made statements such as, "no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus ." (11) The latest
version of Encyclopedia Britannica says in its discussion of the multiple extra-biblical witnesses:

"These independent accounts prove that in ancient times even the opponents of Christianity never doubted the historicity of Jesus,
which was disputed for the first time and on inadequate grounds by several authors at the end of the 18th, during the 19th, and at
the beginning of the 20th centuries." (12)

Even the atheist H. G. Wells spoke of Jesus, "...one is obliged to say, "Here was a man. This part of the tale could not have been
invented." (13)
Scientific evidence

Recent scientific evidence is adding to the evidence supporting the reliability of biblical chronology from the scriptures. This study
demonstrated the reliability of the Biblical record regarding the Egyptian plagues and demise of Jericho.

Drs. Hendrik J. Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht reported in the prestigious British journal, Nature (14), that the destruction of
Jericho was dated to 1580 (+/- 13 years) B.C. (using 14C dating). This date is significant, since several archeologists have insisted
that Jericho was destroyed by the Egyptians between 1550 and 1300 B.C. The recent study discredits the Egyptian theory, since the
date is much too old.

What is even more exciting is that scientists, using 14C dating and tree rings, have found evidence of a volcanic eruption from the
Aegean island of Thera, which recently has been dated to 1628 B.C. (15). This would place the eruption at 45 years prior to the
destruction of Jericho, at a time which coincidentally corresponds to the time of the plagues the Lord unleashed upon Egypt. Check
out Exodus 10:

Then the Lord said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky, that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, even a
darkness which may be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and there was thick darkness in all the land of Egypt
for three days. (Exodus 10:21-22)

Even the researchers commented that the 45 years difference in events was "rather striking."

The Bible's Uniqueness and Unity

The next proof is the Bible's uniqueness and unity. The Bible was written by over 40 authors who came from just about every walk
of life conceivable, including fisherman, kings, a butler, priests, and a tax collector. The 66 books of the Bible were written over a
1,500 year span in three languages on three continents with one theme and no contradictions. C.J. Sharp captures this miracle
well:

"If a fragment of stone were found in Italy, another in Asia Minor, another in Greece, another in Egypt, and on and on
until sixty-six fragments had been found, and if when put together they fitted perfectly together, making a perfect statue
of Venus de Milo, there is not an artist or scientist but would arrive immediately at the conclusion that there was
originally a sculptor who conceived and carved the statue. The very lines and perfections would probably determine which
of the great ancient artists carved the statue. Not only the unity of the Scriptures, but their lines of perfection, suggest
One far above any human as the real author. That could be no one but God (16)."

Prophetic evidence

Yet another reason Christians believe God is the ultimate author of the Bible is the predictive prophecies in the Bible. This aspect is
unique to the world's religions because if one predicts something will happen and it does not, they are proven to be phony. The
Bible is literally filled with detailed prophecies that have been fulfilled with 100% accuracy. Here is a list of 85 Messianic
prophecies (click here for a more complete list) along with their fulfillment through the life, ministry, death and resurrection of
Jesus:

Prophecies of Jesus of Nazareth as Messiah

# Prophetic Scripture Subject Fulfilled

1 Genesis 3:15 seed of a woman Galatians 4:4

2 Genesis 12:3, Genesis 22:18 descendant of Abraham Matthew 1:1, Acts 3:25

3 Genesis 17:19, Genesis 21:12 descendant of Isaac Luke 3:34, Luke 3:23-24

4 Genesis 28:14, Numbers 24:17 descendant of Jacob Matthew 1:2, Luke 3:23-24

5 Genesis 49:10 from the tribe of Judah Luke 3:23-24, Luke 3:33

6 Isaiah 9:6, 11:1-5, Jeremiah 23:5-6 descendant of David Matthew 1:1, Luke 3:23-24

7 Isaiah 11:1 descendant of Jesse Luke 3:23-24

 Prophecies of Jesus of Nazareth as Messiah
# Prophetic Scripture Subject Fulfilled

8 Ezekiel 37:24 will shepherd His people Matthew 2:6

9 Isaiah 9:7 heir to the throne of David Luke 1:32-33

10 Micah 5:2 His pre-existence Colossians 1:17

11 Isaiah 9:6, Micah 5:1 eternal existence John 8:58, 11, 14, Ephesians 1:3-14, Colossians
1:15-19

12 Psalm 45:6-7, Psalm 102:25-27 anointed and eternal Hebrews 1:8-12

13 Psalm 110:1 called Lord Matthew 22:43-45

14 Isaiah 33:22 judge John 5:30

15 Psalm 2:6 king Matthew 27:37

16 Micah 5:2 born in Bethlehem Matthew 2:1, Luke 2:4-5, 7

17 Daniel 9:25 time for His birth Matthew 2:1, 16, 19, Luke 2:1-2

18 Isaiah 7:14 to be born of a virgin Matthew 1:18, 24, 25, Luke 1:26-27, 30-31

19 Psalm 72:9 worshipped by shepherds Luke 2:8-15

20 Psalm 72:10 honored by great kings Matthew 2:1-11

21 Jeremiah 31:15 slaughter of children Matthew 2:16-18

22 Hosea 11:1 flight to Egypt Matthew 2:14-15

23 Isaiah 40:3-5 the way prepared Matthew 3:1,2, Luke 3:3-6

24 Malachi 3:1 preceded by a forerunner Luke 7:24, 27

25 Malachi 4:5-6 preceded by Elijah Matthew 11:13-14

26 Psalm 2:7, Proverbs 30:4 declared the Son of God Matthew 3:17, Luke 1:32

27 Isaiah 9:5-6, Jeremiah 23:5-6 God's name applied to Him Romans 10:9, Philippians 2:9-11

28 Isaiah 11:2, 61:1, Psalm 45:8 anointment of Holy Spirit Matthew 3:16, 17, John 3:34, Acts 10:38

29 Isaiah 9:1-2 Galilean ministry Matthew 4:13-16

30 Psalm 78:2-4 speaks in parables Matthew 13:34-35

31 Isaiah 56:7, Jeremiah 7:11 temple becomes a house of Matthew 21:13

merchandise instead of prayer

32 Psalm 69:9 zeal of Jews for the temple instead of John 2:17
God

33 Deuteronomy 18:15, 18 a prophet Matthew 21:11, Acts 3:20, 22

 Prophecies of Jesus of Nazareth as Messiah
# Prophetic Scripture Subject Fulfilled

34 Isaiah 29:18, Isaiah 35:5-6 blind, deaf, and lame are healed by the Luke 7:22, Matthew 9:35, 11:3-5
Messiah

35 Isaiah 40:11, 42:2-3, Isaiah 53:7 Messiah will be meek and mild Matthew 12:18-20, Matthew 11:29, Hebrews 4:15

36 Isaiah 53:9 Be sinless and without guile 1 Peter 2:22

37 Isaiah 42:1, Isaiah 49:1 will minister to Gentiles Matthew 12:18-21Luke 2:32

38 Isaiah 61:1-2 to bind up the brokenhearted Luke 4:18-19

39 Isaiah 53:12, Isaiah 59:16 to intercede for the people Romans 8:34, Hebrews 7:25

40 Isaiah 53:3, 8:14, 28:16, 63:3, Psalms rejected by His own people, the Jews John 1:11, 7:5,48, Luke 23:18, Acts 4:11, 1 Peter
69:6,118:22 2:6-8

41 Psalm 118:22 Be rejected by the Jewish leadership Matthew 21:42, John 7:48

42 Psalm 2:1-2 plotted against by Jews and Gentiles Acts 4:27

alike

43 Psalm 110:4 priest after the order of Melchizedek Hebrews 5:5-6

44 Zechariah 9:9 enter Jerusalem on donkey Mark 11:7, 9, 11, Luke 19:35-37

45 Haggai 2:7-9, Malachi 3:1 entered the temple with authority Matthew 21:12, Luke 2:27-38

46 Psalm 8:2 adored by infants Matthew 21:15-16

47 Isaiah 53:1 not believed John 12:37-38

48 Zechariah 13:7 sheep of the Shepherd scattered Matthew 26:31, Mark 14:50

49 Psalm 41:9, 55:13-15 betrayed by a close friend Matthew 10:4, Luke 22:47-48

50 Zechariah 11:12 betrayed for thirty pieces of silver Matthew 26:14-15

51 Zechariah 11:13 betrayal money used to buy Potter's field Matthew 27:6-7

52 Psalm 35:11 accused by false witnesses Mark 14:57-58

53 Isaiah 53:7 silent to accusations Matthew 27:12, Mark 15:4-5

54 Isaiah 50:6 spat on Matthew 26:67, 27:30

55 Isaiah 50:6 beaten Matthew 26:67, 27:26, 30

56 Micah 4:14 struck on cheek Matthew 27:30

57 Isaiah 49:7, Psalm 35:19, Psalm 69:4 hated without reason John 7:48, 15:24-25

58 Isaiah 53:5 wounded and bruised Matthew 27:26

59 Isaiah 53:5 vicarious sacrifice John 1:29, , 3:16, Romans 5:6, 8

 Prophecies of Jesus of Nazareth as Messiah
# Prophetic Scripture Subject Fulfilled

60 Daniel 9:24-26 cut off, but not for Himself Matthew 2:1, Luke 3:1, 23

61 Isaiah 53:12 crucified with malefactors Matthew 27:38, Mark 15:27-28

62 Zechariah 12:10, Psalm 22:16 pierced through hands and feet Luke 23:33, John 20:25-27

63 Psalm 22:7-8 sneered and mocked Matthew 27:31, Luke 23:35

64 Psalm 109:24, 25 fell under the cross Luke 23:26

65 Psalm 69:9 was reproached Romans 15:3

66 Psalm 38:11 friends stood afar off Luke 23:49

67 Psalm 109:25 people shook their heads Matthew 27:39

68 Psalm 22:17 stared upon Luke 23:35

69 Psalm 22:16, 69:21 given vinegar for His thirst Matthew 27:34, John 19:28-29

70 Psalm 109:4, Isaiah 53:12 prayer for His enemies Luke 23:34

71 Psalm 22:17-18 soldiers gambled for His clothing Matthew 27:35-36, John 19:23, 24

72 Psalm 22:1 forsaken by God Matthew 27:46

73 Psalm 31:5 committed Himself to God Luke 23:46

74 Exodus 12:46, Psalm 34:20 no bones broken John 19:32, 33, 36

75 Psalm 22:14 heart broken John 19:34

76 Zechariah 12:10 His side pierced John 19:34

77 Amos 8:9 darkness over the land Matthew 27:45

78 Isaiah 53:9 buried with the rich Matthew 27:57-60

79 Psalm 3:5, 16:10, 49:15 to be resurrected Mark 16:6-7, Acts 2:31

80 Isaiah 44:3, Joel 2:28 sent the Holy Spirit John 20:22, Acts 2:16-17

81 Isaiah 55:3-4, Jeremiah 31:31 establishes a new covenant Matthew 26:28, Luke 22:20, Hebrews 8:6-10

82 Psalm 68:18, Psalm 110:1 His ascension to God's right hand Mark 16:19, Acts 1:9, 1 Corinthians
15:4, Ephesians 4:8,Hebrews 1:3

83 Psalm 29:11, Micah 4:3 peace proclaimed by disciples Luke 2:14, John 14:27, Acts 10:36

84 Isaiah 60:3 "Light" to Gentiles Acts 13:47,48

85 Isaiah 11:10, 42:1, 49:1-12 the Gentiles will seek the Messiah Romans 11:25, 15:10
Although some of these prophecies are vague and could have been deliberately fulfilled, many are very specific: 16. Place of birth
(Micah 5:2). 17. Date of birth (Daniel 9:25). 18. Manner of birth (Isaiah 7:14). 62. Manner of death (Zechariah 12:10; Psalm
22:16 prophesied before the invention of crucifixion). 76. Piercing in side (Zechariah 12:10). 78. Burial (Isaiah 53:9).

The Bible made several prophecies of the complete destruction of cities. Many of the cities it said would be rebuilt and several it
claimed would never be rebuilt - The Bible is 100% accurate in both categories as archeology shows. One amazing example is the
city of Tyre. Ezekiel 26:3-5,7,12,14 and 16 (17) predict:

1. Nebuchadnezzar will take the city.

2. Other nations will participate in the fulfillment.
3. The city is to be made flat like the top of a rock.
4. It is to become a place for spreading nets.
5. Its stones and timber are to be laid in the sea.
6. The old city of Tyre will never be rebuilt.

History records that Nebuchadnezzar took the adjacent mainland settlement of Ushu ("Old Tyre"), but the people escaped out to
the island city. Later, Alexander the Great took the island off the coast by taking the old city's rubble and throwing it into the sea
making a land-bridge (this caused the old city to look flat like a rock due to the scraping of the material). The old city is now a place
for fisherman but no city has been planted there even though there is an excellent water supply to support a major city.

Another interesting aspect of Biblical prophecy is the New Testament prophecies concerning the last days. John, Zechariah and
others had prophecies and visions of the future which they attempted to describe with the words available to them at that time. The
amazing thing is how accurate the prophecies are of the way the world is today. There was no way they could have known two
thousand years ago what the conditions would be like today. For example, in Revelation 9:13-19 (18) John describes an army of
two hundred million soldiers that will cross the Euphrates river from the east. At that time there weren't even two hundred million
people on the earth let alone in one army. Although China does not now have an army that size, it could at some point produce an
army of two hundred million soldiers. John describes this army as riding on horses with breastplates and of which out of their
mouths came fire, smoke and sulfur. They had power in their tails and were used to kill a third of mankind. It sounds like John is
describing modern day warfare with tanks. He called them horses because that was the only mode of transportation then.

John described in Revelation chapter 13 a one-world government which would have a cashless money system that worked with a
mark on each person's hand or forehead. Today we have scanners in our grocery stores that may do away with the use of money.
This will cut down crime considerably and so will be accepted readily by a world in desperate need. Right now we use debit cards for
these type of transactions but an invisible implant underneath the skin with an ID number will work better because it is more easily
accessible and will do away with the problem of losing our debit and credit cards, not to mention the problem of credit card theft
that will be done away with by this new system. Our technology is ready for this and yet we must ask, "How did John know?"

Zechariah 14:12-16 (19) describes a battle which God will use to judge the nations (compare with Revelation 19:17-21 (20)). He
describes the "plague" like this: "Their flesh will rot while they are still standing on their feet, their eyes will rot in their sockets, and
their tongues will rot in their mouths." This sounds gory but we can't escape the similarities to the destruction of people by nuclear
warfare and fallout or biological or chemical warfare. How did Zechariah know? There was nothing comparable to this at all in his
day. The most likely explanation is that God, who can see the future, told him, thus verifying the Bible.

Allow me to mention one other prophecy. The existence of the nation of Israel is phenomenal. Throughout the Bible God said He
would bring His people back to their inheritance. Shortly before the total destruction and exile of Israel in 70 A.D. Paul wrote how
eventually in the end of time "all Israel would be saved" meaning they would come to Christ (Romans 11). God is not finished with
Israel. Although Israel, as a nation, has proven itself time and time again to be wicked, but God is not through with the Jewish
people, "For God's gifts and His call are irrevocable" (Romans 11:29). Look at the history of Israel. They began from a wandering
nomad named Abraham who never owned a single plot of ground except his own burial plot. They grew in numbers as slaves in
Egypt (somehow not intermixing with the other races of that land). After being slaves for 400 years they somehow left Egypt and
actually conquered the nations living in Palestine even though they were not trained in warfare. Half the nation was destroyed and
exiled during the rule of the world empire of Assyria (722 B.C.). The other half was destroyed and exiled during the Babylonian rule
(586 B.C.). They returned under the Persian rule somehow not losing their identity during the forced domination and exile. The
Greeks sought to annihilate their identity by forced integration; anyone who stood in their way was killed. After the Greeks, the
Romans subjugated them and eventually destroyed the temple and banned all Jews from their homeland (70 A.D. and following).
For the next 1900 years they roamed the earth as nomads under constant persecution (this was prophesied in Hosea 3:4-5 (21)).
The Muslims would kill and disperse their groups. The so-called Christians would force them to recant their beliefs or kill them. Their
money was constantly being confiscated. All of this led up to the atrocity of Hitler who exterminated six million Jews. Anti-Semitic
prejudice still runs rampant today. The entire Middle Eastern world wants nothing more in life than to see the total annihilation of
the Jews. The Six Day War was an incredible victory for Israel against the entire Arab world because all the odds were against
them. How can we account for Israel's existence? How can we account for the widespread hatred toward Israel throughout history
unless there is a supernatural evil controlling their opposition? The survival of Israel and the fact that they are back in their
homeland after 1900 years should at least cause us to consider the claims of the Bible.

Survival in the Face of Persecution

A final indicator of the reliability of the Bible comes from the lengths disciples of Jesus went through to proclaim the gospel. In spite
of extreme persecution, people were willing to die for Jesus, who predicted the persecution of the church:
"Then they will deliver you to tribulation, and will kill you, and you will be hated by all nations on account of My name." (Matthew
24:9)

An example of fulfillment of this prophecy came at the hands (and writings) of Pliny the Younger as governor of Pontus/Bithynia
from 111-113 AD. He wrote to the Emperor Trajan regarding the early Christian church, their devotion to Christ, and how he
persecuted, tortured, and murdered them:

"They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed
day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god... Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out
what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved,
excessive superstition.... Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following
procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time,
threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of the ir
creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished." (22)

Pliny readily admits that they "were denounced to me as Christians" ("they will deliver you to tribulation") and executed ("and will
kill you") just for "the nature of their creed" ("on account of My name."). This is a chilling fulfillment of prophecy, which testifies
that early Christians knew the truth of the gospel and were willing to die for it.

Es la Biblia Realmente la Palabra de Dios?

RELATED PAGES

CHRIST ON SCRIPTURE by Richard L. Routh, Ph.D. - What did Jesus say about the Scripture?
Jesus Christ In The Talmud, Midrash, And The Zohar by Gustav Dalman ( 94 KB RTF file)
Jesus Christ - Messiah of the Rabbinical Writers
Is Our Copy of the Bible a Reliable Copy of the Original?
The Historicity of the New Testament by JP Moreland
No Proof for the Exodus? - The potential role of Thera and 14
C dating of the destruction of Jericho
Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating
Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeology
Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King Shishak Confirmed by Archeology
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel

REFERENCES

1. Montgomery, John Warwick. 1978. Faith Founded on Fact. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, p. 120.
2. Ross, H. 1995. The Creator and the Cosmos, NavPress Publishing, Colorado Springs, CO.
3. Shelly, Rubel. 1990. Prepare To Answer. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, p 92.
4. All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness; that
the man of God may be adequate, equipped for every good work. (2 Timothy 3:16)
5. "For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not the smallest letter or stroke shall pass away from the Law,
until all is accomplished." (Matthew 5:18)
6. Nelson Glueck, Rivers in the Desert, Farrar, Strauss and Cudahy, New York, 1959, p. 31.
7. "For Acts the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming. Yet Acts is, in simple terms and judged externally, no less a
propaganda document than the Gospels, liable to similar distortion. But any attempt to reject its basic historicity even in
matters of detail must now appear absurd." A. N. Sherwin-White. 1978. Roman Society and Roman Law in the New
Testament. Baker, Grand Rapids, p. 189.
8. Flavius Josephus The Antiquities of the Jews 20.9.1
9. Matthew 12:24, Mark 3:22, Luke 11:15, Flavius Josephus The Antiquities of the Jews 18:63, Talmud P. Ta'an. 65b, and
the Sanhedrin 3a
10. Cornelius Tacitus Annals 15.44 from The Tech Classics Archive translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson
Brodribb
11. Otto Betz. 1968. What do We Know about Jesus?, SCM Press, page 9.
12. Encyclopedia Britannica (Article on "Jesus")
13. H. G. Wells, Outline Of History.
14. Bruins, H.J. and J. van der Plicht. 1996. The Exodus enigma. Nature 382: 213-214.
 15. Friedrich, W.L., P. Wagner, and H. Tauber. 1990. Thera and the Aegean World III Thera Foundation, London, UK.
Kuniholm, P.I., B. Kromer, S.W. Manning, M. Newton, C.E. Latini, and M.J. Bruce. 1996. Anatolian tree rings and the
absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean, 2220-718 BC. Nature 381: 780-783.
Renfrew, C. 1996. Kings, tree rings and the old world. Nature 381: 733-734.
16. Shelly, Rubel. 1990. Prepare To Answer. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, p 114.
17. therefore, thus says the Lord God,` Behold, I am against you, O Tyre, and I will bring up many nations against you, as
the sea brings up its waves. And they will destroy the walls of Tyre and break down her towers; and I will scrape her
debris from her and make her a bare rock. She will be a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the sea, for I have
spoken,' declares the Lord God, `and she will become spoil for the nations.'... For thus says the Lord God, "Behold, I will
bring upon Tyre from the north Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, king of kings, with horses, chariots, cavalry, and a great
army.... Also they will make a spoil of your riches and a prey of your merchandise, break down your walls and destroy
your pleasant houses, and throw your stones and your timbers and your debris into the water.... And I will make you a
bare rock; you will be a place for the spreading of nets. You will be built no more, for I the Lord have spoken," declares
the Lord God.... "Then all the princes of the sea will go down from their thrones, remove their robes, and strip off their
embroidered garments. They will clothe themselves with trembling; they will sit on the ground, tremble every moment,
and be appalled at you." (Ezekiel 26:3-5,7,12,14,16)
18. And the sixth angel sounded, and I heard a voice from the four horns of the golden altar which is before God, one saying
to the sixth angel who had the trumpet, "Release the four angels who are bound at the great river Euphrates." And the
four angels, who had been prepared for the hour and day and month and year, were released, so that they might kill a
third of mankind. And the number of the armies of the horsemen was two hundred million; I heard the number of them.
And this is how I saw in the vision the horses and those who sat on them: the riders had breastplates the color of fire and
of hyacinth and of brimstone; and the heads of the horses are like the heads of lions; and out of their mouths proceed
fire and smoke and brimstone. A third of mankind was killed by these three plagues, by the fire and the smoke and the
brimstone, which proceeded out of their mouths. For the power of the horses is in their mouths and in their tails; for their
tails are like serpents and have heads; and with them they do harm. (Revelation 9:13-19)
19. Now this will be the plague with which the Lord will strike all the peoples who have gone to war against Jerusalem; their
flesh will rot while they stand on their feet, and their eyes will rot in their sockets, and their tongue will rot in their
mouth. And it will come about in that day that a great panic from the Lord will fall on them; and they will seize one
another's hand, and the hand of one will be lifted against the hand of another. And Judah also will fight at Jerusalem; and
the wealth of all the surrounding nations will be gathered, gold and silver and garments in great abundance. So also like
this plague, will be the plague on the horse, the mule, the camel, the donkey, and all the cattle that will be in those
camps. Then it will come about that any who are left of all the nations that went against Jerusalem will go up from year
to year to worship the King, the Lord of hosts, and to celebrate the Feast of Booths. (Zechariah 14:12-16)
20. And I saw an angel standing in the sun; and he cried out with a loud voice, saying to all the birds which fly in midheaven,
"Come, assemble for the great supper of God; in order that you may eat the flesh of kings and the flesh of commanders
and the flesh of mighty men and the flesh of horses and of those who sit on them and the flesh of all men, both free men
and slaves, and small and great." And I saw the beast and the kings of the earth and their armies, assembled to make
war against Him who sat upon the horse, and against His army. And the beast was seized, and with him the false prophet
who performed the signs in his presence, by which he deceived those who had received the mark of the beast and those
who worshipped his image; these two were thrown alive into the lake of fire which burns with brimstone. And the rest
were killed with the sword which came from the mouth of Him who sat upon the horse, and all the birds were filled with
their flesh. (Revelation 19:17-21)
21. For the sons of Israel will remain for many days without king or prince, without sacrifice or sacred pillar, and without
ephod or household idols. Afterward the sons of Israel will return and seek the Lord their God and David their king; and
they will come trembling to the Lord and to His goodness in the last days. (Hosea 3:4-5)
22. Pliny, Letters 10.96-97

Is Christianity a Made-up Myth Written by the Disciples?

by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Bible as Myth

As a former agnostic, what really struck me in reading the Bible for the first time in my 30's was the degree of candor displayed in the writings. In fact, if
I had been writing those kinds of stories, I would not have put all the non-complimentary stuff that one finds in the Bible. It turns out that the Bible's
"heroes" do all kinds of stupid and immoral things. In addition, many of the doctrines of the Church are not what any normal male would make up...

Rich Deem

Skeptics say that the writings of the Bible have the character of mythology. In addition, stories of numerous miracles make it
unlikely that the Bible is true. However, if God is powerful enough to have created the entire universe, He would certainly be able to
perform miracles. Although there are miracles in the Bible, greater than 99% of the text describes non-miraculous events. So, who
wrote the Bible? If the disciples made up the events in the Bible, would they write it in the way it is written?

Virgin birth

The virgin birth of Jesus Christ is one of the most unbelievable aspects of Christianity. It would have been very risky to document
and claim that Jesus was born of a virgin. In the Middle East there were "honor killings" for women who conceived out of wedlock,
so to speak of a virgin birth was extremely dishonorable. In fact, the Bible alludes to some disparaging remarks made by the
religious opponents of Jesus.1 In addition, if you look at the anti-Christian literature at the time, much of it focused on this aspect of
Christianity. This makes one wonder why, if Christians were just making up a religion, they say something that would offend
virtually everybody in the Middle East. It makes no sense to make up something offensive - unless it were true.

The disciples

If I had been Jesus, I certainly wouldn't have chosen the band of misfits that He picked. There was Peter, the loudmouth, John, his
main competitor (and Jesus' favorite, according to his own words) Matthew, the corrupt taxman, 2 and Thomas, the ultimate
skeptic.3 As a group, they were slow learners who constantly demonstrated a lack of faith in Jesus 4 despite all the miracles He
performed in their presence.

Peter was an interesting choice as the disciple to lead the early church. 5 As an uneducated fisherman,6 he would often act first and
think about it later. Peter himself admitted to Jesus that he was "a sinful man." 7 In one instance, Jesus blessed Peter6 and not five
verses later called him "Satan."8 Peter made the pronouncement that he would never leave Jesus, being even willing to die before
denying Him.9 However, Peter denied knowing Jesus three times after He was arrested 11 and fled12 to go into hiding with the rest of
the disciples.13

John is thought of being a quiet disciple who was deeply devoted to Jesus. However, John had definite jealousy
issues with Peter. After being told of Jesus' resurrection by the women who followed Him, John describes in his gospel racing Peter
to the empty tomb - and winning!14 Peter was actively involved in this rivalry, being jealous of John at the last supper, asking
Jesus, "Lord, and what about this man?"15 Jesus solidly rebuked Peter, basically telling him to mind his own business. 16 The rivalry
among the disciples was not limited to just Peter and John. At one point, they all started to argue about which of the disciples was
the greatest.17 Jesus suggested that those who would be greatest would serve others. 17

The scandalous women

Jesus helped a number of women, many of whom followed Him, along with the disciples. After Jesus was arrested and crucified, the
disciples all fled and hid, being afraid that they would suffer the same fate. 13 However, the women wanted to finish the burial,
which had been left unfinished because of the approaching Sabbath. 18 So Mary Magdalene, Mary, the mother of James, and Salome,
wife of Zebedee, walked to the tomb early in the morning of the third day. 19 However, they found the stone rolled away,20 the body
of Jesus gone, and angels sitting in His place.21 The fact that the discovery of the empty tomb was made by women is not
something that would have been fabricated, since, at the time, women were not considered to be reliable witnesses.

The Church is female!

This is going to come to a shock to most non-Christians (and maybe even some Christians), but God's people are referred to as
female, not male. In the Old Testament, God's people are the "daughters of Zion." 22 The Church or body of Christ (including us
men) is referred to as the "bride" of Christ23 and God is said to be our "husband."24 Paul even describes the members of the church
as being presented to her husband, Jesus, "as a pure virgin." 23 Whenever referred to by sex, the Church is described as "she" or
"her."25 In addition, the Greek word for "church" is a feminine noun. 26 Obviously, if men had made up the Bible, they would have
made the church a male!

No marriage or sex in heaven

Jesus was asked a complicated question about heaven by the Sadducees (a religious sect that did not believe in the resurrection of
the dead) that directly leads us to the conclusion that there will be no marriage or sex inheaven.27 The Sadducees gave a scenario
of a woman who married 7 men (sequentially, since they all died prematurely) in her lifetime. They asked whose wife she would be
in heaven. Jesus answered:

"You are mistaken, not understanding the Scriptures, or the power of God. "For in the resurrection they neither marry, nor are
given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven. (Matthew 22:29-30)
In other words, there will be no marriage or sexual differences among those in heaven, since reproduction is unnecessary. This
concept is supported by other biblical verses that indicate that males and females are spiritually equal.28 Obviously, if the disciples
(who were men) had created a fictitious story about heaven, it would most certainly have included sex (probably with multiple
virgin sexual partners), as is found in several other religions.

However, in heaven, we will be "married" to Jesus, who will be our spiritual "husband." 29 A marriage is described in heaven. The
"bride" is composed of all believers in Jesus Christ. The "groom" is none other than Jesus Himself. This kind of idea seems okay for
women, but tends to make us men a little nervous. I find it difficult to consider myself as a bride. The disciples would have never
come up with the idea of being the bride of Jesus. There is no way that that was made up!

Other not quite perfect Bible leaders

Paul (or Saul)

Paul, the apostle who first took the gospel to the gentiles,30 began life as a super-religious Pharisee.31 However, when Christians
were preaching their gospel in Damascus, Paul sought to get letters from the high priest in order to bring the Christians to
Jerusalem to stand trial as heretics.32 Paul was present at the stoning of Stephen,33 and "was in hearty agreement with putting him
to death."34 Paul readily admitted his former unrighteous acts of persecution against the early Christians. 35 However, Paul
personally met Jesus on the road to Damascus in a rather spectacular way, 36 at which point he became the primary spokesman for
Christianity. As with the disciples and other Christian and Jewish leaders, Paul is presented as a real person - complete with his
faults, including being an accessory to murder.

Other leaders in the Bible

Noah - drunkenness
Abraham - lack of trust in God
Lot - drunkenness
Moses - avoiding God's call, killing the Egyptian
Isaac and Rebekah - favoritism
Jacob - stealing the birthright
Joseph - deceiving his brothers
David - adultery and murder
Job - justified himself
Jonah - ran from God
John Mark - left Paul on a missionary journey
Paul - unable to free himself from a "thorn in the flesh"

CONCLUSION

Skeptics often claim that the New Testament was fabricated by the disciples. Although the Bible contains many stories of miracles,
it also includes doctrines that the average male would not have included, if they were making up a religion. For example, in other
religions, heaven consists of males engaging in eternal sex with multiple virgins. However, in the Bible there are no sexual
relationships in heaven, but believers are "married" to Jesus. Realistically, no males I know of (including myself) would ever make
up the Christian concept of heaven. To make the picture complete, the members of the Church are described as being female. How
insulting that would be to the average male ego? Another doctrine that would be considered offensive in first century Jewish culture
is the virgin birth of Jesus. In addition, first century Jewish culture considered women to be unreliable witnesses, making the
discovery of the empty tomb by women unlikely to have been fabricated. The leaders in the Bible are presented realistically, with all
their faults and shortcomings. When presenting themselves, most people tend to tell about their positive traits, eliminating negative
traits, such as drunkenness, adultery, and murder. The inclusion of the good and the bad of God's leaders indicate that the biblical
accounts are not just fabricated stories.

RELATED PAGES

Did Paul Invent Christianity? Is the Founder of the Christian Religion Paul of Tarsus or Jesus of Nazareth?
Sexism in the Bible: Is Christianity Sexist?
Will There be Marriage in Heaven?
Did God have a wife? Asherah Worship in Israel
REFERENCES

1. Then they asked him, "Where is your father?" "You do not know me or my Father," Jesus replied. "If you knew me, you
would know my Father also." (John 8:19)
"You are doing the deeds of your father." They said to Him, "We were not born of fornication; we have one Father: God."
(John 8:41)
2. As Jesus went on from there, He saw a man called Matthew, sitting in the tax collector's booth; and He *said to him,
"Follow Me!" And he got up and followed Him. (Matthew 9:9)
After that He went out and noticed a tax collector named Levi [Matthew] sitting in the tax booth, and He said to him,
"Follow Me." (Luke 5:27)
3. But Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, was not with them when Jesus came. So the other disciples were saying
to him, "We have seen the Lord!" But he said to them, "Unless I see in His hands the imprint of the nails, and put my
finger into the place of the nails, and put my hand into His side, I will not believe." (John 20:24-25)
4. "But if God so clothes the grass of the field, which is alive today and tomorrow is thrown into the furnace, will He not
much more clothe you? You of little faith! (Matthew 6:30)
He said to them, "Why are you afraid, you men of little faith?" Then He got up and rebuked the winds and the sea, and it
became perfectly calm. (Matthew 8:26)
Immediately Jesus stretched out His hand and took hold of him, and said to him, "You of little faith, why did you doubt?"
(Matthew 14:31)
But Jesus, aware of this, said, "You men of little faith, why do you discuss among yourselves that you have no bread?
(Matthew 16:8)
And He said to them, "Because of the littleness of your faith; for truly I say to you, if you have faith the size of a mustard
seed, you will say to this mountain, 'Move from here to there,' and it will move; and nothing will be impossible to you.
(Matthew 17:20)
And He said to them, "Why are you afraid? Do you still have no faith?" (Mark 4:40)
And He said to them, "Where is your faith?" They were fearful and amazed, saying to one another, "Who then is this, that
He commands even the winds and the water, and they obey Him?" (Luke 8:25)
"But if God so clothes the grass in the field, which is alive today and tomorrow is thrown into the furnace, how much
more will He clothe you? You men of little faith! (Luke 12:28)
5. "I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build My church; and the gates of Hades will not overpower
it. (Matthew 16:18)
6. Now as Jesus was walking by the Sea of Galilee, He saw two brothers, Simon who was called Peter, and Andrew his
brother, casting a net into the sea; for they were fishermen. (Matthew 4:18)
As He was going along by the Sea of Galilee, He saw Simon and Andrew, the brother of Simon, casting a net in the sea;
for they were fishermen. (Mark 1:16)
and He saw two boats lying at the edge of the lake; but the fishermen had gotten out of them and were washing their
nets. And He got into one of the boats, which was Simon's, and asked him to put out a little way from the land. And He
sat down and began teaching the people from the boat. (Luke 5:2-3)
7. But when Simon Peter saw that, he fell down at Jesus' feet, saying, "Go away from me Lord, for I am a sinful man!"
(Luke 5:8)
8. And Jesus said to him, "Blessed are you, Simon Barjona, because flesh and blood did not reveal this to you, but My
Father who is in heaven. (Matthew 16:17)
9. But He turned and said to Peter, "Get behind Me, Satan! You are a stumbling block to Me; for you are not setting your
mind on God's interests, but man's." (Matthew 16:23)
But turning around and seeing His disciples, He rebuked Peter and said, "Get behind Me, Satan; for you are not setting
your mind on God's interests, but man's." (Mark 8:33)
10. But Peter said to Him, "Even though all may fall away because of You, I will never fall away." Jesus said to him, "Truly I
say to you that this very night, before a rooster crows, you will deny Me three times." Peter said to Him, "Even if I have
to die with You, I will not deny You." All the disciples said the same thing too. (Matthew 26:33-35)
But Peter said to Him, "Even though all may fall away, yet I will not." And Jesus said to him, "Truly I say to you, that this
very night, before a rooster crows twice, you yourself will deny Me three times." But Peter kept saying insistently, "Even
if I have to die with You, I will not deny You!" And they all were saying the same thing also. (Mark 14:29-31)
Peter said to Him, "Lord, why can I not follow You right now? I will lay down my life for You." (John 13:37)
11. Now Peter was sitting outside in the courtyard, and a servant-girl came to him and said, "You too were with Jesus the
Galilean." But he denied it before them all, saying, "I do not know what you are talking about." When he had gone out to
the gateway, another servant-girl saw him and said to those who were there, "This man was with Jesus of Nazareth." And
again he denied it with an oath, "I do not know the man." A little later the bystanders came up and said to Peter, "Surely
you too are one of them; for even the way you talk gives you away." Then he began to curse and swear, "I do not know
the man!" And immediately a rooster crowed. And Peter remembered the word which Jesus had said, "Before a rooster
crows, you will deny Me three times." And he went out and wept bitterly. (Matthew 26:69-75)
As Peter was below in the courtyard, one of the servant-girls of the high priest came, and seeing Peter warming himself,
she looked at him and said, "You also were with Jesus the Nazarene." But he denied it, saying, "I neither know nor
understand what you are talking about." And he went out onto the porch. The servant-girl saw him, and began once more
to say to the bystanders, "This is one of them!" But again he denied it. And after a little while the bystanders were again
saying to Peter, "Surely you are one of them, for you are a Galilean too." But he began to curse and swear, "I do not
know this man you are talking about!" Immediately a rooster crowed a second time. And Peter remembered how Jesus
had made the remark to him, "Before a rooster crows twice, you will deny Me three times." And he began to weep. (Mark
14:66-72)
Having arrested Him, they led Him away and brought Him to the house of the high priest; but Peter was following at a
distance. After they had kindled a fire in the middle of the courtyard and had sat down together, Peter was sitting among
them. And a servant-girl, seeing him as he sat in the firelight and looking intently at him, said, "This man was with Him
too." But he denied it, saying, "Woman, I do not know Him." A little later, another saw him and said, "You are one of
 them too!" But Peter said, "Man, I am not!" After about an hour had passed, another man began to insist, saying,
"Certainly this man also was with Him, for he is a Galilean too." But Peter said, "Man, I do not know what you are talking
about." Immediately, while he was still speaking, a rooster crowed. The Lord turned and looked at Peter. And Peter
remembered the word of the Lord, how He had told him, "Before a rooster crows today, you will deny Me three times."
And he went out and wept bitterly. (Luke 22:54-62)
12. "But all this has taken place to fulfill the Scriptures of the prophets." Then all the disciples left Him and fled. (Matthew
26:56)
And they all left Him and fled. (Mark 14:50)
13. So when it was evening on that day, the first day of the week, and when the doors were shut where the disciples were,
for fear of the Jews, Jesus came and stood in their midst and said to them, "Peace be with you." (John 20:19)
14. So Peter and the other disciple went forth, and they were going to the tomb. The two were running together; and the
other disciple ran ahead faster than Peter and came to the tomb first; (John 20:3-4)
15. Peter, turning around, saw the disciple whom Jesus loved following them; the one who also had leaned back on His
bosom at the supper and said, "Lord, who is the one who betrays You?" So Peter seeing him said to Jesus, "Lord, and
what about this man?" (John 21:20-21)
16. Jesus said to him, "If I want him to remain until I come, what is that to you? You follow Me!" (John 21:22)
17. An argument started among them as to which of them might be the greatest. But Jesus, knowing what they were
thinking in their heart, took a child and stood him by His side, and said to them, "Whoever receives this child in My name
receives Me, and whoever receives Me receives Him who sent Me; for the one who is least among all of you, this is the
one who is great." (Luke 9:46-48)
18. It was the preparation day, and the Sabbath was about to begin. Now the women who had come with Him out of Galilee
followed, and saw the tomb and how His body was laid. Then they returned and prepared spices and perfumes. And on
the Sabbath they rested according to the commandment. (Luke 23:54-56)
19. When the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome, bought spices, so that they
might come and anoint Him. (Mark 16:1)
20. And behold, a severe earthquake had occurred, for an angel of the Lord descended from heaven and came and rolled
away the stone and sat upon it. (Matthew 28:2)
Looking up, they saw that the stone had been rolled away, although it was extremely large. (Mark 16:4)
And they found the stone rolled away from the tomb, (Luke 24:2)
Now on the first day of the week Mary Magdalene came early to the tomb, while it was still dark, and saw the stone
already taken away from the tomb. (John 20:1)
21. The angel said to the women, "Do not be afraid; for I know that you are looking for Jesus who has been crucified. "He is
not here, for He has risen, just as He said. Come, see the place where He was lying. (Matthew 28:5-6)
Entering the tomb, they saw a young man sitting at the right, wearing a white robe; and they were amazed. And he said
to them, "Do not be amazed; you are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who has been crucified. He has risen; He is not
here; behold, here is the place where they laid Him. (Mark 16:5-6)
but when they entered, they did not find the body of the Lord Jesus. While they were perplexed about this, behold, two
men suddenly stood near them in dazzling clothing; and as the women were terrified and bowed their faces to the
ground, the men said to them, "Why do you seek the living One among the dead? "He is not here, but He has risen.
Remember how He spoke to you while He was still in Galilee, (Luke 24:3-6)
But Mary was standing outside the tomb weeping; and so, as she wept, she stooped and looked into the tomb; and she
saw two angels in white sitting, one at the head and one at the feet, where the body of Jesus had been lying. (John
20:11-12)
22. Behold, the LORD has proclaimed to the end of the earth, Say to the daughter of Zion, "Lo, your salvation comes; Behold
His reward is with Him, and His recompense before Him." (Isaiah 62:11)
"Sing for joy and be glad, O daughter of Zion; for behold I am coming and I will dwell in your midst," declares the LORD.
(Zechariah 2:10)
Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout in triumph, O daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your king is coming to you; He is
just and endowed with salvation, Humble, and mounted on a donkey, Even on a colt, the foal of a donkey. (Zechariah
9:9)
23. For I am jealous for you with a godly jealousy; for I betrothed you to one husband, so that to Christ I might present you
as a pure virgin. (2 Corinthians 11:2)
Let us rejoice and be glad and give Him glory! For the wedding of the Lamb has come, and His bride has made herself
ready. (Revelation 19:7)
And he said to me, "Write, 'Blessed are those who are invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb.'" And he said to me,
"These are true words of God." (Revelation 19:9)
The Spirit and the bride say, "Come!" And let him who hears say, "Come!" Whoever is thirsty, let him come; and whoever
wishes, let him take the free gift of the water of life. (Revelation 22:17)
24. For your Maker is your husband-- the LORD Almighty is His name-- the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; he is called
the God of all the earth. (Isaiah 54:5)
25. Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her (Ephesians 5:25)
that He might present to Himself the church in all her glory, having no spot or wrinkle or any such thing; but
that she would be holy and blameless. (Ephesians 5:27)
26. Thayer Greek Definitions
ekklesia (Strong's #G1577)
1. a gathering of citizens called out from their homes into some public place, an assembly
a. an assembly of the people convened at the public place of the council for the purpose of deliberating
b. the assembly of the Israelites
c. any gathering or throng of men assembled by chance, tumultuously
d. in a Christian sense
1. an assembly of Christians gathered for worship in a religious meeting
2. a company of Christian, or of those who, hoping for eternal salvation through Jesus Christ,
observe their own religious rites, hold their own religious meetings, and manage their own
affairs, according to regulations prescribed for the body for order's sake
3. those who anywhere, in a city, village, constitute such a company and are united into one
body
 4. the whole body of Christians scattered throughout the earth
5. the assembly of faithful Christians already dead and received into heaven

Part of Speech: noun feminine

A Related Word by Thayer's/Strong's Number: from a compound of G1537 and a derivative of G2564
Citing in TDNT: 3:501, 394

27. On that day some Sadducees (who say there is no resurrection) came to Him and questioned Him, saying, "Teacher,
Moses said, 'IF A MAN DIES, HAVING NO CHILDREN, HIS BROTHER AS NEXT OF KIN SHALL MARRY HIS WIFE, AND
RAISE UP AN OFFSPRING TO HIS BROTHER.' "Now there were seven brothers with us; and the first married and died, and
having no offspring left his wife to his brother; so also the second, and the third, down to the seventh. "And last of all,
the woman died. "In the resurrection therefore whose wife of the seven shall she be? For they all had her." But Jesus
answered and said to them, "You are mistaken, not understanding the Scriptures, or the power of God. "For in the
resurrection they neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven. (Matthew 22:23-30)
28. There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free man, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one
in Christ Jesus. (Galatians 3:28)
29. for the Lamb [Jesus Christ] in the center of the throne shall be their shepherd, and shall guide them to springs of the
water of life; and God shall wipe every tear from their eyes." (Revelation 7:17)
"Let us rejoice and be glad and give the glory to Him, for the marriage of the Lamb has come and His bride has made
herself ready." (Revelation 19:7)
"Let us rejoice and be glad and give the glory to Him, for the marriage of the Lamb has come and His bride has made
herself ready." It was given to her to clothe herself in fine linen, bright and clean; for the fine linen is the righteous acts
of the saints. (Revelation 19:8)
And he said to me, "Write, 'Blessed are those who are invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb.'" And he said to me,
"These are true words of God." (Revelation 19:9)
And one of the seven angels who had the seven bowls full of the seven last plagues, came and spoke with me, saying,
"Come here, I shall show you the bride, the wife of the Lamb." (Revelation 21:9)
FOR THIS CAUSE A MAN SHALL LEAVE HIS FATHER AND MOTHER, AND SHALL CLEAVE TO HIS WIFE; AND THE TWO
SHALL BECOME ONE FLESH. This mystery is great; but I am speaking with reference to Christ and the church. (Ephesians
5:31-32)
"For your husband is your Maker, Whose name is the LORD of hosts; And your Redeemer is the Holy One of Israel, Who
is called the God of all the earth. (Isaiah 54:5)
30. But I have written very boldly to you on some points so as to remind you again, because of the grace that was given me
from God, to be a minister of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles, ministering as a priest the gospel of God, so that my offering of
the Gentiles may become acceptable, sanctified by the Holy Spirit. (Romans 15:15-16)
To me, the very least of all saints, this grace was given, to preach to the Gentiles the unfathomable riches of Christ
(Ephesians 3:8)
31. although I myself might have confidence even in the flesh. If anyone else has a mind to put confidence in the flesh, I far
more: circumcised the eighth day, of the nation of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; as to the Law, a
Pharisee; as to zeal, a persecutor of the church; as to the righteousness which is in the Law, found blameless.
(Philippians 3:4-6)
32. Now Saul, still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord, went to the high priest, and asked for
letters from him to the synagogues at Damascus, so that if he found any belonging to the Way, both men and women, he
might bring them bound to Jerusalem. (Acts 9:1-2)
33. When they had driven him out of the city, they began stoning him; and the witnesses laid aside their robes at the feet of
a young man named Saul. (Acts 7:58)
34. Saul was in hearty agreement with putting him to death. And on that day a great persecution began against the church in
Jerusalem, and they were all scattered throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles. (Acts 8:1)
For I am the least of the apostles, and not fit to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God. (1
Corinthians 15:9)
35. For you have heard of my former manner of life in Judaism, how I used to persecute the church of God beyond measure
and tried to destroy it; (Galatians 1:13)
although I myself might have confidence even in the flesh. If anyone else has a mind to put confidence in the flesh, I far
more: circumcised the eighth day, of the nation of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; as to the Law, a
Pharisee; as to zeal, a persecutor of the church; as to the righteousness which is in the Law, found blameless.
(Philippians 3:4-6)
I thank Christ Jesus our Lord, who has strengthened me, because He considered me faithful, putting me into service,
even though I was formerly a blasphemer and a persecutor and a violent aggressor. Yet I was shown mercy because I
acted ignorantly in unbelief; (1 Timothy 1:12-13)
36. As he was traveling, it happened that he was approaching Damascus, and suddenly a light from heaven flashed around
him; and he fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, "Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting Me?" And he said,
"Who are You, Lord?" And He said, "I am Jesus whom you are persecuting, but get up and enter the city, and it will be
told you what you must do." The men who traveled with him stood speechless, hearing the voice but seeing no one. Saul
got up from the ground, and though his eyes were open, he could see nothing; and leading him by the hand, they
brought him into Damascus. And he was three days without sight, and neither ate nor drank. Now there was a disciple at
Damascus named Ananias; and the Lord said to him in a vision, "Ananias." And he said, "Here I am, Lord." And the Lord
said to him, "Get up and go to the street called Straight, and inquire at the house of Judas for a man from Tarsus named
Saul, for he is praying, and he has seen in a vision a man named Ananias come in and lay his hands on him, so that he
might regain his sight." But Ananias answered, "Lord, I have heard from many about this man, how much harm he did to
Your saints at Jerusalem; and here he has authority from the chief priests to bind all who call on Your name." But the
Lord said to him, "Go, for he is a chosen instrument of Mine, to bear My name before the Gentiles and kings and the sons
of Israel; for I will show him how much he must suffer for My name's sake." (Acts 9:3-16)
 Science and the Bible: Does the Bible Contradict Scientific Principles?
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Bible and Science?

Skeptics claim that the Bible makes a number of errors in its description of the physical universe. Many of these issues are handled on another page.
However, what most skeptics don't know is that the Bible, written mostly by a bunch of sheep herders, makes a number of scientific claims that are
remarkably correct - even though many were not even confirmed to be correct until within the last 100 years.

Rich Deem

The Bible is often described as a book that includes many ideas that are scientifically inaccurate. The truth is that what many
Christians (and non-Christians) have misinterpreted the Bible in such a way as to make it seem to be at odds with the reality of our
world. For example, the Roman Catholic Church promoted geocentrism (the idea that the earth is the center of the universe) for
many years. This concept is not found in the Bible, but stems from the idea that since humans are the center of God's attention,
that the place where they live must be the center of God's universe. This is neither a logical nor biblical inference. In fact, the Bible
states that the heavens "fix their rule over the earth," 1 demonstrating that the heavens control the earth and not the other way
around. The early proponents (Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei) of heliocentrism (the earth revolving ar ound
the Sun) were all Christians (see related page - People of Faith - Famous Scientists). In fact, Isaac Newton, in his
famous scientific work, Principia, stated, "The most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets, could only proceed from the
counsel and dominion on an intelligent and powerful Being."

Purpose of the Bible

Of course, the Bible was not written as a work of science nor was its purpose to describe the workings of the physical world. It was
written to explain spiritual principles - the nature of mankind, the nature of God, and how people can have a personal relationship
with God. However, when the Bible describes the physical world, it is accurate. The purpose of this page is to illustrate some of the
remarkable examples of scientific principles described in the Bible hundreds to thousands of years before they were proved to be
true by science.

The Bible and Science

Scientific Principle Biblical Reference

Cosmology/Astronomy

Time had a beginning 2 Timothy 1:9, Titus 1:2, 1 Corinthians 2:72

The universe had a beginning Genesis 1:1, 2:4, Isaiah 42:5, etc.3

The universe was created from the invisible Hebrews 11:34

The dimensions of the universe were created Romans 8:38-395

The universe is expanding Job 9:8, Psalm 104:2, Isaiah 40:22, Isaiah 42:5, Isaiah 44:24, Isaiah
45:12, Isaiah 48:13, Isaiah 51:13, Jeremiah 10:12, Jeremiah
51:15, Zechariah 12:16
 The Bible and Science

Scientific Principle Biblical Reference

Creation of matter and energy has ended in the universe (refutes steady-state Genesis 2:3-47
theory)

The universe is winding down and will "wear out" (second law of Psalm 102:25-278
thermodynamics ensures that the universe will run down due to "heat death"-
maximum entropy)

Describes the correct order of creation Genesis 1 (see Day-Age Genesis One Interpretation)

Number of stars exceeds a billion Genesis 22:17, Jeremiah 33:229

Every star is different 1 Corinthians 15:4110

Pleiades and Orion as gravitationally bound star groups Job 38:3111

Light is in motion Job 38:19-2012

The earth is controlled by the heavens Job 38:331

Earth is a sphere Isaiah 40:2213 Job 26:1014

At any time, there is day and night on the Earth Luke 17:34-3515

Earth is suspended in space Job 26:716

The physical laws are constant Jeremiah 31:35-3617

Earth Sciences

Earth began as a waterworld. Formation of continents by tectonic activity Genesis 1:2-9, Psalm 104:6-9, Proverbs 3:19, Proverbs 8:27-29, Job
described 38:4-8, 2 Peter 3:518

Water cycle described Ecclesiastes 1:7; Isaiah 55:10, Job 36:27-2819

Valleys exist on the bottom of the sea 2 Samuel 22:1620

 The Bible and Science

Scientific Principle Biblical Reference

Vents exist on the bottom of the sea Job 38:1621

Ocean currents in the sea Psalm 8:822

Air has weight Job 28:2523

Winds blow in circular paths Ecclesiastes 1:624

Biology

The chemical nature of human life Genesis 2:7, 3:1925

Life of creatures are in the blood Leviticus 17:1126

The nature of infectious diseases Leviticus 13:4627

Importance of sanitation to health Numbers 19, Deuteronomy 23:12-13, Leviticus 7-928

Descripciones Bblicas Exactas de Principios Cientficos

Stiinta contrazice Biblia? Principii stiintifice descrise in Biblie (Romanian)

RELATED PAGES

False Teachings in the Bible?

Biblical "Contradictions" and False Teachings in the Bible? Links to other "Bible contradictions" pages on the web
The Bible Teaches That the Heavens Were a Solid Dome, Embedded with Stars?
Science and Faith Associations
Why are Most Scientists Atheists If There is Evidence for Belief in God?
Famous Scientists Who Believed in God
Did Albert Einstein Believe in a Personal God?

REFERENCES

1. "Do you know the ordinances of the heavens, or fix their rule over the earth?" (Job 38:33)
2. No, we speak of God's secret wisdom, a wisdom that has been hidden and that God destined for our glory before time
began. (1 Corinthians 2:7)
 This grace was given us in Christ Jesus before the beginning of time (2 Timothy 1:9)
The hope of eternal life, which God... promised before the beginning of time (Titus 1:2)
To the only God our Savior, through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, dominion and authority, before all time and
now and forever. Amen. (Jude 1:25)
3. In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1)
This is the account of the heavens and the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made earth and
heaven. (Genesis 2:4)
Thus says God the LORD, Who created the heavens and stretched them out, Who spread out the earth and its offspring,
Who gives breath to the people on it, And spirit to those who walk in it, (Isaiah 42:5)
"It is I who made the earth, and created man upon it. I stretched out the heavens with My hands, And I ordained all their
host. (Isaiah 45:12)
For thus says the LORD, who created the heavens (He is the God who formed the earth and made it, He established it
and did not create it a waste place, But formed it to be inhabited), "I am the LORD, and there is none else. (Isaiah
45:18)
For by Him all things were created, both in the heavens and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions
or rulers or authorities-- all things have been created by Him and for Him. (Colossians 1:16)
"Worthy art Thou, our Lord and our God, to receive glory and honor and power; for Thou didst create all things, and
because of Thy will they existed, and were created." (Revelation 4:11)
4. The universe was formed at God's command, so that what was seen was not made out of what was visible. (Hebrews
11:3)
5. For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor
powers, nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which
is in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 8:38-39)
6. Who alone stretches out the heavens, And tramples down the waves of the sea; (Job 9:8)
Covering Thyself with light as with a cloak, Stretching out heaven like a tent curtain. (Psalm 104:2)
It is He who sits above the circle of the earth, And its inhabitants are like grasshoppers, Who stretches out the heavens
like a curtain And spreads them out like a tent to dwell in. (Isaiah 40:22)
Thus says God the Lord, Who created the heavens and stretched them out, Who spread out the earth and its offspring,
Who gives breath to the people on it, And spirit to those who walk in it, (Isaiah 42:5)
Thus says the Lord, your Redeemer, and the one who formed you from the womb, "I, the Lord, am the maker of all
things, Stretching out the heavens by Myself, And spreading out the earth all alone" (Isaiah 44:24)
"It is I who made the earth, and created man upon it. I stretched out the heavens with My hands, And I ordained all their
host." (Isaiah 45:12)
"Surely My hand founded the earth, And My right hand spread out the heavens; When I call to them, they stand
together." (Isaiah 48:13)
That you have forgotten the Lord your Maker, Who stretched out the heavens, And laid the foundations of the earth; That
you fear continually all day long because of the fury of the oppressor, As he makes ready to destroy? But where is the
fury of the oppressor? (Isaiah 51:13)
It is He who made the earth by His power, Who established the world by His wisdom; And by His understanding He has
stretched out the heavens. (Jeremiah 10:12)
It is He who made the earth by His power, Who established the world by His wisdom, And by His understanding He
stretched out the heavens. (Jeremiah 51:15)
The burden of the word of the Lord concerning Israel. Thus declares the Lord who stretches out the heavens, lays the
foundation of the earth, and forms the spirit of man within him, (Zechariah 12:1)
7. Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and
made. This is the account of the heavens and the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made
earth and heaven. (Genesis 2:3-4)
8. In the beginning you laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the work of your hands. They will perish, but
you remain; they will all wear out like a garment. Like clothing you will change them and they will be discarded. But you
remain the same, and your years will never end. (Psalm 102:25-27)
that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay and brought into the glorious freedom of the children of
God. (Romans 8:21)
9. "I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore.
Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies." (Genesis 22:17)
"'I will make the descendants of David My servant and the Levites who minister before Me as countless as the stars of the
sky and as measureless as the sand on the seashore.'" (Jeremiah 33:22)
Note: Only about 3,000 stars can be seen with the naked eye.
10. The sun has one kind of splendor, the moon another and the stars another; and star differs from star in splendor. (1
Corinthians 15:41)
11. "Can you bind the beautiful Pleiades? Can you loose the cords of Orion?" (Job 38:31)
NOTE: All other star groups visible to the naked eye are unbound, with the possible exception of the Hyades.
12. "What is the way to the abode of light? And where does darkness reside?" (Job 38:19)
13. He sits enthroned above the circle of the earth, and its people are like grasshoppers. He stretches out the heavens like a
canopy, and spreads them out like a tent to live in. (Isaiah 40:22)
14. "He has inscribed a circle on the surface of the waters, At the boundary of light and darkness." (Job 26:10)
15. "I tell you, on that night there will be two men in one bed; one will be taken, and the other will be left. "There will be two
women grinding at the same place; one will be taken, and the other will be left. (Luke 17:34-35) Obviously, some people
will be working while others will be sleeping when the Lord returns.
16. He spreads out the northern skies over empty space; he suspends the earth over nothing. (Job 26:7)
17. Thus says the LORD, Who gives the sun for light by day And the fixed order of the moon and the stars for light by night,
Who stirs up the sea so that its waves roar; The LORD of hosts is His name: "If this fixed order departs From before Me,"
declares the LORD, "Then the offspring of Israel also will cease From being a nation before Me forever." (Jeremiah 31:35-
36)
18. The earth was formless and void, and darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was moving over
the surface of the waters... Then God said, "Let the waters below the heavens be gathered into one place, and let the dry
land appear"; and it was so. (Genesis 1:2, 9)
 Thou didst cover it with the deep as with a garment; The waters were standing above the mountains... The mountains
rose; the valleys sank down To the place which Thou didst establish for them. Thou didst set a boundary that they may
not pass over; That they may not return to cover the earth. (Psalm 104:6-9)
The LORD by wisdom founded the Earth; By understanding He established the heavens. By His knowledge the deeps were
broken up... (Proverbs 3:19)
"When He established the heavens, I [wisdom] was there, When He inscribed a circle on the face of the deep, When He
made firm the skies above, When the springs of the deep became fixed, When He set for the sea its boundary So that the
water would not transgress His command, When He marked out the foundations of the land; (Proverbs 8:27-29)
"Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell Me, if you have understanding... Or who enclosed the sea
with doors When, bursting forth, it went out from the womb; (Job 38:4, 8)
For when they maintain this, it escapes their notice that by the word of God the heavens existed long ago and the land
was formed out of water and by water, (2 Peter 3:5)
19. All streams flow into the sea, yet the sea is never full. To the place the streams come from, there they return again.
(Ecclesiastes 1:7)
As the rain and the snow come down from heaven, and do not return to it without watering the earth and making it bud
and flourish, so that it yields seed for the sower and bread for the eater, (Isaiah 55:10)
"For He draws up the drops of water, They distill rain from the mist, Which the clouds pour down, They drip upon man
abundantly." (Job 36:27-28)
20. The valleys of the sea were exposed and the foundations of the earth laid bare at the rebuke of the LORD, at the blast of
breath from his nostrils. (2 Samuel 22:16)
21. "Have you journeyed to the springs of the sea or walked in the recesses of the deep? (Job 38:16)
First discovered in the 1970's. See Exploring the deep ocean floor: Hot springs and strange creatures
22. ... and the fish of the sea, all that swim the paths of the seas. (Psalm 8:8)
23. "When He imparted weight to the wind, And meted out the waters by measure" (Job 28:25)
24. Blowing toward the south, Then turning toward the north, The wind continues swirling along; And on its circular courses
the wind returns. (Ecclesiastes 1:6)
25. the LORD God formed the man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man
became a living being. (Genesis 2:7)
"By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust
you are and to dust you will return." (Genesis 3:19)
26. For the life of a creature is in the blood... (Leviticus 17:11)
27. "The person with such an infectious disease must wear torn clothes, let his hair be unkempt, cover the lower part of his
face and cry out, 'Unclean! Unclean!' As long as he has the infection he remains unclean. He must live alone; he must live
outside the camp." (Leviticus 13:46)
28. "You shall also have a place outside the camp and go out there, and you shall have a spade among your tools, and it shall
be when you sit down outside, you shall dig with it and shall turn to cover up your excrement. (Deuteronomy 23:12-13)

Are the Biblical Documents Reliable?

Jimmy Williams

Introduction
How do we know that the Bible we have today is even close to the original? Haven't
copiers down through the centuries inserted and deleted and embellished the
documents so that the original message of the Bible has been obscured? These
questions are frequently asked to discredit the sources of information from which
the Christian faith has come to us.

Three Errors To Avoid

1. Do not assume inspiration or infallibility of the documents, with the intent of

attempting to prove the inspiration or infallibility of the documents. Do not
 say the bible is inspired or infallible simply because it claims to be. This is
circular reasoning.
2. When considering the original documents, forget about the present form of
your Bible and regard them as the collection of ancient source documents that
they are.
3. Do not start with modern "authorities" and then move to the documents to
see if the authorities were right. Begin with the documents themselves.

Procedure for Testing a Document's Validity

In his book, Introduction in Research in English Literary History, C. Sanders sets forth
three tests of reliability employed in general historiography and literary
criticism.{1} These tests are:

1. Bibliographical (i.e., the textual tradition from the original document to the
copies and manuscripts of that document we possess today)
2. Internal evidence (what the document claims for itself)
3. External evidence (how the document squares or aligns itself with facts, dates,
persons from its own contemporary world).

It might be noteworthy to mention that Sanders is a professor of military history, not a

theologian. He uses these three tests of reliability in his own study of historical
military events.

We will look now at the bibliographical, or textual evidence for the Bible's reliability.

The Old Testament

For both Old and New Testaments, the crucial question is: "Not having any original
copies or scraps of the Bible, can we reconstruct them well enough from the oldest
manuscript evidence we do have so they give us a true, undistorted view of actual
people, places and events?"

The Scribe
The scribe was considered a professional person in antiquity. No printing presses
existed, so people were trained to copy documents. The task was usually undertaken
by a devout Jew. The Scribes believed they were dealing with the very Word of God
and were therefore extremely careful in copying. They did not just hastily write
things down. The earliest complete copy of the Hebrew Old Testament dates from c.
900 A.D.
The Massoretic Text
During the early part of the tenth century (916 A.D.), there was a group of Jews
called the Massoretes. These Jews were meticulous in their copying. The texts they
had were all in capital letters, and there was no punctuation or paragraphs. The
Massoretes would copy Isaiah, for example, and when they were through, they
would total up the number of letters. Then they would find the middle letter of the
book. If it was not the same, they made a new copy. All of the present copies of the
Hebrew text which come from this period are in remarkable agreement.
Comparisons of the Massoretic text with earlier Latin and Greek versions have also
revealed careful copying and little deviation during the thousand years from 100 B.C.
to 900 A.D. But until this century, there was scant material written in Hebrew from
antiquity which could be compared to the Masoretic texts of the tenth century A.D.

The Dead Sea Scrolls

In 1947, a young Bedouin goat herdsman found some strange clay jars in caves near
the valley of the Dead Sea. Inside the jars were some leather scrolls. The discovery of
these "Dead Sea Scrolls" at Qumran has been hailed as the outstanding archeological
discovery of the twentieth century. The scrolls have revealed that a commune of
monastic farmers flourished in the valley from 150 B.C. to 70 A.D. It is believed that
when they saw the Romans invade the land they put their cherished leather scrolls in
the jars and hid them in the caves on the cliffs northwest of the Dead Sea.

The Dead Sea Scrolls include a complete copy of the Book of Isaiah, a fragmented
copy of Isaiah, containing much of Isaiah 38-6, and fragments of almost every book in
the Old Testament. The majority of the fragments are from Isaiah and the Pentateuch
(Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). The books of Samuel, in a
tattered copy, were also found and also two complete chapters of the book of
Habakkuk. In addition, there were a number of nonbiblical scrolls related to the
commune found.

These materials are dated around 100 B.C. The significance of the find, and
particularly the copy of Isaiah, was recognized by Merrill F. Unger when he said,
"This complete document of Isaiah quite understandably created a sensation since it
was the first major Biblical manuscript of great antiquity ever to be recovered. Interest
in it was especially keen since it antedates by more than a thousand years the oldest
Hebrew texts preserved in the Massoretic tradition."{2}
The supreme value of these Qumran documents lies in the ability of biblical scholars
to compare them with the Massoretic Hebrew texts of the tenth century A.D. If, upon
examination, there were little or no textual changes in those Massoretic texts where
comparisons were possible, an assumption could then be made that the Massoretic
Scribes had probably been just as faithful in their copying of the other biblical texts
which could not be compared with the Qumran material.

What was learned? A comparison of the Qumran manuscript of Isaiah with the
Massoretic text revealed them to be extremely close in accuracy to each other: "A
comparison of Isaiah 53 shows that only 17 letters differ from the Massoretic text.
Ten of these are mere differences in spelling (like our "honor" and the English
"honour") and produce no change in the meaning at all. Four more are very minor
differences, such as the presence of a conjunction (and) which are stylistic rather than
substantive. The other three letters are the Hebrew word for "light." This word was
added to the text by someone after "they shall see" in verse 11. Out of 166 words in
this chapter, only this one word is really in question, and it does not at all change the
meaning of the passage. We are told by biblical scholars that this is typical of the
whole manuscript of Isaiah."{3}

The Septuagint
The Greek translation of the Old Testament, called the Septuagint, also confirms the
accuracy of the copyists who ultimately gave us the Massoretic text. The Septuagint
is often referred to as the LXX because it was reputedly done by seventy Jewish
scholars in Alexandria around 200 B.C. The LXX appears to be a rather literal
translation from the Hebrew, and the manuscripts we have are pretty good copies of
the original translation.

Conclusion
In his book, Can I Trust My Bible, R. Laird Harris concluded, "We can now be sure that
copyists worked with great care and accuracy on the Old Testament, even back to
225 B.C. . . . indeed, it would be rash skepticism that would now deny that we have
our Old Testament in a form very close to that used by Ezra when he taught the word
of the Lord to those who had returned from the Babylonian captivity."{4}
The New Testament

The Greek Manuscript Evidence

There are more than 4,000 different ancient Greek manuscripts containing all or
portions of the New Testament that have survived to our time. These are written on
different materials.

Papyrus and Parchment

During the early Christian era, the writing material most commonly used was papyrus.
This highly durable reed from the Nile Valley was glued together much like plywood
and then allowed to dry in the sun. In the twentieth century many remains of
documents (both biblical and non-biblical) on papyrus have been discovered,
especially in the dry, arid lands of North Africa and the Middle East.

Another material used was parchment. This was made from the skin of sheep or goats,
and was in wide use until the late Middle Ages when paper began to replace it. It was
scarce and more expensive; hence, it was used almost exclusively for important
documents.

Examples

1. Codex Vaticanus and Codex Siniaticus

These are two excellent parchment copies of the entire New Testament which date
from the 4th century (325-450 A.D.).{5}

2. Older Papyrii

Earlier still, fragments and papyrus copies of portions of the New Testament date
from 100 to 200 years (180-225 A.D.) before Vaticanus and Sinaticus. The
outstanding ones are the Chester Beatty Papyrus (P45, P46, P47) and the Bodmer
Papyrus II, XIV, XV (P46, P75).

From these five manuscripts alone, we can construct all of Luke, John, Romans, 1 and
2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians,
Hebrews, and portions of Matthew, Mark, Acts, and Revelation. Only the Pastoral
Epistles (Titus, 1 and 2 Timothy) and the General Epistles (James, 1 and 2 Peter, and
1, 2, and 3 John) and Philemon are excluded.{6}

3. Oldest Fragment
Perhaps the earliest piece of Scripture surviving is a fragment of a papyrus codex
containing John 18:31-33 and 37. It is called the Rylands Papyrus (P52) and dates
from 130 A.D., having been found in Egypt. The Rylands Papyrus has forced the
critics to place the fourth gospel back into the first century, abandoning their earlier
assertion that it could not have been written then by the Apostle John.{7}

4. This manuscript evidence creates a bridge of extant papyrus and parchment

fragments and copies of the New Testament stretching back to almost the end of the
first century.

Versions (Translations)
In addition to the actual Greek manuscripts, there are more than 1,000 copies and
fragments of the New Testament in Syria, Coptic, Armenian, Gothic, and Ethiopic, as
well as 8,000 copies of the Latin Vulgate, some of which date back almost to
Jerome's original translation in 384 400 A.D.

Church Fathers
A further witness to the New Testament text is sourced in the thousands of
quotations found throughout the writings of the Church Fathers (the early Christian
clergy [100-450 A.D.] who followed the Apostles and gave leadership to the fledgling
church, beginning with Clement of Rome (96 A.D.).

It has been observed that if all of the New Testament manuscripts and Versions
mentioned above were to disappear overnight, it would still be possible to reconstruct
the entire New Testament with quotes from the Church Fathers, with the exception of
fifteen to twenty verses!

A Comparison
The evidence for the early existence of the New Testament writings is clear. The
wealth of materials for the New Testament becomes even more significant when we
compare it with other ancient documents which have been accepted without
question.

Earliest Lapse: Lapse:

Author and Author's Date of Date of
Extant Event to Event to
Work Lifespan Events Writing*
MS** Writing MS

Matthew, 4 BC - 50 - <200
ca. 0-70? ca. 200 <50 years
Gospel AD 30 65/75 years
Mark, ca. 15- <200
27 - 30 65/70 ca. 225 <50 years
Gospel 90? years

Luke, ca. 10- 5 BC - <200

60/75 ca. 200 <50 years
Gospel 80? AD 30 years

John, ca. 10- <100

27-30 90-110 ca. 130 <80 years
Gospel 100 years

Paul, 20-30 <200

ca. 0-65 30 50-65 ca. 200
Letters years years

900-
Josephus, ca. 37- 200 BC 10-300
ca. 80 ca. 950 1200
War 100 - AD 70 years
years

1000-
Josephus, ca. 37- 200 BC 30-300
ca. 95 ca. 1050 1300
Antiquities 100 - AD 65 years
years

Tacitus, ca. 56- AD 14- 30-100 800-850

100-120 ca. 850
Annals 120 68 years years

Seutonius, ca. 69- 50 BC - 25-170 750-900

ca. 120 ca. 850
Lives 130 AD 95 years years

Pliny, ca. 60- 725-750

97-112 110-112 ca. 850 0-3 years
Letters 115 years

850-
Plutarch, ca. 50- 500 BC 30-600
ca. 100 ca. 950 1500
Lives 120 - AD 70 years
years

1400-
Herodotus, ca. 485- 546-478 430-425 50-125
ca. 900 1450
History 425 BC BC BC years
years

1300-
Thucydides, ca. 460- 431-411 410-400 0-30
ca. 900 1350
History 400 BC BC BC years
years

Xenophon, ca. 430- 401-399 385-375 15-25 1750

ca. 1350
Anabasis 355 BC BC BC years years
 1100-
Polybius, ca. 200- 220-168 ca. 150 20-70
ca. 950 1150
History 120 BC BC BC years
years

*Where a slash occurs, the first date is conservative, and the second is liberal.
**New Testament manuscripts are fragmentary. Earliest complete manuscript is from ca. 350; lapse of event to
complete manuscript is about 325 years.

Conclusion
In his book, The Bible and Archaeology, Sir Frederic G. Kenyon, former director and
principal librarian of the British Museum, stated about the New Testament, "The
interval, then, between the dates of original composition and the earliest extant
evidence becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last foundation for any
doubt that the Scriptures have come down to us substantially as they were written
has now been removed. Both the authenticity and the general integrity of the books
of the New Testament may be regarded as finally established."{8}

To be skeptical of the 27 documents in the New Testament, and to say they are
unreliable is to allow all of classical antiquity to slip into obscurity, for no documents
of the ancient period are as well attested bibliographically as these in the New
Testament.

B. F. Westcott and F.J.A. Hort, the creators of The New Testament in Original Greek,
also commented: "If comparative trivialities such as changes of order, the insertion or
omission of the article with proper names, and the like are set aside, the works in our
opinion still subject to doubt can hardly mount to more than a thousandth part of the
whole New Testament."{9} In other words, the small changes and variations in
manuscripts change no major doctrine: they do not affect Christianity in the least. The
message is the same with or without the variations. We have the Word of God.

The Anvil? God's Word.

Last eve I passed beside a blacksmith's door

And heard the anvil ring the vesper chime:
Then looking in, I saw upon the floor
Old hammers, worn with beating years of time.

"How many anvils have you had," said I,

"To wear and batter all these hammers so?"
 "Just one," said he, and then, with twinkling eye,
"The anvil wears the hammers out, you know."

And so, thought I, the anvil of God's word,

For ages skeptic blows have beat upon;
Yet though the noise of falling blows was heard,
The anvil is unharmed . . . the hammer's gone.
Author unknown
Notes

1. C.Sanders, Introduction in Research in English Literacy (New York: MacMillan, 1952), 143.
2. Merrill F. Unger, Famous Archaeological Discoveries (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1957), 72.
3. R. Laird Harris, Can I Trust My Bible? (Chicago: Moody Press, 1963), 124.
4. Ibid., 129-30.
5. Merrill F. Unger, Unger's Bible Handbook (Chicago: Moody Press, 1967), 892.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Sir Fredric Kenyon, The Bible and Archaeology (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940), 288ff.
9. B.F. Westcott, and F.J.A. Hort, eds., New Testament in Original Greek, 1881, vol. II, 2.

Jesus Christ as God and the Trinity Was Not Invented Until the Fourth Century?
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

One of the most commonly held atheistic myths is that Christianity as we know it today was not invented until the fourth century,
after the council of Nicaea in 325 A.D. The book, and recently released movie, The Da Vinci Code, makes this very claim (among
other very bizarre assertions). Many say that the early Christian church thought of Jesus Christ as just a good moral teacher, and
did not worship Him until the 4th century when the Trinity and deity of Christ was "invented." However, our examination of this
question, using biblical sources, the writings of the early church fathers, and secular sources, will clearly establish that Jesus was
worshipped as God no later than the early second century (113 A.D.).

Biblical sources

Citing all the biblical sources that claim Jesus is God is beyond the scope of this paper. However, other pages on
this site examine these issues in detail. They can be found below:

Was Jesus God?

The Son is God
Jesus Christ is God (YHVH)
Should We Worship Jesus?
 Jesus Christ Never Said He Was God?

Even though many acknowledge that the Bible says clearly that Jesus is God, those people have claimed that the Bible was edited
long after originally penned. Such claims fly in the face of volumes of documents written by the early church fathers, who cited
verses liberally from New Testament gospels and letters in their own writings. Since many of these writings can be definitively
dated to the first and second centuries,1 such claims of rewriting are obviously false. Some of this evidence will be cited below.

Early Christian sources

The earliest Aramaic-speaking Christians refer to Jesus as "Lord" in the earliest extra-canonical Christian
book, the Didache, which scholars agree was written no later than the late 100s. The word "Lord" (GreekKyrios)
was used by the Greeks to designate divinity. Justin Martyr, a second-century church father, baptized new
believers in the name of the triune God - Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, acknowledging the equality of the three
distinct persons of the Trinity.

Secular sources

Pliny the Younger as governor of Pontus/Bithynia from 111-113 A.D. wrote (in his Letters 10.96-97) to Emperor
Trajan regarding the early Christian church, their worship of Christ, and how he persecuted, tortured, and murdered them:

"They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed
day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to
commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so."

This example shows quite clearly that even the Romans knew that Jesus was being worshipped and wanted to "check and cure"
"the contagion of this superstition" that had "spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms." 2

Archeology

Although not as early as the Pliny letter, another secular source indicating that Jesus was worshipped as God before the fourth
century was recently discovered in Megiddo, Israel. The discovery is a third century Christian church with a tile floor inlaid with
inscriptions. One of the inscriptions was a tribute to Jesus, "Akeptous, the God-loving, offered this table for (the) god Jesus Christ,
as a remembrance." Obviously, the discovery of a third century inscription calling Jesus God discredits the idea that Jesus was not
worshipped until the fourth century (see Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel for more information).

CONCLUSION

So, despite the claims of atheists and The Da Vinci Code, Jesus Christ was thought of as being God certainly by the early second
century, if not earlier. The assertion of Christianity's invention hundreds of years after Jesus lived is one of the most easily falsified
myths found in secular circles. It is amazing that it has persisted to this day.

RELATED PAGES ANDTHE DA VINCI CODE LINKS

Atheist Myth #2: Jesus Didnt Become God Until the 4th Century (Flash Version Slidehow)
Was Jesus God?
The Trinity: The Oneness and Plurality of God
A Review and Critique of The DaVinci Code by J. P. Holding
The Da Vinci crock by Laura Miller (from Salon.com - I never thought I would link to that site!)
The Da Vinci Code: Of Magdalene, Gnostics, the Goddess and the Grail (Leadership U)
Dismantling The Da Vinci Code by Sandra Miesel
The Da Vinci Code: The facts behind the fiction by Amy Welborn
THE DA VINCI CODE - FICTION BASED ON FICTION by Jennifer Rast
THE DA VINCI CODE Author Roundtable
The Truth Behind the Da Vinci Code: A Challenging Response to the Bestselling Novel by Richard Abanes
 The Da Vinci Code: Fact or Fiction by Hank Hanegraaff, Paul L. Maier
The Da Vinci Hoax: Exposing the Errors in The Da Vinci Code by Carl E.
Olson, Sandra Miesel

The "Gospel of Judas": National Geographic Attacks Christianity With Biased

"Research"
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
The Best National Geographic Can Do?

National Geographic is well known for its popular expositions of ancient civilizations - most of which are quite well researched. However, at the
beginning of Christianity's Holy Week in 2006, National Geographicaired a television special that can best be described as a hatchet job on
Christianity's leader, Jesus of Nazareth. Their biased reporting was quite evident with their failure to report what the Gnostics really believed, along with
some of the less easy to swallow claims of the "Gospel" of Judas.

Rich Deem

A 62-page codex, dated to the third or fourth century and written in the Sahidic dialect of Coptic, was found in the Egyptian desert
in the 1970's. It was passed around for several years and eventually sold and acquired by National Geographic in 2001. After four
years of restoration and translation, the "Gospel of Judas" was revealed in a much-hyped National Geographic Channel special on
Palm Sunday, April 9, 2006. The "gospel" reported an interesting twist on the events surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus of
Nazareth. Judas Iscariot, instead of being the evil one controlled by Satan, who betrayed Jesus for 30 pieces of silver, is portrayed
as the obedient one who did Jesus' bidding by turning Jesus into the Sanhedrin, the council of Jewish leaders. Reportedly, Jesus
wanted to escape from His human body and return to the spiritual realm by being executed. So, Jesus conspired with Judas and
ordered him to betray Him, so that the Old Testament prophecies might be fulfilled. According to the "Gospel of Judas", Judas was
actually the hero of the world!

The timing of the release

The timing of the National Geographic special with the beginning of Christianity's Holy Week was not by accident. What better way
to hype their anti-Christian message then run their "Gospel of Judas" special on the high Christian holiday of Palm Sunday. This
technique has been used previously to attempt to discredit Christianity's founder at a time of the year when popular interest
focuses on His death and resurrection.

Does the dating make it a "gospel"?

The "Gospel of Judas" manuscript was carbon dated at 220-340 A.D. In addition the ink was analyzed, confirming the radiocarbon
date of the manuscript. However early the date, it is still at least two centuries after the actual events. In contrast, the biblical
manuscripts date as early as 125 A.D., with most scholars agreeing they were all written in the first century. However, National
Geographic-hired scholars claimed that the manuscript found represents a translation of an earlier second century Greek document.
However, there is no physical evidence to back up this belief. There is circumstantial evidence for the existence of "Christian"
Gnostic writings from the writings of leaders early Christian church, such as Irenaeus, who wrote Against Heresies in 180
A.D.1These Christian leaders strongly denounced the Gnostic writings, which were attempting to cash in on the growing popularity
of Christianity, as factually untrue and heretical in their theology.

Promotion of the National Geographic program and book ignores such evidence and makes claims that are obviously untrue. For
example, their website claims the gospel of Judas comes from "the earliest days of Christianity":

"Dramatic recreations portray and clarify the complex story of intrigue and politics of the earliest days of Christianity, and reveal
the contents of the Gospel itself."2
 There is no way that writings, optimistically be assigned to a period at least 150 years after the ministry and
death of Jesus, can be called "the earliest days of Christianity." Even the title, "gospel", given to the manuscript, is misleading,
since all the truly Christian gospels were written by eyewitnesses to the events in the first century (with the possible except of
Luke, who composed his gospel by interviewing eyewitnesses). Such obvious bias by the National Geographic demonstrates their
desire to smear Christianity and make a buck in the process.

Who wrote the "Gospel of Judas"?

Obviously, since the "Gospel of Judas" cannot be attributed to Judas Iscariot, because its earliest possible dating is late second
century, it must have been written by someone else. The content of the document tells us exactly who wrote the "Gospel of Judas"
and for what purpose. Besides the question of whose idea the betrayal of Jesus was, the manuscript clearly presents a Gnostic
distortion of fundamental Christian and Judaic theology. Gnosticism combined Greek mythology with Christian theology and Far
East religions. According to Gnostic "Christianity", the self-generated one was the goddess Barbelo, who created the goddess
Sophia, a virgin deity who gave birth to god Jehovah (Yahweh), who created the Earth and became the god of the Hebrews. In
Gnostic theology, he was portrayed as being jealous, uncompassionate, and likely to commit genocide.

The Gnostics believed that they were given special hidden, knowledge that was given only to them. In accordance with this idea,
the "Gospel of Judas" indicates that Jesus revealed this special knowledge only to Judas Iscariot:

"Knowing that Judas was reflecting upon something that was exalted, Jesus said to him: 'Step away from the others and I shall tell
you the mysteries of the kingdom.'" 3

An excerpt from the "Gospel of Judas" reveals how the Gnostic deities were created:

"A great angel, the enlightened divine Self-Generated, emerged from the cloud. Because of him, four other angels came into being
from another cloud, and they became attendants for the angelic Self-Generated. The Self-Generated said, 'Let [...] come into being
[...] and it came into being. And he created the first luminary to reign over him. He said, 'Let angels come into being to serve him,
and myriads without number came into being.' He said, 'let an enlightened aeon come into being,' and he came into being. He
created the second luminary to reign over him, together with myriads of angels without number, to offer service. That is how he
created the rest of the enlightened aeons. He made them reign over them...The multitude of those immortals is called the
cosmosthat is, perditionby the Father of the seven-two luminaries who are with the Self-Generated and his seventy-two
aeons. In him the first human appeared with his incorruptible powers. And the aeon that appeared with his generation, the aeon in
whom are the cloud of knowledge and the angel, is called [...] after that [...] said, 'Let twelve angels come into being to rule over
chaos and the underworld.' And look, from he cloud there appeared an angel whose face flashed with fire and whose appearance
was defiled with blood. His name was Nabro, which means rebel. Others call him Yaldabaoth. Another angel, Saklas, also came
from the cloud. So Nabro created six angelsas well as Saklasto be assistants, and these produced twelve angels in the
heavens, with each one receiving a portion in the heavens." 3

Gnosticism's roots in Greek mythology and philosophy are evident in their belief in multiple minor deities (called "aeons" in the
example above). The idea that there are multiple gods and goddesses is abhorrent to Christianity and also Judaism, from which it
was derived. Since all the apostles of Jesus were Jewish, it is clear that the "Gospel of Judas" was not written by a real disciple of
Jesus.

CONCLUSION

The "Gospel of Judas" and similar Gnostic texts were rejected by the early Christian Church not because of their unfavorable
portrayal of Jesus of Nazareth, but because Church leaders knew they were not written by the original disciples, but fabricated
much later by splinter groups, who incorporated heretical teachings and false historical claims into those documents. The content of
the "Gospel of Judas" clearly indicates that its origin derives from second or third century Gnostic teachings, which incorporate both
Greek mythology and Far East philosophy in an attempt to hijack Christianity's rising popularity. The theology in the "Gospel of
Judas" is polytheistic, which is why it was labeled as heretical by early church leaders. Such aberrant theology was clearly outside
the mainstream of both Christianity and Old Testament writings. The fact that the National Geographic promoted the "Gospel of
Judas" manuscript as an authentic early Christian document testifies to their unscholarly attempt to discredit Jesus of Nazareth as
worthy of worship.

El "Evangelio de Judas": National Geographic Ataca al Cristianismo con una "investigacin" Parcial
RELATED PAGES

Biola University Responds to the Gospel of Judas By Professor Clinton E. Arnold

The Gospel of Judas: Peddling Gnosticism by Professor Stephen Bainbridge
The Gospel of Judas by Robert C. Newman, Biblical Theological Seminary
'Gospel of Judas' Called An Authentic Fabrication By Bruce Chilton
Gospel of Judas is heresy & unreliable history, profs say
Media coverage of Judas gospel: "Appallingly stupid."

REFERENCES

1. "Others again declare that Cain derived his being from the Power above, and acknowledge that Esau, Korah, the
Sodomites, and all such persons, are related to themselves. On this account, they add, they have been assailed by the
Creator, yet no one of them has suffered injury. For Sophia was in the habit of carrying off that which belonged to her
from them to herself. They declare that Judas the traitor was thoroughly acquainted with these things, and that he alone,
knowing the truth as no others did, accomplished the mystery of the betrayal; by him all things, both earthly and
heavenly, were thus thrown into confusion. They produce a fictitious history of this kind, which they style the Gospel of
Judas."
Irenaeus of Lyons. Against Heresies c. 175-185 A.D.
2. The Gospel of Judas "Show Description", National Geographic Channel
3. The Gospel of Judas Translated by Rodolphe Kasser, Marvin Meyer, and Gregor Wurst, in collaboration with Franois
Gaudard.

"The Lost Tomb of Jesus": Have the Bones of Jesus Christ Been Found in Jerusalem?
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
"They just want to get money for it"

James Cameron, the Oscar-winning director of "Titanic," has produced a television special that claims to refute the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
However, according to archaeologist, Amos Kloner, the first archaeologist to examine the burial site, the idea fails to hold up by archaeological
standards, saying, "They just want to get money for it."

Rich Deem

James Cameron is producing a 90-minute film for the Discovery Channel entitled, "The Lost Tomb of Jesus," claiming that the actual
bones of Jesus of Nazareth were buried in a tomb near Jerusalem. A companion book, The Jesus Tomb written by Simcha Jacobovici
and Charles Pellegrino, is also being offered. In addition, in the tradition of the discredited Dan Brown, the film claims that these
bones of "Jesus" were once married to Mary Magdalene, with whom he had a son name Judah.

The timing of the release

The timing of Discovery's special right before Christianity's Holy Week was not by accident. Last year it was National
Geographic's "Gospel of Judas" special on the high Christian holiday of Palm Sunday. One can be certain that the next big "special"
will be aired at the same time next year to attempt to discredit Christianity's founder at a time of the year when popular interest
focuses on His death and resurrection.

Dating of the bones

It was Jewish custom in the first century A.D., that the bones of the deceased were transferred from burial caves to limestone
boxes called ossuaries one year after their death. This practice was abandoned after the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70
A.D. Frank Moore Cross, a professor emeritus in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University,
indicated, "The inscriptions are from the Herodian Period (which occurred from around 1 B.C. to 1 A.D.). The use of limestone
ossuaries and the varied script styles are characteristic of that time." Since Jesus did not die until 30 A.D., the date is problematic
for those claiming they represent the bones of Jesus.

What was found?

The tomb containing the bones, was first found by a construction crew in 1980 in the Jerusalem suburb of Talpiyot. According to
Jerusalem-based biblical expert Joe Zias the tomb would have held more than 200 ossuaries. Ten ossuaries were taken to the
Rockefeller Archaeological Museum near Jerusalem, where one disappeared. Six of the ossuaries were inscribed with names that
would be translated as Jeshua (Joshua or Jesus), Mara (Mary), Matthew, Josa (Joseph), Mariamene (Mary Magdalene?) and Judah,
son of Jeshua.

Are the names those of the Holy Family?

Stephen Pfann, a biblical scholar at the University of the Holy Land in Jerusalem, is unsure that the name ''Jesus''
on the ossuary was read correctly, since ancient Semitic script is difficult to read. He thinks it's more likely that the name is
''Hanun.'' Bar-Ilan University Prof. Amos Kloner indicated that "Jesus son of Joseph" inscriptions had been found on several other
ossuaries over the years. In addition, Kloner indicated, "There is no likelihood that Jesus and his relatives had a family tomb. They
were a Galilee family with no ties in Jerusalem. The Talpiot tomb belonged to a middle-class family from the 1st century CE."

What does the DNA testing tell us?

According to the film's website, DNA testing was attempted on only two samples - those of "Jesus" and those of Mariamene. The
DNA was so degraded that no sequencing could be determined from the nuclear DNA (the main chromosomes). Only mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA) was available for sequencing. Since mtDNA is much smaller than nuclear DNA, the average person's mtDNA differs
from another's by only 8 base pairs. In closely-related communities, differences would be much less. The film's website did not give
any details about the testing other than the claim that the individuals "were not related." Since "Jesus" and Mariamene were
"unrelated," the filmmakers assumed they were married and had a son named Judah (from the ossuary "Judah, son of Jeshua").
However, the conclusion that "Jesus" and Mariamene were married cannot be ascertained from the DNA evidence. Since mtDNA is
only transferred from mother to daughter (or son), "Jesus" could very well be the father of Mariamene (or any other relat ive on the
paternal side), and the mtDNA testing would indicate that they were "not related." Only nuclear DNA analysis could determine if
"Jesus" and Mariamene were truly related or not. So, the mtDNA testing tells us only that "Jesus" and Mariamene were not siblings
or related maternally. No other relationship can be determined from the mtDNA testing.

Is Mariamene Mary Magdalene?

The assumption that Mariamene is really Mary Magdalene is quite overstated, since the the name of "Mariamne" from the Acts of
Philip is not the same as Mariamene. In addition, the Acts of Philip is the work of a heretical community that lived in the fourth
century - at least two hundred fifty years after the events of the New Testament. For more information, see The Acts of Philip,
Mariamne and the Jesus Tomb.

CONCLUSION

Jerusalem-based biblical expert Joe Zias has called the documentary nonsense, saying those involved in the project have "no
credibility whatsoever... It's an old story that's been recycled. The story first broke in 1996 by the BBC. It burst in a couple of
days." The fact that the inscriptions on the ossuaries date to the beginning of the first century and Jesus and the others died much
later, makes it extremely unlikely that "Jeshua" from the "Jesus Tomb" is really Jesus Christ. According to Stephen Pfann, "How
possible is it? On a scale of one through 10 - 10 being completely possible - it's probably a one, maybe a one and a half."

Is the Biblical Flood Account a Modified Copy of the Epic of Gilgamesh?

by Rich Deem
INTRODUCTION

Skeptics claim that the flood narrative of Genesis1 is a rewritten version of an original myth, The Epic of Gilgamesh, from theEnuma
Elish produced by the Sumerians. The flood of the Epic of Gilgamesh is contained on Tablet XI 2 of twelve large stone tablets that
date to around 650 B.C. These tablets are obviously not originals, since fragments of the flood story have been found on tablets
that date to 2,000 B.C. It is likely that the story itself originated much before that, since the Sumerian cuneiform writing has been
estimated to go as far back as 3,300 B.C.

The dating of Genesis is uncertain, since the preservation of papyri is not nearly as good as that of stone. Liberal scholars place the
date between 1,500 and 500 B.C., although the events are claimed to have occurred several thousand years earlier.

Epic of Gilgamesh

Here is a brief background of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was an oppressive ruler of the Sumerians, whose people called to
the gods to send a nemesis. One nemesis, Enkidu, became friends with Gilgamesh, and the two went out on many adventures.
Enkidu was eventually killed and Gilgamesh then feared for his own life. In his search for immortality, he met Utnapishtim, who had
been granted immortality by the gods, following his rescue from the flood. Utnapishtim then recounted the flood and how he
became immortal.

Similarities between Genesis and Gilgamesh

Superficially, the flood accounts appear to be similar:

1. Flood occurs in the Mesopotamian plain.

2. Main character is warned to build a boat to escape the flood
3. Main character is told to save himself, his family, and a sampling of animals
4. The boats were sealed with tar
5. The boats came to rest on a mountain
6. Birds were released to determine if the waters receded
7. Main character sacrificed an offering

Differences between Genesis and Gilgamesh

Despite superficial similarities, the differences between the accounts are quite significant. The table below lists most of the
differences.

Significant Differences Between Genesis and Epic of Gilgamesh

Characteristic Genesis1 Gilgamesh2

Reason for flood human wickedness3 excessive human noisiness

Response of deity the Lord was sorry He made man because of his gods could not sleep
wickedness4

Warned by Yahweh (God)5 Ea

Main character Noah ("rest")6 Utnapishtim ("finder of life")

Why character chosen a righteous man6 no reason given

Intended for All humans except Noah and his family7 all humans

Decision to send flood Yahweh (God)8 council of the gods (primarily Enlil)

Builders Noah and family9 Utnapishtim, his family, and many craftsmen from city
 Significant Differences Between Genesis and Epic of Gilgamesh
Characteristic Genesis1 Gilgamesh2

Character's response Noah warned his neighbors of upcoming judgment Told by Ea to lie to neighbors so that they would help him build
as "Preacher of righteousness"10 the boat

Building time 100 years11 7 days

Boat size 450x75x45 feet12 200x200x200 feet (unseaworthy cube)

Boat roof wood13 slate (top heavy?)

# Decks 314 6

Humans Noah and family7 Utnapishtim, his family, and craftsmen from city

Cargo animals and food15 animals, food, gold jewels, and other valuables

Launching by the floodwaters16 pushed to the river

Door closed by Yahweh (God)17 Utnapishtim

Sign of coming flood none extremely bright light sent by the Annanuki (collection of
Sumerian gods)

Waters sent by Yahweh (God)7 Adad, with help from gods Shamash, Shullat, Hanish, Erragal,
Ninurta

Reaction of deity to flood in control of waters18 gods scrambled to get away from water like "whipped dogs"

Duration of rain 40 days19 7 days

Duration of flood 370 days20 14 days

Boat landing Mt. Ararat21 Mt. Nisir

Deity's reaction to no regret mentioned regretted that they had killed all the humans
human deaths

Birds sent out raven returns, dove returns second time with olive dove returns, swallow returns, raven does not return
branch, then leaves22

Offering after flood one of every clean animal and bird23 wines and a sheep

Aftermath God promises not to destroy humanity by flood gods quarrel among themselves, god Ea lies to Enlil.
again24 Utnapishtim and wife given immortality like the gods

Repopulation Noah and family told to multiply and repopulate the Ea and Mami created 14 human beings to help repopulate the
earth25 earth

What would be expected in anyflood account?

Among the similarities between the Genesis and Gilgamesh there are some that would be expected to be found in any flood
account. Since both cultures existed in the Middle East, it is not unexpected to find that both accounts occurred in the plains of
Mesopotamia. The Bible described the creation of humans in the locale of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, and never describes
them expanding beyond that area prior to the flood. Therefore, this similarity (#1 on our list above) is just due to the nature of
where the peoples lived.
 Obviously, for humans to survive the flood, there would have to be a means of escape. A boat makes sense,
since the cultures did not have the technology to build an airplane. Humans would not know that a flood was coming unless they
were told so by someone. Therefore, the idea that the gods or God would warn certain humans would not be unexpected, either.
Similarity #2 seems like an integral part of any ancient flood story, so does not constitute an unexpected similarity.

Since a flood would obviously kill livestock in addition to humans, it would make sense that the survivors should take some animals
on board with them. They would probably want to eat during the time of the flood, so would be expected that food would be taken
on board the boat. Therefore, similarity #3 would be expected in any flood account.

Since there was no glue or other sealing materials, it would be expected that the builders of the boats would use something natural
that was water resistant. Hence, it is not surprising to find that both stories recount the use of tar or other natural resin . Eliminate
similarity #4 as being significant.

The laws of physics require that wooden boats would float on top of the water (although this is questionable with the Gilgamesh
boat, see below). When the waters began to recede, it would not be unreasonable for the boat to come to rest on a mountain or the
foothills of a mountain. However, it would probably be expected that the boat would come to rest somewhere on the plains of
Mesopotamia. Although superficially similar, the boats came to rest on different mountain ranges. The boat from Gilgamesh came
to rest on Mt. Nisir, whereas the ark came to rest on Mt. Ararat. Why these details would have been changed is unknown.

Probably the most unique feature common to both accounts are the release of birds to determine when the waters had receded.
However, there are some significant differences between the two accounts. In Gilgamesh, a dove is sent out first, whereas in
Genesis, it is a raven. The second bird sent is a swallow in Gilgamesh and a dove in Genesis. A third bird, a raven, is sent out in
Gilgamesh, whereas the dove is sent out again in Genesis and returns with an olive leaf. In Genesis, the dove is sent out a third
time and does not return. If the Genesis account was copied from Gilgamesh, these details were changed significantly for no
apparent reason.

The seventh similarity was a sacrificial offering made to the gods or God, when the main character had been delivered from the
flood. The details of the offerings were quite different, since the Gilgamesh epic describes the offering of wines and a sheep. Noah
sacrificed burnt offerings of all the clean animals on the ark, but no drink offering. Although it may seem like an unusual thing to
do, in the cultures of the time, it would be expected that an offering would be made as an act of appreciation. In this age, it would
be expected that religious people would offer prayers of thanks or at least a "Was I lucky" (depending upon one's religious
worldview). Therefore, similarity #7 should not be seen as significant.

What would be expected if Genesis were a copy of Gilgamesh?

The first striking thing that one notices when reading the Epic of Gilgamesh is how silly the story is. Part of the silliness is because
of the obviously human-like behavior of the gods. They are constantly fighting amongst each other, plotting and deceiving each
other. One would expect this part of the story to be removed from a Genesis copy. Therefore, we would expect that the Genesis
account would be changed to involve some kind of judgment, since Yahweh (God) does not capriciously destroy humans, as was
done in the Gilgamesh epic. It would, therefore, make sense that Noah would be chosen for his righteousness although Utnapishtim
was chosen for no apparent reason.

Even with these major changes not considered, there are many dissimilarities that would not be expected from a story copied from
another story. For example, the timings of the flood accounts are vastly different. The Gilgamesh flood took only 3 weeks, whereas
the Genesis flood lasted over a year. The Gilgamesh flood included several 7 day long events. This "perfect" number is found
throughout the Bible, so would be expected to be retained if copied from the epic of Gilgamesh. However, the Bible uses numbers
like 40 and 150 - much longer timeframes.

The boats in the two accounts are quite different. The Gilgamesh boat was an unseaworthy cube with a slate roof. Obviously, such a
design would immediately flip over or roll around in the water. In contrast, the ark had dimensions that were ideal for a seaworthy
ship. This fact might be surprising, since both cultures were not noted for their nautical skills. It is obvious that the gods of the
Sumerians had no expertise in shipbuilding.

CONCLUSION

We have examined the similarities between the Epic of Gilgamesh and Genesis flood account of the Bible. Although there are a
number of superficial similarities between the accounts, the vast majority of similarities would be expected to be found
in anyancient flood account. Only two similarities stand out as being unique - landing of the boats on a mountain and the use of
birds to determine when the flood subsided. However, both of these similarities differ in important details. In addition, there are
great differences in the timing of each of the flood accounts and the nature of the vessels. Why these details would be so drastically
changed is a problem for those who claim that the Genesis flood was derived from the Epic of Gilgamesh.

There are a couple possible explanations for the existence of multiple ancient flood accounts. One - that Genesis was a copy of
Gilgamesh - has already been discussed and does not seem to fit the available data. The other possible explanation is that the flood
was a real event in the history of mankind that was passed down through the generations of different cultures. If so, the Gilgamesh
account seems to have undergone some rather radical transformations. The story is a rather silly myth that bears little resemblance
to reality. In contrast, the Genesis account is a logical, seemingly factual account of a historical event. It lacks the obvious
mythological aspects of the Gilgamesh epic.

(PDF version )

Es el Relato del diluvio Bblico una Copia Modificada de la Epopeya de Gilgamesh?

RELATED PAGES

The Genesis Flood- Why the Bible Says It Must be Local

Psalm 104-9 - Does it refer to the Original Creation or the Flood?
Genesis 6-9- The Flood
Enuma Elish, Alas: Did the Babylonian Creation Account Influence Genesis? by James Patrick Holding

REFERENCES

1. Genesis 6-9- The Flood

2. Epic of Gilgamesh Tablet XI.
3. Then the LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great on the earth, and that every intent of the thoughts of his heart
was only evil continually. (Genesis 6:5)
4. The LORD was sorry that He had made man on the earth, and He was grieved in His heart. (Genesis 6:6)
5. Then God said to Noah, "The end of all flesh has come before Me; for the earth is filled with violence because of them;
and behold, I am about to destroy them with the earth. (Genesis 6:1)
6. These are the records of the generations of Noah. Noah was a righteous man, blameless in his time; Noah walked with
God. (Genesis 6:9)
7. "Behold, I, even I am bringing the flood of water upon the earth, to destroy all flesh in which is the breath of life, from
under heaven; everything that is on the earth shall perish. But I will establish My covenant with you; and you shall enter
the ark--you and your sons and your wife, and your sons' wives with you." (Genesis 6:17-18)
8. Then the LORD said, "My Spirit shall not strive with man forever, because he also is flesh; nevertheless his days shall be
one hundred and twenty years." (Genesis 6:3)
9. Thus Noah did; according to all that God had commanded him, so he did. (Genesis 6:22)
10. For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed them to pits of darkness,
reserved for judgment; and did not spare the ancient world, but preserved Noah, a preacher of righteousness, with seven
others, when He brought a flood upon the world of the ungodly; (2 Peter 2:4-5)
11. Noah was five hundred years old, and Noah became the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth. (Genesis 5:32)
Now Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. (Genesis 7:6)
12. "This is how you shall make it: the length of the ark three hundred cubits, its breadth fifty cubits, and its height thirty
cubits." (Genesis 6:15) Cubit is ~18 in.
13. "Make for yourself an ark of gopher wood; you shall make the ark with rooms, and shall cover it inside and out with pitch.
(Genesis 6:14)
14. "You shall make a window for the ark, and finish it to a cubit from the top; and set the door of the ark in the side of it;
you shall make it with lower, second, and third decks. (Genesis 6:16)
15. "And of every living thing of all flesh, you shall bring two of every kind into the ark, to keep them alive with you; they
shall be male and female. (Genesis 6:19)
"As for you, take for yourself some of all food which is edible, and gather it to yourself; and it shall be for food for you
and for them." (Genesis 6:21)
16. Then the flood came upon the earth for forty days, and the water increased and lifted up the ark, so that it rose above
the earth. (Genesis 7:17)
17. Those that entered, male and female of all flesh, entered as God had commanded him; and the LORD closed it behind
him. (Genesis 7:16)
18. Thus He blotted out every living thing that was upon the face of the land, from man to animals to creeping things and to
birds of the sky, and they were blotted out from the earth; and only Noah was left, together with those that were with
him in the ark. (Genesis 7:2)
19. The rain fell upon the earth for forty days and forty nights. (Genesis 7:12)
20. In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the same day all
the fountains of the great deep burst open, and the floodgates of the sky were opened. (Genesis 7:11)
In the second month, on the twenty-seventh day of the month, the earth was dry. (Genesis 8:14) (12 30-day months
plus 10 days)
21. In the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark rested upon the mountains of Ararat. (Genesis 8:4)
22. and he sent out a raven, and it flew here and there until the water was dried up from the earth. Then he sent out a dove
from him, to see if the water was abated from the face of the land; but the dove found no resting place for the sole of her
foot, so she returned to him into the ark, for the water was on the surface of all the earth. Then he put out his hand and
took her, and brought her into the ark to himself. So he waited yet another seven days; and again he sent out the dove
from the ark. The dove came to him toward evening, and behold, in her beak was a freshly picked olive leaf. So Noah
knew that the water was abated from the earth. Then he waited yet another seven days, and sent out the dove; but she
did not return to him again. (Genesis 8:7-12)
23. Then Noah built an altar to the LORD, and took of every clean animal and of every clean bird and offered burnt offerings
on the altar. (Genesis 8:20)
24. Then God spoke to Noah and to his sons with him, saying, "Now behold, I Myself do establish My covenant with you, and
with your descendants after you; and with every living creature that is with you, the birds, the cattle, and every beast of
the earth with you; of all that comes out of the ark, even every beast of the earth. I establish My covenant with you; and
all flesh shall never again be cut off by the water of the flood, neither shall there again be a flood to destroy the earth."
(Genesis 9:8-11)
25. And God blessed Noah and his sons and said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth." (Genesis 9:1)

CHRIST ON SCRIPTURE
by Richard L. Routh, Ph.D.

(Also see Other Writings of Richard L. Routh)

This is a treatise on the inerrancy of the Bible.

It examines how Jesus would have answered the question:
"Is the Bible really God's word?"
It does this by critically examining what the New Testament
writers record that Jesus said about the Scriptures.

Copyright 1994, 1996 Richard L. Routh

All rights reserved but the author gives permission to
print and distribute the entire text of this treatise
provided it is distributed in its entirety.

This treatise is dedicated to my wife's mother,

Dr. Caroline Jane Williams Nichols
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Chapter 1:
The Context of His Person

Chapter 2:
Christ Thinks Scripture is Historically Defining

Chapter 3:
Christ Thinks Scripture is Eternal

Chapter 4:
Christ Thinks Scripture is True History

Chapter 5:
Scripture: The Highest Source of Intellectual
Proof

Chapter 6:
Right Thinking

Chapter 7:
Christ Uses Scripture as a Powerful Spiritual
Weapon

Introduction
"You have exalted above all things your name and your word." (Psalm 138:2)
Have you ever watched something beautiful die by being slowly tortured to death? That is
the feeling I have had for the last ten years as I have heard, upon occasional visits, the
Sunday school teaching of a respected community leader that has artfully, and with
apparent credibility, systematically undermined the belief in the authority of Scripture for
some of my friends and loved ones. The primary means has been to teach the documentary
hypothesis as if it were fact. (I will describe the documentary hypothesis a little later on.)
The particular setting of this teaching has made it difficult to respond with a counter view
without being discredited through polite mockery. I have struggled for ten years with how
to appropriately respond to this teaching. I am well schooled in the apologetics of the
authority of Scripture, but in the face of the teaching style and the well cultivated general
attitude of prideful pseudo-intellectualism that exists in that particular Sunday school
class, the arguments of other intellectual men would more likely build conviction for the
errant views than cause repentance. I may be wrong, but I have come to the opinion that
only God could soften their hearts and open their ears. This perspective has caused me to
search Scripture and discover that Christ has said some startling things about the
authority, authenticity, and proper use of Scripture. Some of these are things I have never
heard taught in evangelical circles, but they ought to be. I suspect that even many
evangelicals would find Christ's views on Scripture too piercingly poignant to easily accept
and live by. As difficult as it may be to understand and accept, it is important to know
these things if we are committed to knowing the truth.

What does God think about the Bible? Does that seem to be an out-of-place question?
There is much debate among modern-day theologians about the authority and authenticity
of Scripture. Inerrancy is another word that is frequently used. Billy Graham made this
statement about the subject in his book Storm Warning:

In numerous churches the Bible is treated as a collection of fairy tales and fables
written by half-educated men of an ancient time. While it offers challenging spiritual
myths and wholesome encouragement, some "modern" churches seem to feel that no
one should go to the Bible expecting to find absolute truth.

Such teaching is an abomination before God. Nothing could be more destructive to

true faith and peace on earth. In the face of such a growing storm, the world
desperately needs moorings, and God has given us that anchor in His Word, the Bible
(pp. 78-79).

As we listen to so many different voices critically dissect these ancient writings, does it not
make sense to consider what Christ Himself had to say on the subject?

Over the centuries, the Church has maintained an exalted view of Scripture, believing it to
be the very word of God. However, when men's hearts are examined, and trapped, by the
bright convicting searchlight of Scripture, some invent ways to discredit its authority. Some
of these are quite creative and clever, and given that "the heart is more deceitful than all
else" (Jeremiah 17:9), these degradations of God's word are presented apparently with
utmost sincerity. This treatise is written for the Christian who desires to know the truth but
is confused or disturbed by the persuasive arguments of some modern day theologians.
That many are confused is not surprising. There are multitudes of mind-stretching and
intellectually challenging arguments on the subject. Pondering these will likely cause one to
ask questions about the authority of Scripture.

Some cast doubt on the authority of Scripture by claiming that significant portions of the
Old Testament Scriptures are the combined efforts of many different editors who over the
centuries added their own perspectives and themes to the evolving texts. This theory,
known as the "Documentary Hypothesis" was originated in modern times because, for a
while, some "learned" scholars had concluded that no written form of a language existed at
the time of Moses. As they hypothesized how the Mosaic writings might then have come
into being, they conjectured, based on no currently standing historical or archaeological
evidence, that multiple editors constructed these writings from the folklore and partial
manuscripts handed down in later generations. These hypothesized and anonymous editors
go by the names of J (for the Jehovah perspective), E (for the Elohim perspective), etc.
Since the initial fabrication of this hypothesis, its premise has been proved false by the
discovery of the "black stele" on which the detailed laws of Hammurabi were written at
least three centuries prior to the time of Moses. However, instead of recanting this
"Documentary Hypothesis," those minds that imagined it were unwilling to do so; so it
continues to be taught today. Only now the case for the existence and contribution of these
multiple editors is based primarily on the diversity of style and theme in Scripture. My
personal response to those who advocate this theory of multiple editors is that, aside from
ignoring history as well as the strict ritual religiously used by the ancient Jews to copy and
preserve Scripture in its original form, they have apparently failed to recognize that the
diversity in creation itself points to a God who delights in diversity. His own being is
presented to us in three persons. If God is diverse in His own being, and if the diversity of
the Creator is obviously reflected in his creation prolific with diversity, then why should
one not expect to find diversity in a set of writings that themselves claim to be the thoughts
and words of this single God of diversity? But my response to the proponents of this or
other discrediting theories is only one man's opinion. For those who seek to know the truth,
it can be quite confusing and debilitating to hear men debating among themselves about
these theories. Would it not be far more valuable to hear the words of Jesus Christ on this
subject?

But how can we be reasonably sure that we have the sayings of Jesus Christ accurately
recorded and available to us? Those who advocate the "Documentary Hypothesis" of
multiple editors modifying Scripture down through the ages (the earliest portions of the
Old Testament were probably written in the 15th century B.C.) tend to restrict this
hypothesis to the Old Testament writings. The reason for this is the overwhelming evidence
that the Greek manuscripts we have available to us today are so close to the original New
Testament writings, that no significant grounds for debate as to its authenticity as a
primary document remain. (It was written by eyewitnesses or their secretaries, completed
probably prior to 80 A.D., and the great multitude of existing New Testament manuscripts
allow us to reconstruct the original Greek documents. Additionally, there are many first
and second century secular writers who attest to the existence, authorships, and
authenticity of account of the New Testament writings.) Furthermore, the "Documentary
Hypothesis" claim is required by literary history to restrict itself to the fact that all
significant modifications to Old Testament Scriptures must have been made prior to the
first century since it can be demonstrated by extant documents of that time that the present
day versions of the Massoretic Old Testament texts are accurate copies of the first century
version of Old Testament Scripture (with the exception that vowels have since been
inserted to assist with pronunciation, not significantly changing any words or
meaning).(Endnote #1)

Because the Old Testament Scriptures at the time of Christ are nearly identical to the
present day version and because there is no significant scholarly debate as to the
authenticity of the modern Greek version of the Gospels as accurate copies of the primary
documents (with the exception that Matthew may have been originally written in Aramaic
and translated into Greek very soon after its writing), then it makes a great deal of sense to
examine what Jesus Christ had to say about how we ought to view Old Testament
Scripture as recorded in these Gospel writings. Since the average reader of this treatise will
not speak Greek, Scripture quotes used herein come from the New American Standard
Version, except in a few cases when the Greek itself was deemed necessary which is quoted
from The Greek New Testament edited by Kurt Aland, et al.

There is a second motivation for writing this treatise. For some who seek the truth, there is
an unsatisfying shallowness to simply parroting the traditional claim that Scripture is
inerrant without understanding the justification for that claim. Scripture itself instructs
Christians to be "ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an account for
the hope that is in you" (I Peter 3:15). In preparing an answer, I think one will receive a
deeper blessing that comes from better appreciating the richness and depth and the fuller
implications of the authority of Scripture. I think that many Christians would benefit from
being encouraged to deepen their view of the authority of Scripture and, in doing so, would
be encouraged by a deeper understanding of God and His purpose for us. This would also
help them properly respond to those who would challenge their faith. It is for this purpose
of building up and equipping the Saints to be prepared to give a reason for the hope that is
in us that this treatise is written.

There are a plethora of good intellectual arguments to support the authority of Scripture.
Although not the subject of this treatise, it is useful to mention just a few of them. The
authority of Scripture can be addressed from many vantage points. For one, archaeology
provides an impressive and growing set of evidences for the consistent accuracy of
Scripture. Impressive arguments can be made for the authority of Scripture because of the
miraculous logical consistency of theme and lack of contradiction despite the fact that
Scripture has had many authors in many centuries, each with diverse backgrounds.
Certainly the record of the Biblical prophesies and their fulfillment is at least astonishing
and presents a compelling argument that their authorship is credited to someone with the
power to see and know the future unlike man. Having been educated to the doctorate level
in modern sciences, I think it is impressive that after much study of the Scriptures, I am
unaware of any single scientific inaccuracy in these ancient writings. All of these vantage
points when considered together form an impressive and overwhelmingly convincing
argument for the authority and authenticity of Scripture as the Word of God. But I have
come to believe that all these collectively do not form the strongest argument for the
authority of Scripture. Nor do they form the most complete case to rebuff those who say
that not all Scripture is the Word of God, but only that it "contains" (in some parts,
presumably to be determined by the reader because he is smarter than Scripture and
qualified as its judge) the Word of God.

The strongest and clearest argument for the authority and authenticity of Scripture can be
made by examining the convictions that Christ himself held of Scripture. This treatise
intends to examine what Christ, God in the flesh, said concerning the authority of
Scripture. His words are powerful and provide an impressive and very strong, perhaps the
strongest, argument for the inerrancy, but beyond that, the historically defining authority
of Scripture.

In the Gospel writings, Jesus Christ was succinct and startlingly pointed about the
authority of Scripture. I hope and pray that my discussions herein of His words on the
subject will help you better understand some of the riches of what God himself, in human
form, has said, and what I believe God would have us understand, about the authority of
Scripture. It has been for me a very settling discovery. I hope you will find it the same.

Chapter 1: The Context of His Person

The sayings of Jesus Christ cannot be fully appreciated without understanding Jesus's
identity. This Man who spoke these things recorded in New Testament writings spoke from
a position of authority that is far above any other. Three attributes of Jesus Christ are
particularly pertinent to a discussion about the meaning and significance of His comments
on Scripture: (1) Jesus was and is the Almighty God; (2) Jesus has always existed and was
the means by which all things in heaven and earth were created; and (3) Jesus, in
particular, is the Word (Logos) of God--in a very real sense, Scripture in the flesh. When
one understands who Jesus was and is, His comments about Scripture become strikingly
penetrating.

Certainly Jesus Christ, as He is portrayed in New Testament writings, was fully human--a
man in every sense of the word. I would not say just as human as any one of us, but I see a
man who is more human than any of the rest of us. He was born a helpless child needing
care from his imperfect human mother; He wept; He grew tired; He was deeply moved
with emotion; He was quintessentially compassionate to those who suffered; He suffered
greatly; He bled; He got hungry; He submitted to His earthly parents even when their
understanding of the situation was more limited than His; He was concerned for the
underdog; and at times He was surprised, even astonished. Even though He was fully
human as He walked on earth, Jesus was fully God. In fact, Colossians 1:19 records for us
that all the fullness (of Deity) dwelt in Him. In John 1:1, taken together with John 1:14, we
see this again: "In the beginning was the Word [Logos], and the Word was with God, and
the Word was God. ... And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld His
glory, glory as of the only begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth." With these
words, John tells us that Jesus was God and the creator (agent of creation) in that "All
things came into being by Him, and apart from Him nothing came into being that has come
into being" (John 1:3). Again Colossians repeats this theme saying, "For by Him [Jesus,
God's Son] all things were created, both in the heavens and on earth, visible and invisible,
whether thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities--all things have been created by Him
and for Him" (Col 1:16). Jesus is God the Creator.

These three interwoven attributes (that Jesus is God, that Jesus is the Word (Logos) of
God, and that Jesus is the creator) all tie together in Genesis chapter one where we read
that "God said, 'Let there be ...'" and creation was spoken (through the Logos) into
existence, made from nothing. We see this same power at work through Jesus in the New
Testament. He spoke and a dead man's decayed body came back to Life (John 11:44). With
our current understanding of human physiology, we now know something of the
complexity of what was going on here that those bystanders of Jesus's day probably did not
appreciate. Within minutes of death, most of the cells of the body explode because the
sodium pump, the cellular mechanism that keeps the cell's wall intact, ceases to function.
When this happens, the cell's contents begin to dissipate throughout the fluid around them.
In short, the structure of the body at the cellular level is destroyed. A trillion complex
micro universes (the cells of the body) begin to disintegrate rapidly. Only a force equal to
that which could speak a universe, with all of its unfathomable complexities, into existence
would be able instantly and simultaneously to recreate and repair the billions of destroyed
cells within Lazarus's body and bring him back to life.

As remarkable a miracle as it is that Jesus would command the simultaneous recreation

and reconstruction of billions of small complex universes known as Lazarus's body cells to
bring Lazarus back to life, consider the miracle when Jesus gives sight to a man born blind
(John 9). In order to accomplish this feat, not only did Jesus demonstrate creation from
nothing, but He also demonstrated that He was the master of time. Sight is dependent not
only on the mechanical operation of the eyes and the brain, but also on the perception
mechanisms that are developed over time in the cerebral cortex of the brain. When a child
is born, although his eyes and brain work mechanically, he cannot really see so as to
actually perceive, but instead the images being played on his striate (visual) cortex must be
associated, in many complex ways, with other stimuli over time so as to "train" the cortical
perception mechanisms to actually "see" (perceive) any meaning in those images. This
training involves the chronologically sequential establishment of many hierarchies of
perception. This sequential establishment requires at least many months, if not years, of
associative cortical development in a developing child. Thus for a man who was born blind
to be able suddenly to see as an adult, not only must the mechanics of sight be created from
nothing, but the cortical structure must be created in such a way so as to simulate a long
period of experience in the use and development of that sight. Otherwise, the man born
blind would not have any cognitive perception of the visual images moving on his retina.
This miracle may be the greatest of all the miracles because it requires the creation of a
long time of experience to be developed and placed instantaneously in the cortical structure
of the man's brain. This displays a power of mastery even over time--a power reserved only
for the eternal God and Creator.

The recognition of the importance of Jesus's ability to perform these miracles is that God,
even in view of His enormous and displayed power over creation and time, considers
himself unalterably bound by the words contained in Scripture. (This statement will be
justified later.) This realization will bring us to an appreciation of Scripture that is
considerably higher than that held by the average evangelical today. In this we will see that
Scripture is a great deal more than simply inerrant; it is alive and powerful so as to be the
ultimate authority, even to the point of binding the actions of the one who has control over
creation and time. In later chapters we will see that Jesus held this view.

Some people find it surprising that Jesus is exalted by God the Father to the highest status.
Often we see Jesus praying to the Father and making statements such as "the Son [Jesus]
can do nothing of Himself, unless it is something He sees the Father doing" (John 5:19).
But let us not overlook the fact that the Father also makes such statements about the Son.
In Hebrews we read: "But of the Son He [the Father] says, 'Thy throne, O God, is forever
and ever" (Hebrews 1:8). Here we see that the Father refers to the Son as His (the Father's)
God.

In Philippians (2:11) we read that "every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord
(kurios) to the glory of God the Father." The Greek word "kurios" is defined (Endnote #2)
as "he to whom a person or thing belongs, about which he has the power of deciding;
master, lord." The "kurios" in Philippians is Jesus Christ whose domain is explicitly stated
as extending over "those who are in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth," in other
words, the whole universe. The Father acknowledges that the rightful Lord (Kurios) of the
universe is Jesus Christ the Son because again here the Father says, "Thou [the Son], Lord,
in the beginning didst lay the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the works of Thy
hands" (Hebrews 1:10). Here the Father acknowledges that the Son is the Creator of the
earth and the heavens.

This theme of the deity of Jesus the Christ is not new to the New Testament writings. The
Old Testament writings declare this in many places in many ways. One such occurrence is
in the ninth chapter of Isaiah. Many messianic prophesies occur in Isaiah. In the following
verses, Isaiah makes some astounding claims about a human child yet to be born:

For a child will be born to us, a son will be given to us; And the government will rest
on His shoulders; And His name will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God,
Eternal Father, Prince of Peace.(Isaiah 9:6)

The Old Testament practices regarding names were different than ours today. In our
society, if you want to call someone Sam because you like the sound of the name, you do it--
even if you don't know the meaning of the name or intend that the meaning is in some way
significant about the child. This was not the practice of Old Testament times. We see a
consistent practice throughout the Old Testament writings from the beginning to the end of
them (about a thousand year span) in which names were given because of their meaning. It
was clearly understood by Isaiah's readers prior to the time of Christ that this child to be
born would be named "Eternal Father" and "Mighty God" because those were rightful
titles for that child to bear. They no doubt struggled with how this could be true, but
nonetheless, they were clear about Isaiah's intent in the communication. Isaiah's
communication was clear: The Messiah would be the Mighty God, He would be the Eternal
Father, He would be a human child.
While Jesus walked on this earth, he understood quite clearly who He was and told the
Jewish religious leaders so plainly that He was the God of the Old Testament (John 8:58),
that they had no trouble understanding His claim. The way He did this was
characteristically brilliant and unambiguous. For us to understand the full impact and
clarity of what he was saying to them and to hear it the way the Jews heard it, we have to
review a few things first. Remember in the third chapter of Exodus, God speaks to Moses
from the burning bush. He calls Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt. When Moses asks
God what His name is, God, from the burning bush, answers by saying, "'I AM WHO I
AM'; and He said, 'Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, "I AM has sent me to you."'
And God, furthermore, said to Moses, 'Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, "The Lord,
the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob, has sent
me to you." This is My name forever, and this is my memorial-name to all generations'"
(Exodus 3:14,15). This statement was the genesis of the Hebrew tetragrammaton "YHWH"
(the consonant portion of "I AM THAT I AM"). This name for God was revered by the
Jews as so sacred a name that they would not speak it casually for fear of violating the
third of the ten commandments to not take the name of the Lord in vain.

In the eighth chapter of John, Jesus makes the statement that "Abraham rejoiced to see
My day, and he saw it and was glad." The Jews therefore said to Jesus, "You are not yet
fifty years old, and have you seen Abraham?" Then Jesus says the most explosive words:
"Truly, truly, I say to you, before Abraham was born, I am" (John 8:56,58). The grammar
here does not work in Greek just as it does not work in English. But Jesus did not make a
grammatical error. It is clear by the grammar, the specific choice of words, and the context
that He was claiming this most sacred name of God as His own name. He clearly said to the
Jews, in a way they would be sure to understand, the modern rough equivalent to "You
know who that was who spoke to Moses in the burning bush and told him that He was the
Lord, the God of Abraham? That was Me! I am the God of the Old Testament!" The Jews
did understand this meaning and immediately picked up stones and tried to stone Him to
death, the penalty for blasphemy.

As we delve into the study of Jesus's view of Scripture, let us keep in mind that this was not
an occasionally fallible man expressing his best, but limited, understanding of Scripture (as
would at best be the case with any of the rest of us), but these words are from Jesus, the
living Word (Logos) of God who unerringly speaks truth with the deepest profundity and
highest authority. This mouth that spoke the universe and time into existence is the same
voice that has spoken some amazing things about Scripture; let us remember the source as
we read them.

Chapter 2: Christ Thinks Scripture is Historically Defining

 "...and not one of them perished but the son of perdition, that the Scripture might be
fulfilled" (John 17:12b).

"... to whom the word of God came (and the Scripture cannot be broken) ..."(John
10:35).

Judas Iscariot was a favored companion of Jesus's. He was given special honor. For
example, Judas was given charge over the money bag (he was the treasurer of the twelve
disciples). Judas was given the place of honor at the last supper. He was served bread by
Jesus at the last supper, a gesture customarily extended to the guest of honor. In Psalm
41:9, we read the following words, identified by Jesus in John 13:18 as being spoken
prophetically by the Holy Spirit, of the anguish Jesus would experience at the betrayal of
his close friend Judas:

Even my close friend, in whom I trusted,

Who ate my bread,
Has lifted up his heel against me.

Judas was beloved of the Lord. Judas was favored and trusted by Jesus.

In John 13:18, Jesus identifies this passage from Psalm 41:9 as referring to Judas's
betrayal of Jesus. Jesus tells his disciples that the reason Judas betrayed Him was so "that
the Scripture may be fulfilled." Later when Jesus was in prayer, He spoke these words to
the Father: "While I was with them, I was keeping them in Thy name which Thou hast
given Me; and I guarded them, and not one of them perished but the son of perdition, that
the Scripture might be fulfilled" (John 17:12). The question asks and answers itself from
these verses: "Why was Judas not kept by Jesus in the name of God as the other disciples
were?" The answer is given in the passage here: so "that Scripture might be fulfilled."
Scripture, Psalm 109, prophesied that Judas would betray Jesus and be lost (see Acts 1:15 -
22).

In spite of the fact that Judas was loved and honored among men by Jesus, Jesus
considered that He, God in the flesh, was bound by what was written hundreds of years
before in a potentially obscure Psalm in Scripture. Some mistakenly dismiss the Psalms as
only the folk songs of the ancient Jews; it is obvious that Jesus considered the authority of
the Psalms so binding that they dictated His very actions. Could Jesus have also saved his
good friend Judas? The question is moot. Jesus would not, could not, for only one reason--
the reason cited by Him--that Scripture must be fulfilled.

We see this fulfillment of Scripture as a recurrent theme. For example, although not a
quotation by Jesus, John says that the reason Jesus spoke the words "I am thirsty" while
dying on the cross was "in order that the Scripture might be fulfilled" (John 19:28).

The question that glares out at us in these passages is: "Why would God feel so constrained
by anything that it would dictate His actions?" Does that not seem the most absurd, out of
place convolution? It makes no logical sense that God should be constrained by anything
other than His own will. Logically, the requirement that Scripture be fulfilled must be the
explanation for this phenomenon. Scripture is a statement of God's will and, since God is
not fickle, it therefore states that which God has already determined. This elevates
Scripture to a point that not only can one say it is always true, but that it also records the
unalterable decisions of God. At least this appears to be the way Jesus saw it. This
decidedly leaves no room for those theologians who claim that these passages are not God's
word, but attempt to dilute them with explanations such as that they are only man's
attempts to express the best he understands about God, or other such rationalizations.
These alternate explanations disagree with Jesus's view ... and ought He not know? These
alternate explanations seem to portray Jesus as somewhat misinformed or limited in His
thinking. Does that not highlight the unreasonableness of these alternate explanations?

The binding authority of Scripture is also conveyed in John 10. In the middle of a
discussion about the exalted status of men as gods in God's sight, Jesus speaks some
remarkable words: "the Scripture cannot be broken." The text of the conversation is
recorded for us and translated into English in the following words:

Jesus answered them, "Has it not been written in your Law, 'I said, you are gods'? If
He called them gods, to whom the word of God came (and the Scripture cannot be
broken), do you say of Him, whom the Father sanctified and sent into the world, 'You
are blaspheming,' because I said, 'I am the Son of God'? (John 10:34-36)

There are some magnificent assertions in this passage. Explicitly, Jesus refers to the quoted
passage in Psalm 82 as "the word of God." Psalm 82 was not called "the word of God" by
some uneducated back-woods preacher who presumably has not been "enlightened" by the
higher thinking of modern analysis and thought, but this statement was made by the One
who is unerring in what He says because He is Himself the Word (Logos) of God and
speaks with the highest authority and most precise accuracy in heaven and on earth. Jesus
thinks that Scripture is the word of God, not just the writings of well-intentioned men!

There is more to be gleaned from John 10:35. Do we think that Jesus would mislead us? If
Scripture is not the infallible, authentic, unadulterated word of God, why doesn't Jesus
take this opportunity, or any other opportunity (none is taken anywhere in the New
Testament writings), to enlighten our thinking to understand these finer points? Wouldn't
it be a hideous crime to allow men to continue to assume that every word of Scripture can
be trusted as the authentic word of God if it were not so? The mere fact that Jesus refers to
Scripture as the "word of God" without qualification, would lead any clear thinking
person to conclude that no qualification is necessary. Can we not reasonably conclude from
this discourse of Jesus in John 10:34-36 that all of Scripture IS the "word of God"? Do we
not think that Jesus would have taken the opportunity to correct our thinking about
interpreting Scripture so strictly if some correction were necessary? Instead, Jesus
powerfully reinforced this strict, high interpretation of Scripture: He said, "the Scripture
cannot be broken."

Jesus could have used less definite language if He had meant something less definite. Why
did He not use the words "should not be broken" or even "must not be broken" or
something else a little less definite? To use the words in Greek "ou dunatai", meaning
literally "not able to be" or "cannot be", lucidly communicates and reinforces the fact that
the accuracy and authority of the Scriptures was accepted by Jesus as perfect and directly
from God without qualification. The realization that Jesus held such a high view of the
precision and accuracy of the Scripture should give correction and comfort to those who
have been mislead by rationalizations that would argue otherwise.

Chapter 3: Christ Thinks Scripture is Eternal

"But it is easier for heaven and earth to pass away than for one stroke of a letter of the
Law to fail." (Luke 16:17)

"O foolish men and slow of heart to believe in all that the prophets have spoken. Was it
not necessary for the Christ to suffer these things and enter into His glory?" And
beginning with Moses and with all the prophets, He explained the things concerning
Himself in all the Scriptures. (Luke 24:25-27)
To what extent does this very exalted view of Scripture apply? Is it possible to say that only
selected portions of Scripture are the true Word of God? Is all of Scripture the original
unaltered communication from God? In the previous chapter we examined Jesus's words
"the Scripture cannot be broken" (John 10:35). We saw how, by implication, Jesus refers
to all of Scripture. This would be enough to convince us that Jesus's view of Scripture as
the unalterable Word of God was inclusive of all of Scripture, but He has said other more
explicit things that add weight to this implication.

Furthermore, it was the practice of the Jewish religion of the day to exalt all of Scripture as
given by God. There were, by tradition, elaborate and extremely strict rules as to how
Scripture was to be copied (this was prior to the printing press) that ensured the precise
copy of each letter in the original. Among other strict detailed practices of those who copied
the Scriptures, each letter was counted in the original and in the copy to ensure not even a
single letter was omitted or inserted. This attention to each letter was indicative of the view
that each letter had sacred value. If this were an inaccurate view of Scripture, Jesus had
many opportunities, and one might argue even the obligation, to correct this thinking. He
did not. Instead, Jesus reinforced the fact that even every letter is sacred with these words
recorded in Matthew:

For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not the smallest letter or
stroke shall pass away from the Law until all is accomplished. (Matthew 5:18)

On another occasion, Jesus said, "But it is easier for heaven and earth to pass away than
for one stroke of a letter of the Law to fail" (Luke 16:17).

Let us keep in mind that Jesus considered it His mission to show men "the truth, the way,
and the life" that would lead them to the Father (John 14:6). In fact, Jesus apparently
considered this mission inseparable from His very identity (John 12:46). It would be
ludicrous to think that Jesus would not have gone out of His way to correct the thought
that all Scripture is from the mouth of God if it were not true (He did not hesitate to
correct many other errors in the Sermon on the Mount). Otherwise He would be violating
His own stated reason for being by allowing the Jews to continue to search all of Scripture
as though it were from God and pointed the way to Him. The Jews of the first century were
not wrong in thinking that all Scripture was from God or Jesus would have corrected this
thinking; instead He reinforced it.

Immediately prior to Jesus's saying in Matthew 5:18, was another statement of scope.
Before we look at this quotation, in order to properly understand what Jesus was saying,
we need first to look at the organization of the Scriptures during the time Jesus spoke
them. The Hebrew Canon contained the same books as the modern Protestant Old
Testament but the books were organized differently. They were divided into three named
sections: (1) The Law, (2) The Prophets, and (3) The Writings. The divisions were as
follows:

The Law: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

The Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel (I & II as one book), Kings (I & II as one
book), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, The Twelve (Hosea through Malachi as one book).

The Writings: Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther,
Ecclesiastes, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah (as one book), and Chronicles (I & II as one
book).

In Matthew 5:17, Jesus makes a statement about the criticality and centrality of the Law
and the Prophets. He says, "Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I
did not come to abolish, but to fulfill." Again this is significant that Jesus gives the reason
for His mission as being the fulfillment of Scripture. In Jesus view, at least the Law (a first
century figure of speech referring to the Mosaic writings: Genesis through Deuteronomy)
and the Prophets (Joshua through Malachi as listed above) were so authoritative as to be
sufficient justification to require God to humble Himself to take on human form and be
sacrificed on the cross for our sins to accomplish our salvation (Endnote #3). Here again we
see that the Scripture is so authoritative that it binds God Himself.

In Luke 11:51 (also recorded in Matthew 23:35), Jesus indicates that the scope of legitimate
Scripture extends beyond the Law and the Prophets. As we have seen above, the Hebrew
Canon began with the book of Genesis and ended with the book of Chronicles. In Luke 11,
Jesus is accusing the Pharisees and other experts of the Law of approving of the
martyrdom of the prophets. He says:
"I will send them prophets and apostles, and some of them they will kill and some they
will persecute, in order that the blood of all the prophets, shed since the foundation of
 the world, may be charged against this generation, from the blood of Abel to the blood
of Zechariah, who perished between the altar and the house of God" (Luke 11:49-51).
Not only do we have here a statement from Jesus verifying the authenticity and historical
accuracy of early chapters of Genesis, but we also have a statement that seems to indicate
that Jesus recognized the authenticity of the entire Hebrew Canon. Abel was the first
recorded martyr in the first book of the Hebrew Canon (Genesis chapter four) and
Zechariah was the last recorded martyr in the last book of the Hebrew Canon (II
Chronicles 24). Is this not the equivalent of a sweeping validation from Jesus of the
authenticity of the Hebrew Canon from the first to the last?

In The Revelation to John, chapter 22:7, Jesus says, "Blessed is he who heeds the words of
the prophecy of this book." The "this book" referred to in this statement is The Revelation
to John. By this pronouncement, Jesus plainly indicates that the Scriptures extend beyond
the writings of the Old Testament. The quotations of Jesus, who is the Word (Logos) of
God, are obviously the word of God since Jesus is God. A strong case can be made to show
that the Gospel writings are of the same authenticity as the Scriptures of the Old
Testament. Among other arguments that can be made for this are the words of Jesus
Himself when He says:
"These things I have spoken to you, while abiding with you. But the Helper, the Holy
Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, He will teach you all things, and bring
to your remembrance all that I said to you." (John 14:25,26)
Here Jesus is saying that the Disciples will have supernatural recall of the words Jesus
spoke, thus enabling them to write the Gospels with the inerrant precision required to
qualify as Holy Scripture. (Endnote #4)

Chapter 4: Christ Thinks Scripture is True History

"What therefore God has joined together, let no man separate." (Mark 10:9)

A common criticism of the Scriptures is that, as I have heard one religious leader say,
"Anyone with half a brain can see that the Bible obviously contains fables, myths, and
fictional folk stories." If it were true that portions of Scripture were not historical fact
when the context clearly suggests that they are, but rather are only add-ins by folk writers
(like the works of many other ancients such as Homer) or other later-than-the-original-
editors, then we would have a situation in which the case for the inerrant, historically
defining authority of Scripture would be undermined. Some of the accounts most
commonly labeled as fables are (1) the Genesis account of creation, (2) Noah's ark and
flood, (3) Jonah being swallowed by the big fish, and (4) the authorship of the book of
Daniel by Daniel during the Babylonian and early Medio/Persian empires. Although
convincing extra-biblical evidence supports the authenticity of each of these (Endnote #5),
this treatise is concerned with what Jesus has to say about such things.

More than any other person, Jesus Christ was and is a realist. The Man who said, "I am
the ... truth" (John 14:6), has nothing to be gained by dealing in fables and a great deal to
lose by presenting fables as fact. We have several examples of Jesus correcting erroneous
religious teaching when he found it. But what did He have to say about the authenticity of
the Genesis account of creation, or the Noachian flood, or Jonah's big fish, or Daniel's
writing of the book of Daniel?

Jesus underscores the authenticity of the Genesis account when He refers to the
"beginning" of creation and that it was at that time that a man and a woman were created
and joined together by God in marriage. During this discussion, He even quotes from the
first and second chapters of Genesis, thereby acknowledging its authenticity. In Jesus's
words:
But from the beginning of creation, God made them male and female. For this cause a
man shall leave his father and mother, and the two shall become one flesh;
consequently they are no longer two, but one flesh. What therefore God has joined
together, let no man separate. (Mark 10:6-9)
Here two observations can be made. First, by quoting from the creation account in Genesis,
Jesus is acknowledging its authority and truth. Second, by using the words "What God has
joined together..." He recognizes God to be the author of these Genesis writings. (Endnote
#6)

Of the authenticity of Noah's flood, Jesus speaks of it as factual history. In Matthew 24

(also Luke 17:26-27), Jesus links the certainty of his second coming to the certainty of
Noah's flood. In His words:
For the coming of the Son of Man will be just like the days of Noah. For as in those
days which were before the flood they were eating and drinking, they were marrying
and giving in marriage, until the day that Noah entered the Ark, and they did not
understand until the flood came and took them all away; so shall the coming of the
Son of Man be. (Matthew 24:37-39)
If Jesus were not completely convinced of the historical accuracy of Noah's flood, He would
hardly have used it as the proof text for the certainty of His second coming!

Of the swallowing of Jonah by a big fish (or whale or sea monster) (Endnote #7), Jesus
says, "For just as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the sea monster, so
shall the Son of Man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth" (Matthew
12:40). Again, Jesus is trying to convey the reality of a coming event (His death and
resurrection) by appealing to the reality of a past event (Jonah being swallowed by the sea
monster). The credibility of His prophecy about His resurrection would be destroyed if the
account of Jonah were not true.

Some might argue that Jesus was relying on a literary mechanism such as a metaphor and
therefore, it is not logically necessary for the Jonah event to be historical fact, only that the
concept existed. This argument would ignore the fact that this was the Man of Truth
speaking; that Jesus was by demonstrated pattern predisposed to exposing religious myth;
and that Jesus had demonstrated at other times the validity of literal interpretation of the
prophets' words. For Jesus to have changed His modus operandi and begun appealing to
prophecy simply as metaphorical myth would contradict His past practices and undermine
His own teaching. If Jesus thought this story of Jonah were not true, why would He not
have taken this opportunity to correct the wrong thinking of His day instead of reinforcing
its factual occurrence by linking it to a certain coming factual event? Aside from all this,
the context of this saying in Matthew 12:40, the logic being used, the people he was talking
to and their beliefs, and the flow of the focus of theme, all require the conclusion that Jesus
was convinced of the historical fact of Jonah being swallowed and then regurgitated three
days later by the sea monster. It does not seem to me to be honest or good scholarship to
attempt to construe any other interpretation.

Some skeptical modern critics have said that the book of Daniel was written nearly 400
years after Daniel's death. This is because even a cursory reading of the prophecies of
Daniel and of the secular history that took place during the four and a half centuries
following the reign of Nebuchadnezzar reveal an extraordinarily detailed and startlingly
accurate prophecy of those events. The book of Daniel, perhaps more than any other book
in the Old Testament, clearly demonstrates this supernatural characteristic of Scripture.
Either only the supernatural or the later writing of Daniel could account reasonably for
this. If it were the supernatural, then that would unequivocally demonstrate that at least
parts of Scripture are authentically supernaturally authored (i.e. written by God)(Endnote
#8). In the twenty-fourth chapter of Matthew, Jesus says, "Therefore when you see the
abomination of desolation which was spoken of through Daniel the prophet, ..." (Matthew
24:15). The "abomination of desolation" is referred to in three places in the book of Daniel
(verses 9:27, 11:31, and 12:11). In Matthew 24, Jesus clearly attributes the authorship to
the historical person Daniel.

As we review these sayings of Jesus about the four events most referred to by the skeptics
as fables, can we not conclude that Jesus believed in their historical accuracy? It seems
obvious. The implication here is that the entire argument that Scripture contains fables and
myths written by folklore editors is erroneous. Not even the four most "obvious fables"
stand up under the scrutiny of Jesus, but instead are pronounced by Him to be historical
fact.

Chapter 5: Scripture: The Highest Source of Intellectual

Proof

"But regarding the fact that the dead rise again, have you not read in the book of
Moses, in the passage about the burning bush, how God spoke to him, saying, 'I am the
God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob'? He is not the God of
the dead, but the God of the living; you are greatly mistaken." (Mark 12:26-27).

This passage from Mark is amazing. Jesus is a very good scholar; remember He claims to
be the source of all truth. Who among us would dare to prove a major theological principle
on the basis of only one word that was written over a millennium before and copied and
recopied many times by many different people since then? But that is what we see Jesus
doing in this passage. He is stating that adequate justification for the theological principle
of the resurrection of the dead (a hotly debated principle in the first century among Jewish
religious leaders) is a single word: the word "am" as contained in the passage in Exodus
3:6. To picture the explosiveness of these words of Jesus, remember that the major
theological differentiation between the Pharisees and the Sadducees was that the Pharisees
believed in the resurrection of the dead in the life to come and the Sadducees did not (Mark
12:18, Acts 23:6-10). The Jewish religious leaders wrote much about their interpretations
of Scripture. I suspect there were many discourses written by many different Jewish
pontificators over the years that piled up arguments on both sides of this debate. Jesus
dismisses it all in a moment on the basis of a single word written in Exodus fourteen
hundred years before. Does Jesus believe there is more credibility in a single word of
ancient Scripture than all the writings of the finest minds of His modern times? Obviously
He does.

Note the weight and authority Jesus gives to the accuracy of the smallest details of
Scripture, regardless of its age. He says Scripture has been preserved with such meticulous
accuracy that one can, with absolute reliability, put ultimate faith in even a single word.
Without studying the ceremony and methodology for copying Scripture in ancient times,
this would seem ludicrous to us today. But an examination of the extreme care, ceremony,
and precise methodology of the scribes who copied the Scriptures will reveal that it was
copied with such meticulousness that it is quite reasonable to believe that the Hebrew
words were preserved as originally written in their entirety from the 15th century B.C.
until the first century A.D. At any rate, Jesus obviously believed, and taught by His
example here, that it was reasonable to rely on the first century copies of Scripture as exact
replicas of the original writings.

Chapter 6: Right Thinking

"Jesus said to them, 'Is this not the reason you are mistaken, that you do not
understand the Scriptures, or the power of God?'" (Mark 12:24)

Right thinking--that ability to clearly see necessary insights and reach correct conclusions.
Jesus seems to say that understanding Scripture produces right thinking in a person. In the
previous chapter of this treatise, we looked at a portion of the passage in the twelfth
chapter of Mark where the Sadducees attempted to trap Jesus in a logical argument about
the resurrection of the dead. They had spent the equivalent of many dissertations and had
done research papers analyzing the issue of resurrection from death and had come to the
conclusion that it did not exist. What can cause someone who is intellectually gifted, as no
doubt many of the Sadducees were, to come to the wrong conclusion of a matter after so
much study, analysis, and peer review? That question is certainly raised when one's entire
prolonged study and understanding of a matter is brushed aside by God in a moment and
replaced by a single word of Scripture. Jesus anticipates this question and directly points
out to them that their mistake is due to the fact that they do not understand the Scriptures
or the power of God. This is a point worth re-emphasizing: Jesus states that the reason they
are mistaken, that the reason all of their studies, analysis, peer review, and conclusions, are
mistaken, is because they do not understand the Scriptures or the power of God. How
much of the Scriptures would they need to understand to be able to come to the correct
conclusion of this matter? In this case, it was only one word. As we have seen, Jesus's
epitaph of this matter is that because they missed that one word, they were "greatly
mistaken" (Mark 12:27).

Right thinking: understanding Scripture and the power of God produces right thinking.

In Matthew 21, Jesus discusses with the Pharisees their hard-heartedness. He points out to
them that their hard-heartedness about to cause them to lose their inheritance in the
kingdom of God. Jesus brings them to an understanding of this reality when He says to
them:
"Did you never read in the Scriptures,
'The stone the builders rejected,
This became the chief cornerstone;
This came about from the Lord,
And it is marvelous in our eyes'?
Therefore I say to you, the kingdom of God will be taken away from you, and be given
to a nation producing the fruit of it."(Matthew 21:42,43)
This is a very grave warning by Jesus. Someone is about to lose the opportunity to live in
the kingdom of God. What is causing this loss of opportunity? Read carefully this twenty-
first chapter of Matthew. Does it not say the cause of this lost opportunity is due to the
rejection of God on God's terms? Does it not say that God will not be found on man's
terms? Does it not recognize that the religious leaders are rejecting God's authority and
thereby voluntarily condemning themselves? Is not Jesus trying to bring them to right
thinking by pointing them back to Scripture? Cannot one conclude that by rejecting
Scripture as the inerrant word of God, one also rejects God's authority and therefore
forfeits the kingdom of God? Be very careful skeptical reader; what if the case presented
here is right thinking? Which camp will you join? The religious leaders' camp or the camp
of the fishermen who followed Jesus because they didn't have the intellectual pride to reject
Scripture's authority and the one who authored it?

Chapter 7: Christ Uses Scripture as a Powerful Spiritual

Weapon

"And the tempter came and said to Him ... But He answered and said, 'It is written ...'
... 'it is written ...' ... Then Jesus said to him, 'Begone, Satan! For it is written ...'"
(Matthew 4:3-11)
Jesus's opinion is that Scripture is not only historically defining as we have seen in chapter
2, eternal as we have seen in chapter 3, true history as we have seen in chapter 4, more
credible than the finest intellectual thought of men as we have seen in chapter 5, produces
right thinking and leads to the kingdom of God as we have seen in chapter 6, but now we
also see in the fourth chapter of Matthew that Jesus believes Scripture is a powerful and
effective weapon of spiritual warfare able to defend us against even the temptations of
Satan himself.

Here in the fourth chapter of Matthew we witness an awesome battle. The creature comes
to tempt his Creator. The clay attempts to subdue the potter. But the creator has emptied
himself, taken on the form of a humble servant, and voluntarily been made in the likeness
of a man. He has made himself vulnerable and His creation, Satan, knows it. God does
nothing for show--He has no reason to impress anyone. All that God does and participates
in is reality; there are no pseudo-real, play-acting events for God. Jesus did not just appear
as a man; He was a man. Hebrews 4:15 makes it clear to us that He was indeed tempted;
the temptation was real; the pull and lure to sin that we are all so familiar with was quite
real and deeply felt. Yet, as Hebrews 4:15 assures us, Jesus was not overcome (He did not
sin, He did not give in) by temptation as we have been. Here is the record of this battle;
Satan is at his most powerful and brilliant and convincing moment and Jesus is at His
weakest; as written in the first eleven verses of Matthew chapter four:
Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil. And
after He had fasted forty days and forty nights, He then became hungry. And the
tempter came and said to Him,
"If You are the Son of God, command that these stones become bread."

But He answered and said, "It is written, 'Man shall not live on bread alone, but on
every word that proceeds out of the mouth of God'" [Deuteronomy 8:3].
Then the devil took Him into the holy city; and he had Him stand on the pinnacle of
the temple, and said to Him,
"If you are the Son of God throw Yourself down; for it is written, 'He will give
His angels charge concerning You'; and 'On their hands they will bear You up,
Lest You strike Your foot against a stone.'" [Psalm 91:11,12]

Jesus said to him, "On the other hand, it is written, 'You shall not put the Lord your
God to the test.'" [Deuteronomy 6:16] Again, the devil took Him to a very high
mountain, and showed Him all the kingdoms of the world, and their glory; and he said
to Him,
"All these things will I give You, if You fall down and worship me."

Then Jesus said to him, "Begone, Satan! For it is written, 'You shall worship the Lord
your God, and serve Him only.'" [Deuteronomy 6:13-15, 10:20,21] Then the devil left
Him; and behold, angels came and began to minister to Him. (Matthew 4:1-13)

It is not the purpose of this treatise to expound on the intricacies of all that was going on
here. This can be studied in many other commentaries. Suffice it to say that these
temptations were very real, were brilliantly constructed, and were very powerful. The
purpose of this discussion is to focus on what Jesus did to defend Himself against powerful
temptation: He quoted Scripture--1400 year old Scripture.

We can only begin to imagine what was at stake in this battle. Certainly, the order of all
creation, the integrity of God, the Holiness of God, the humility of God, and the Godhood
of God were all at stake here. Had Jesus given in to any of the three temptations, at least all
these would have been lost. I am convinced that even a collection of all the finest intellects
of all men of all time arrayed in concert against Satan could not have come up with a more
adequate rational argument than those proposed by Satan in these temptations. Satan is
far more brilliant and powerful than the intellects of men. To adequately defend Himself,
Jesus had to come up with a better defense than logic can produce. Notice Jesus did not
defend Himself by trying to reason with Satan as to why it was ludicrous that He should
give in to the temptations. Jesus had a more powerful and effective defense. He quoted
Scripture. In the midst of all else that was going on here, let us not lose track of the fact
that when ALL hung in the balance, Jesus let the outcome be determined by the veracity of
the 1400 year old writings of Moses.

In light of this foregoing spiritual battle, one must ask: Was Jesus convinced of the
authority, authenticity, and inerrancy of Scripture? Should His answer to this question not
also be our personal answer? Shall we not pattern our thinking and our defenses after His?
If we want to live the truth and not a lie, we have no choice.

Any Comments you have, either affirming or critical, would be appreciated: Please click
here to send me e-mail with your comments & questions to rrouth@ginesys.com .

ENDNOTES:

1. For those who would like to further explore the arguments and historical evidences
concerning the authenticity of both Old Testament and New Testament Scripture, Josh
McDowell has an excellent introduction to this subject including extensive bibliographies
for deeper study in his book, Evidence that Demands a Verdict, (San Bernardino, CA:
Campus Crusade for Christ, 1972), pp. 17-79.

2. See Thayer's Greek-English Lexicon.

3. In John 5:39, Jesus says, "You search the Scriptures, because you think that in them you
have eternal life; and it is these that bear witness of me." And He says in Luke 24:25-27:

" 'O foolish men and slow of heart to believe in all that the prophets have spoken. Was it
not necessary for the Christ to suffer these things [death on the cross] and enter into His
glory?' And beginning with Moses and with all the prophets, He explained the things
concerning Himself in all the Scriptures."
Jesus understood the Scriptures required that He die to pay the price for our sins and this
was necessary for our salvation. He said, "Now My soul has become troubled; and what
shall I say, 'Father, save Me from this hour'? But for this purpose I came to this hour." He
said in Matthew 20:18-19 that He would be crucified and resurrected on the third day. In
John chapter 10, Jesus says that He is the door for men to go through to be saved (John
10:9,10) and that He must lay down His life (die) for them so they can be saved (John
10:15). Speaking of His life, Jesus says in John 10:18, "No one has taken it away from Me,
but I lay it down on my own initiative. I have authority to lay it down, and I have authority
to take it up again. This commandment I received from My Father."

4. At this point, the skeptical reader might be tempted to argue that circular reasoning is
used to justify the statements in this book. Simply stated, one might say that since the
arguments of this book are based on the sayings of Jesus, and since the validity of the
sayings of Jesus are based on the accuracy with which they are recorded in the New
Testament, and since the accuracy is certified by the writings of the New Testament itself,
then the logic used to make the case is circular. This claim of circular reasoning would
ignore both sound logic and extra-biblical writings of the first century. To elaborate: the
writers of the Gospel accounts and other New Testament writings claim to be writing
Scripture by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit (see II Peter 1:20-21, 3:1,2, and 3:15,16,
Titus 1:3, and many others). Making this claim would logically require that one of the
following four is true: (1) these authors are either deluded, or (2) these authors are
purposely propagating a great hoax through collusion, or (3) the New Testament writings
were not written by the Apostles as claimed but were fabrications by ghost writers, or (4)
these authors are telling the truth and they are writing Scripture by the power of the Holy
Spirit. The extra-biblical (secular) writings of the first century, even by some non-Christian
historians, plentifully validate the authorship and basic claims and history presented in the
Gospels, including the genuineness of the Disciples in believing what they wrote as well as
the radical life changes they experienced because of what they believed. These secular
accounts of the first century reasonably eliminate numbers (2) & (3) above as possible
explanations. If the authors were deluded, then it was a common delusion that occurred to
many and brought with it a power that turned the Roman Empire upside down. This rules
out the possibility that the authors were deluded. This logically leaves only one choice: the
New Testament authors were telling the truth and were indeed writing Scripture by the
power of the Holy Spirit. Therefore the potential objection to circular logic is refuted.

5. There are many scientific evidences for the literal validity of the creation account as
described in Genesis chapter one. The best single compendium that I am aware of is found
in the book by Walter T. Brown, Jr., In the Beginning (Phoenix, AZ: Center for Scientific
Creation, 5th ed., 1989). There is an impressive set of evidences to suggest that Noah's Ark
still exists frozen in glacial ice on Mt. Ararat. A good bibliography of books chronicling the
eye-witness reports, photographs, and other corroborating evidences for this are listed in
ibid., pg. 56.

One of the best modern works I know of that effectively substantiates the authenticity of
the book of Daniel is Josh McDowell's book Daniel in the Critics' Den (San Bernardino,
CA: Here's Life Publishers, 1979). A list of 88 bibliographical entries appears at the end of
McDowell's book.

6. It is noteworthy that just a few verses before this passage in verse 3, Jesus asks by way of
introduction to the passages He quotes from Genesis: "What did Moses command you?"
How can He say that these verses from Genesis are God's authority and also that these are
from Moses? How can we reconcile this apparent double accreditation? Jesus explains this
by example in another of His discussions recorded in Mark 12:36 where He says, "David
himself said in the Holy Spirit, ..." and then goes on to quote from Psalm 110. Here Jesus
recognizes the authorship of David, but only as a medium by which God (the Holy Spirit)
writes. So, according to Jesus, the words of Scripture are God's even though the instrument
of the writing is a particular man. As I heard someone say once, God could have used a
brick or a donkey to write Scripture if he had wanted to, but instead, God extended to man
the extreme high privilege of being that instrument.

7. Scripture does not divide animals into the same groups as evolutionists have. For
example, mammals (those animals that have cerebral cortex -- the only defining
characteristic of a mammal), are classified by evolutionists as all in one group. Scripture
does not do this. Bats are classified as birds by Scripture and whales and other large sea
creatures are classified by Scripture as fish. For example, see Deuteronomy 14:11,18 where
Scripture classifies the bat as a bird.

8. For those who are interested in exploring this discussion further, I recommend Josh
McDowell, Daniel in the Critics' Den (San Bernardino, CA: Here's Life Publishers, 1979).

Book Review: Cold-Case Christianity: A Homicide Detective Investigates the Claims of

the Gospels
by Rich Deem

Book Review

Synopsis: Best introductory book on Christian apologetics.

Summary: Cold-Case Christianity is a fresh look at the reliability of the New Testament gospels from the eyes of a cold-case criminal investigator. J.
Warner Wallace, a former atheist and an expert at rules of evidence, examines the evidence for the truth of Christianity using examples of criminal
cases he has investigated and prosecuted.
 Rating:

Rich Deem
INTRODUCTION

Without a doubt, Cold-Case Christianity is the most creative and interesting examination of the case for the validity of the Christian
faith ever published. It has become my favorite Christian apologetics book. If you have been trying to witness to a family member
or friend and have been unable to make inroads, this book is an ideal way to get them interested in the topic. If the unbeliever is
also interested in one or more of the many crime scene investigation programs on television, they will not be able to put this book
down. The author, J. Warner Wallace is a cold case detective and former atheist, who upon examining the evidence for Christianity
became a Christian himself. Since that time Wallace has been involved in Christian apologetics and evangelism and even planted a
church.

Becoming a detective

The first section of Cold-Case Christianity is devoted to looking at evidence the way a criminal investigator would look at it. Those
same rules that apply to criminal investigations also apply to the analysis of evidence regarding any topic, including the claims of
Christianity. The first rule is not to assume you already know the answer (entering an investigation with a preconceived idea about
how it will turn out). Wallace gives one of his many examples of how, when investigating his first murder, the lead detective
assumed he knew the murderer, looking at the evidence with through a biased perspective. Each chapter of section 1 examines a
different topic, including inference, circumstantial evidence, testing witnesses, reading between the lines, separating artifact from
evidence, testing conspiracy theories, evidential chain of custody, determining reasonable doubt, and determining the nature of
truth.

Throughout the book, Wallace refers to his "callout bag," which he took to every investigation upon being called in the middle of the
night. The callout bag for the Christian or seeker are the tools one uses to examine the evidence.

Circumstantial evidence

Nearly all the evidence for God's existence falls into the circumstantial evidence category. Although skeptics tend to dismiss such
evidence as not being convincing, nearly all criminal cases involve many forms of circumstantial evidence. Cumulative
circumstantial evidence provides a very strong case to determine the truth of a matter. In a court of law, a suspect can be found
guilty of a crime purely upon the strength of circumstantial evidence. Likewise, the case for the truth of Christianity is based upon
many different pieces of circumstantial evidence, along with eyewitness testimony.

Reliability of the witnesses

Throughout both the first and second sections of Cold-Case Christianity, Wallace examines the question of the reliability of the
gospel writers as eyewitnesses of the events and people they wrote about. Many skeptics assume the writers were either lying or
biased, without any evidence that those writers were unreliable witnesses. In criminal law, a witness is assumed to be truthful
unless there is evidence to the contrary (Section 105, Judicial Council of California Criminal Jury Instructions, 2006). Although
skeptics often deem the New Testament writers to be unreliable, they provide no evidence that that is the case. In the second
section, Wallace questions the motive for which the New Testament writers might have fabricated the life, ministry and resurrection
of Jesus. In criminal cases, nearly all motives involve money, relationships or power. Wallace goes on to show that none of those
motives could apply to the gospel writers, since they lived simple lives, without material possessions, did not have women following
after them, and possessed virtually no political poweroften being forced to flee from those who did possess that power.
Ultimately, nearly all the apostles were murdered because of their preaching. It is unreasonable to assume the disciples would have
gone to their death if their preaching were based upon what they knew to be lies.

Corroborative evidence

In addition to the more popularly presented evidence for the truth of the gospels, Wallace presents evidence that I had never been
familiar with. For example, the names of people in the New Testament match the most popular names found in Palestine during the
first century. However, those names did not match the most popular names of Jewish men found in Egypt, for example. The
gospels also mention little-known towns in Palestine that would be unknown to those who were unfamiliar with the area or were
writing centuries after the events took place. In contrast, the books rejected by the Church did not contain the details of these
little-known towns and villages, suggesting an after-the-fact forgery. Many other examples of corroborative evidence can be found
in Cold-Case Christianity.

Undesigned coincidences

There are dozens of "undesigned coincidences" between the gospels, which provide support for the reliability of the parallel
eyewitness accounts. For example, in Matthew 26:67-68, the chief priest and members of the council struck Jesus and asked Him
to prophesy who hit Him.1 It wouldn't seem to have been a difficult thing to do, unless one had read Luke 22:63-64, which included
the added detail that Jesus had been blindfolded.2 In the feeding of the five thousand, Jesus asked Philip where they should buy
food (John 6:5).3 Philip is a very minor character in the gospels, who was very seldom mentioned. Why did Jesus ask him rather
than one of the other disciples? It turns out that Philip was from Bethsaida (John 12:21),4 the location of the feeding of the five
thousand. However, John's gospel does not tell us where the feeding occurred. Although the account of the feeding is in all four
gospels, we only get the location from Luke's gospel (Luke 9:10).5 But Luke did not indicate whom Jesus asked and did not state
where Philip had lived. So, we can only figure out why Jesus asked Philip where to get food by reading parallel accounts from Luke
and John. Needless to say, Jesus already knew that even Philip would have no idea where to get enough food to feed five thousand.

CONCLUSIONS

Cold-Case Christianity is a fascinating examination of the evidence for the reliability of the gospel accounts. The examples of
criminal cases and how those principles apply to a forensic examination of the gospels brings life to a topic (apologetics) that is
often seen as uninteresting and boring. Once you start reading this book, you will not be able to put it down. The book is highly
recommended for Christians who want to improve their ability to witness to others and also as gifts to skeptics, as a way to get
them interested in the evidence for the Christian faith.

Book details:

Cold-Case Christianity: A Homicide Detective Investigates the Claims of the Gospels (Paperback)
by J. Warner Wallace
Pages: 288
Publisher: David C. Cook
Date published: January 1, 2013
Language: English
ISBN-10: 1434704696

RELATED PAGES

J Warner Wallace's website, PleaseConvinceMe.com.

Cold-Case Christianity website.
Doubt About God? How Jesus Responded to Doubt by J. Warner Wallace
The Christian Faith is Based Upon Evidence by J. Warner Wallace
Corroborative Evidence and the Gospels: Can We Expect it to Verify Every Detail? by J. Warner Wallace
The Gospel Truth: The Gospels Are Reliable Even With Many Redactions by J. Warner Wallace
Book Review: 7 Truths that Changed the World: Discovering Christianity's Most Dangerous Ideas by Kenneth Samples

REFERENCES

1. Then they spit in his face and struck him with their fists. Others slapped him and said, "Prophesy to us, Christ. Who hit
you?" (Matthew 26:67-68)
 2. The men who were guarding Jesus began mocking and beating him. They blindfolded him and demanded, "Prophesy!
Who hit you?" (Luke 22:63-64)
3. When Jesus looked up and saw a great crowd coming toward him, he said to Philip, "Where shall we buy bread for these
people to eat?" (John 6:5)
4. They came to Philip, who was from Bethsaida in Galilee, with a request. "Sir," they said, "we would like to see Jesus."
(John 12:21)
5. When the apostles returned, they reported to Jesus what they had done. Then he took them with him and they withdrew
by themselves to a town called Bethsaida, (Luke 9:10)

Gabriel's Vision Stone Tablet: Prophecy of the Coming Messiah Jesus?

by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Archeological Prophecy?

The recent translation of a first century B.C. stone tablet discovered a decade ago near the Dead Sea in Jordan is causing a stir in archeological and
biblical circles. The stone, although unreadable in part, is an apocalyptic description attributed to the angel Gabriel, which clearly makes references to
the Messiah and a command from Gabriel that the Messiah live after three days, a probable reference to the resurrection of Jesus Christ.

Rich Deem

The Dead Sea scrolls were discovered about 60 years ago, and have provided significant insight into the religious communities of
both before and after the birth of Jesus. Some of these scrolls, dated to the first century B.C., have confirmed the authenticity of
the book of Isaiah, including the famous "suffering servant" passage in Isaiah 52-53.1 This passage describes "an arm of the Lord"
who is "pierced through" and "like a lamb that is led to slaughter" as he "bore the sin of many." Although written before the birth of
Jesus, the text perfectly describes His ministry and death for the sins of mankind, as described in the books of the New Testament.
The discovery of a first century B.C. stone tablet near the Dead Sea appears to extend the ancient prophecies of the "suffering
servant" to include his death and resurrection three days later. The prophecies given in the tablet are attributed to the angel
Gabriel, the same angel who announced the birth of Jesus to Zacharias and Mary. 2

Discovery and authentication

The stone tablet was discovered about a decade ago and purchased by David Jeselsohn, an expert and collector of antiquities. A
few years ago Jesselsohn showed the stone to Ada Yardeni, an expert in ancient Hebrew, who determined that the text dated from
the late first century B.C., based on the shape of the script and the language. Yuval Goren, a professor of archaeology at Tel Aviv
University has analyzed of the chemistry of the stone and commented that he has no reason to doubt its authenticity, although his
study has not been published yet. Yardeni and Binyamin Elitzur, another expert in ancient Hebrew, studied the stone and published
their findings in the Hebrew-language quarterly Cathedra.

Translation

The tablet consists of two partially-preserved columns of Hebrew text. The first column describes the breaking of evil by
righteousness:

"By three days you shall know that, thus said the Lord of Hosts, the God of Israel, the evil has been broken by righteousness."

This text is reminiscent of the passage from Daniel, which declares that the Messiah will "make an end of sin, to make atonement
for iniquity, to bring in everlasting righteousness." 4 The text of Gabriel's Vision goes on to describe the timing of this event as in
being "in just a little while":

In just a little while, I will shake the heavens and the earth.

Since the dating of this tablet has been set to the late first century B.C., this "little while" would have been just a few years before
the birth of Jesus, described in the Bible as being at the time of king Herod (who died in 4 B.C.).5 The text goes on the make
Messianic allusions:
My servant David, ask of Ephraim (that he) place the sign; (this) I ask of you.

At the time of the writing of the Gabriel's vision, David had been dead for 1,000 years, so, obviously, the text does not refer
directly to David. However, in the prophetic passages of the Bible (e.g., Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel), the text often refers to "My
servant David" as King David's descendant and the Messiah to come. 6 According to Jeremiah, the Messiah is the "righteous Branch"
of David, who will be known as "The LORD our righteousness," 7 which goes along with the text listed above. Line 80 begins with the

phrase "by three days" followed by the word "to live" or "be resurrected" , with the source being the

angel "I, Gabriel" . Because of the poor preservation of the text, the object of the command is not clear. However,
the next line contains the phrase "prince of princes" . Elsewhere in the prophetic passages of the old testament,
Messiah is known as "Prince of Peace."8 Daniel defines Messiah as "Messiah the Prince" 9 and makes direct reference to him as the
"prince of princes."10 Given the significance of the Messianic nature of the text, and the juxtaposition of "prince of princes" to
Gabriel's command, it would not be unreasonable to think that the resurrected one would be the Messiah. So, the likely translation
would be "By three days, live, I Gabriel, command you, prince of the princes." Therefore, this stone strongly supports the New
Testament's claim that Jesus is the Messiah who died for the sins of the people 11 and rose again the third day.12

CONCLUSION

A first century B.C. stone tablet discovered a decade ago near the Dead Sea in Jordan has been translated, showing it to be an
apocalyptic description attributed to the angel Gabriel. The text of the tablet makes clear references to the Messiah who will destroy
evil and bring in righteousness. In the stone tablet, Gabriel commands the Messiah to live after three days, a seeming reference to
the resurrection of Jesus.

RELATED PAGES

Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating

No Proof for the Exodus? - The potential role of Thera and 14C dating of the destruction of Jericho
Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King Shishak Confirmed by Archeology
Carbon-14 Dating of Copper Smelting in Edom (Jordan) Confirm Biblical Date of King Solomon's Kingdom
Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeology
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's Persecutors
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims

REFERENCES

1. Behold, My servant will prosper, He will be high and lifted up and greatly exalted. Just as many were astonished at you,
My people, So His appearance was marred more than any man And His form more than the sons of men. Thus He will
sprinkle many nations, Kings will shut their mouths on account of Him; For what had not been told them they will see,
And what they had not heard they will understand. Who has believed our message? And to whom has the arm of the
LORD been revealed? For He grew up before Him like a tender shoot, And like a root out of parched ground; He has no
stately form or majesty That we should look upon Him, Nor appearance that we should be attracted to Him. He was
despised and forsaken of men, A man of sorrows and acquainted with grief; And like one from whom men hide their face
He was despised, and we did not esteem Him. Surely our griefs He Himself bore, And our sorrows He carried; Yet we
ourselves esteemed Him stricken, Smitten of God, and afflicted. But He was pierced through for our transgressions, He
was crushed for our iniquities; The chastening for our well-being fell upon Him, And by His scourging we are healed. All of
us like sheep have gone astray, Each of us has turned to his own way; But the LORD has caused the iniquity of us all To
fall on Him. He was oppressed and He was afflicted, Yet He did not open His mouth; Like a lamb that is led to slaughter,
And like a sheep that is silent before its shearers, So He did not open His mouth. By oppression and judgment He was
taken away; And as for His generation, who considered That He was cut off out of the land of the living For the
transgression of my people, to whom the stroke was due? His grave was assigned with wicked men, Yet He was with a
rich man in His death, Because He had done no violence, Nor was there any deceit in His mouth. But the LORD was
pleased To crush Him, putting Him to grief; If He would render Himself as a guilt offering, He will see His offspring, He
 will prolong His days, And the good pleasure of the LORD will prosper in His hand. As a result of the anguish of His soul,
He will see it and be satisfied; By His knowledge the Righteous One, My Servant, will justify the many, As He will bear
their iniquities. Therefore, I will allot Him a portion with the great, And He will divide the booty with the strong; Because
He poured out Himself to death, And was numbered with the transgressors; Yet He Himself bore the sin of many, And
interceded for the transgressors. (Isaiah 52:13-53:12)
2. The angel answered and said to him, "I am Gabriel, who stands in the presence of God, and I have been sent to speak to
you and to bring you this good news. (Luke 1:19)
Now in the sixth month the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a city in Galilee called Nazareth, to a virgin engaged to a
man whose name was Joseph, of the descendants of David; and the virgin's name was Mary. (Luke 1:26-27)
3. Knohl, I. 2008. By Three Days, Live: Messiahs, Resurrection, and Ascent to Heaven in Hazon Gabriel. The Journal of
Religion 88:147158.
4. "Seventy weeks have been decreed for your people and your holy city, to finish the transgression, to make an end of sin,
to make atonement for iniquity, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the
most holy place. So you are to know and discern that from the issuing of a decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until
Messiah the Prince there will be seven weeks and sixty-two weeks; it will be built again, with plaza and moat, even in
times of distress. Then after the sixty-two weeks the Messiah will be cut off and have nothing, and the people of the
prince who is to come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. And its end will come with a flood; even to the end there
will be war; desolations are determined. (Daniel 9:24-26)
5. Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the king, magi from the east arrived in Jerusalem,
saying, (Matthew 2:1)
6. 'For I will defend this city to save it for My own sake and for My servant David's sake.'" (Isaiah 37:35)
"Thus says the LORD, 'If you can break My covenant for the day and My covenant for the night, so that day and night will
not be at their appointed time, then My covenant may also be broken with David My servant so that he will not have a
son to reign on his throne, and with the Levitical priests, My ministers. (Jeremiah 33:20-21)
"Then I will set over them one shepherd, My servant David, and he will feed them; he will feed them himself and be their
shepherd. And I, the LORD, will be their God, and My servant David will be prince among them; I the LORD have
spoken." (Ezekiel 34:23-24)
7. "Behold, the days are coming," declares the LORD, "When I will raise up for David a righteous Branch; And He will reign
as king and act wisely And do justice and righteousness in the land. In His days Judah will be saved, And Israel will dwell
securely; And this is His name by which He will be called, 'The LORD our righteousness.'" (Jeremiah 23:5-6)
8. For a child will be born to us, a son will be given to us; And the government will rest on His shoulders; And His name will
be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace. (Isaiah 9:6)
9. "And through his shrewdness He will cause deceit to succeed by his influence; And he will magnify himself in his heart,
And he will destroy many while they are at ease. He will even oppose the Prince of princes, But he will be broken without
human agency. (Daniel 8:25)
10. "So you are to know and discern that from the issuing of a decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until Messiah the
Prince there will be seven weeks and sixty-two weeks; it will be built again, with plaza and moat, even in times of
distress. (Daniel 9:25)
11. for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is
in Christ Jesus; (Romans 3:23-24)
But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8)
For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 6:23)
12. But He warned them and instructed them not to tell this to anyone, saying, "The Son of Man must suffer many things and
be rejected by the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed and be raised up on the third day." (Luke 9:21-22)
For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received, that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures,
and that He was buried, and that He was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures (1 Corinthians 15:3-4)
"We are witnesses of all the things He did both in the land of the Jews and in Jerusalem. They also put Him to death by
hanging Him on a cross. God raised Him up on the third day and granted that He become visible" (Acts 10:39-40)

Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's

Persecutors
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Did Jeremiah Exist?

The Bible says that Jeremiah was a prophet of the Lord, called from the womb to speak for God.1 As a youth, he began to preach of God's impending
judgment on the Hebrews. Did Jeremiah really exist and was he persecuted for foretelling of God's coming judgment. The discovery of the seal of
Gedaliah, Son of Pashur confirms the existence of one of Jeremiah's accusers.

Rich Deem

According to the Old Testament, Jeremiah was called to speak for God to the Hebrews.1 When Jeremiah began to predict that God's
judgment would fall on Judah and that Babylonians would capture the city of Jerusalem 2 and send its inhabitants into captivity,3 he
was persecuted by a number of King Zedekiah's ministers, including Shephatiah the son of Mattan, and Gedaliah the son of
Pashhur, and Jucal the son of Shelemiah, and Pashhur the son of Malchijah. 4 According to the narrative, Jeremiah was lowered into
a muddy well to die, but was rescued by Ebed-melech, an Ethiopian eunuch of the king.5 Bible skeptics often claim that the stories
are made-up and that most of the people probably never existed. However, new evidence shows that at least one of Jeremiah's
persecutors did exist during the time specified in the Book of Jeremiah.

New evidence

Seal of Gedaliah the son of Pashur

Dr. Eilat Mazar, one of Israel's top archaeologists, found a seal with the inscription, "Gedaliah the son of Pashur". 6 According to
Mazar, the seal dates to the final years of the first temple period - during the reign of Zedekiah, Judah's last king. Three years ago,
Mazar also found the seal of Jucal the son of Shelemiah in a nearby location. Jucal is also mentioned as one of Jeremiah's accusers
in the same passage.

CONCLUSION

The seal of Gedaliah, the son of Pashur, has been found in a recent dig near the ruins of the first temple in Jerusalem. The seal
confirms the existence of one of Jeremiah's accusers, as described in Jeremiah 38:1, demonstrating the reliability of the biblical
narrative.

Sello de Gedalas, Hijo de Pasur, confirma la existencia de uno de los perseguidores de Jeremas

RELATED PAGES

Seal of King Zedekiah's minister found in J'lem dig (Jerusalem Post)

Royal Seal of Prophet Jeremiah's Accuser Found, (theTrumpet.com)
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Gabriel's Vision Stone Tablet: Prophecy of the Coming Messiah Jesus?
Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King Shishak Confirmed by Archeology
Carbon-14 Dating of Copper Smelting in Edom (Jordan) Confirm Biblical Date of King Solomon's Kingdom
Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeology
No Proof for the Exodus? - The potential role of Thera and 14C dating of the destruction of Jericho
Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Cuneiform Receipt from King Nebuchadnezzar's Court Confirms Detail of Old Testament Book of Jeremiah
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims
REFERENCES

1. Now the word of the LORD came to me saying, "Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, And before you were born
I consecrated you; I have appointed you a prophet to the nations." Then I said, "Alas, Lord GOD! Behold, I do not know
how to speak, Because I am a youth." But the LORD said to me, "Do not say, 'I am a youth,' Because everywhere I send
you, you shall go, And all that I command you, you shall speak. Do not be afraid of them, For I am with you to deliver
you," declares the LORD. (Jeremiah 1:4-8)
2. Then the word of the LORD came to Jeremiah the prophet, saying, "Thus says the LORD God of Israel, 'Thus you are to
say to the king of Judah, who sent you to Me to inquire of Me: Behold, Pharaoh's army which has come out for your
assistance is going to return to its own land of Egypt. The Chaldeans will also return and fight against this city, and they
will capture it and burn it with fire."' (Jeremiah 37:6-8)
3. 'And you, Pashhur, and all who live in your house will go into captivity; and you will enter Babylon, and there you will die
and there you will be buried, you and all your friends to whom you have falsely prophesied.'" (Jeremiah 20:6)
4. Now Shephatiah the son of Mattan, and Gedaliah the son of Pashhur, and Jucal the son of Shelemiah, and Pashhur the
son of Malchijah heard the words that Jeremiah was speaking to all the people, saying, "Thus says the LORD, 'He who
stays in this city will die by the sword and by famine and by pestilence, but he who goes out to the Chaldeans will live
and have his own life as booty and stay alive.' Thus says the LORD, 'This city will certainly be given into the hand of the
army of the king of Babylon and he will capture it.'" Then the officials said to the king, "Now let this man be put to death,
inasmuch as he is discouraging the men of war who are left in this city and all the people, by speaking such words to
them; for this man is not seeking the well-being of this people but rather their harm." So King Zedekiah said, "Behold, he
is in your hands; for the king can do nothing against you." Then they took Jeremiah and cast him into the cistern of
Malchijah the king's son, which was in the court of the guardhouse; and they let Jeremiah down with ropes. Now in the
cistern there was no water but only mud, and Jeremiah sank into the mud. (Jeremiah 38:1-6)
5. But Ebed-melech the Ethiopian, a eunuch, while he was in the king's palace, heard that they had put Jeremiah into the
cistern. Now the king was sitting in the Gate of Benjamin; and Ebed-melech went out from the king's palace and spoke to
the king, saying, "My lord the king, these men have acted wickedly in all that they have done to Jeremiah the prophet
whom they have cast into the cistern; and he will die right where he is because of the famine, for there is no more bread
in the city." Then the king commanded Ebed-melech the Ethiopian, saying, "Take thirty men from here under your
authority and bring up Jeremiah the prophet from the cistern before he dies." So Ebed-melech took the men under his
authority and went into the king's palace to a place beneath the storeroom and took from there worn-out clothes and
worn-out rags and let them down by ropes into the cistern to Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 38:11) Then Ebed-melech the
Ethiopian said to Jeremiah, "Now put these worn-out clothes and rags under your armpits under the ropes"; and
Jeremiah did so. (Jeremiah 38:12) So they pulled Jeremiah up with the ropes and lifted him out of the cistern, and
Jeremiah stayed in the court of the guardhouse. (Jeremiah 38:7-13)
6. Stephen Flurry, Royal Seal of Prophet Jeremiah's Accuser Found, theTrumpet.com, July 31, 2008.
7. Ancient seal belonged to Queen Jezebel - Utrecht Old Testament expert finds conclusive evidence (Utrecht University)

No Proof for the Exodus?

The potential role of Thera and 14C dating of the destruction of Jericho
by Rich Deem

Is there any physical evidence for the Exodus described in the Bible? If you were to read the popular press, you
would come to the conclusion that not only was there no evidence, but the evidence actually contradicted known archaeology. One
such article recently appeared in Time Magazine. The usual complaints surround the lack of archaeological evidence of the Hebrews'
wanderings through the desert. However, nomadic people seldom, if ever, leave any evidence of their presence. The Bible tells us
that throughout the Exodus, the people never planted crops, built cities or did anything that would be expected to be found in
thousands of square miles of desert. The Bible says that even their clothing did not wear out. The chances of finding any physical
evidence of the Exodus itself seems extremely unlikely. However, the events surrounding the Exodus (both before and after) are
testable and datable.

Unfortunately, extremely strong evidence for the validity of the Exodus has been published only in the scientific journals and never
made it to the popular press. These studies examined one of the Egyptian plagues (before the Exodus) and demise of Jericho (after
the Exodus). Drs. Hendrik J. Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht reported in the prestigious British journal, Nature,1 that the
destruction of Jericho was dated to 1580 (" 13 years) B.C. (using 14C dating). This date is significant, since several archeologists
have insisted that Jericho was destroyed by the Egyptians between 1550 and 1300 B.C. The recent study discredits the Egyptian
theory, since the date is much too old.
What is even more interesting is that scientists, using 14C dating and tree rings, have found evidence of a volcanic eruption from
the Aegean island of Thera, which has been dated to 1628 B.C. 2 This would place the eruption at 45 years prior to the destruction
of Jericho, at a time which coincidentally corresponds to the time of the plagues the Lord unleashed upon Egypt. Check out Exodus
10:

Then the Lord said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky, that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, even a
darkness which may be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and there was thick darkness in all the land of Egypt
for three days. (Exodus 10:21-22)

Even the researchers commented that the 45 years difference in events was "rather striking." 3

Ninguna Prueba para el xodo?: El papel potencial de Tera y El Fechado del C14 de la destruccin de Jeric

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Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeology
Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
Cuneiform Receipt from King Nebuchadnezzar's Court Confirms Detail of Old Testament Book of Jeremiah
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's Persecutors
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims

REFERENCES

1. Bruins, H.J. and J. van der Plicht. 1996. The Exodus enigma. Nature 382: 213-214.
2. Renfrew, C. 1996. Kings, tree rings and the Old World. Nature 381:733-734.
Kuniholm, P. I., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Newton, M., Latini, C. E., and Bruce, M. J. 1996. Anatolian tree rings and
the absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean, 2220-718 BC Nature 381:780-783.
Friedrich, W.L., P. Wagner, and H. Tauber. 1990. Thera and the Aegean World III Thera Foundation, London, UK.
3. "These averages, taken together, yield 3,356 +/- 18 yr BP, 45 radiocarbon years older than our 14Carbon destruction date
for MB-IIC Jericho. This time difference is rather striking, as it could fit the desert period of 40 years separating the
Exodus from the destruction of Jericho, mentioned in ancient Hebrew texts." from Reference 1.

Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating

by Rich Deem

According to the Bible, Hezekiah, in response to attack by Assyria, cut off the springs that flowed into the city of Jerusalem1 and
built a tunnel to bring water into the city:

As for the other events of Hezekiah's reign, all his achievements and how he made the pool and the tunnel by which he brought
water into the city, are they not written in the book of the annals of the kings of Judah? (2 Kings 20:20)

Since King Hezekiah reigned between 727 B.C. and 698 B.C., the tunnel should have been built about that time. However, skeptics
have long said that the tunnel was built much later, claiming that an inscription at the end of the tunnel dated it to second century
B.C.2
However, science has come to the rescue with a definitive date. Geologist Amos Frumkin and colleagues 3 collected plants preserved
in the waterproof layers of plaster lining the tunnel and determined the carbon-14 date. In addition, stalactites were collected and
their ages determined through uranium-thorium dating. The plant was dated at 700-800 B.C., whereas a stalactite was dated to
400 B.C. (It would have been expected to have formed after the tunnel was built.)

The dating of the Siloam Tunnel is a remarkable testimony of the accuracy of the biblical texts and positively refutes the skepticism
of archeologists who are constantly challenging biblical narratives. How many other times will they be proved wrong?

El "Tnel de Silo" de Ezequas Confirmado a Travs del Fechado del C14

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Radio-dating backs up biblical text by Helen R. Pilcher (from Nature's Science Update)
No Proof for the Exodus? - The potential role of Thera and 14C dating of the destruction of Jericho
Gabriel's Vision Stone Tablet: Prophecy of the Coming Messiah Jesus?
Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King Shishak Confirmed by Archeology
Carbon-14 Dating of Copper Smelting in Edom (Jordan) Confirm Biblical Date of King Solomon's Kingdom
Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeology
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's Persecutors
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims

REFERENCES

1. When Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib had come and that he intended to make war on Jerusalem, he consulted with his
officials and military staff about blocking off the water from the springs outside the city, and they helped him. A large
force of men assembled, and they blocked all the springs and the stream that flowed through the land. "Why should the
kings of Assyria come and find plenty of water?" they said. (2 Chronicles 32:2-4)
2. Rogerson, R., P.R. Davies. 1996. Was the Siloam Tunnel Built by Hezekiah?. Biblical Archaeologist 59: 138.
3. Frumkin, A., A. Shimron, and J. Rosenbaum. 2003. Radiometric dating of the Siloam Tunnel, Jerusalem. Nature 425:
169-171.

Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by Archeological Find

by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

Most secular scholars believe that the Hebrew Old Testament is merely a collection of revisionist, fragmented history, along with
folklore and theology. Often, biblical dates for historic events are often assumed to be incorrect. Previous excavations of Edom have
been conducted on the highland plateaus of Jordan, which had been controlled by the neo-Assyrian empire during the eighth and
seventh B.C.1So, archeologists assumed that dating of the kingdom of Edom was at least 200 years later than the date given in the
Old Testament. New archeological excavations have examined the copper ore-rich lowlands of Jordan, discovering a large Iron Age
copper production center.

New evidence

Canadian archeologist Russell Adams, along with Thomas Levy of the University of California at San Diego and Mohammad Najjar of
the Jordanian Department of Antiquities recently discovered a monumental tenth century B.C. fortress at a site called Kh irbat en-
Nahas (30 miles south of the Dead Sea in Jordan).2 The use of high-precision radiocarbon dating (14C) methods on some of the
relics firmly established that occupation of the site had began in the eleventh century B.C.

CONCLUSION

These early dates establish the existence of the Edomite kingdom at the time King David and his son Solomon ruled over Israe l.
The Old Testament claims that David conquered the Edomites and placed garrisons there. 3 The Bible claims that David ruled from
~1010 B.C. to 970 B.C., which is directly correlated with the dates determined at Khirbat en-Nahas. Now that 14C dating is being
used to accurately determine archeological sites in the Middle East, we should be getting a better idea of the accuracy of Old
Testament histories.

Las Fechas del Antiguo Testamento del Reino Edomita Confirmado por el Descubrimiento Arqueolgico

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No Proof for the Exodus? - The potential role of Thera and 14C dating of the destruction of Jericho
Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
Cuneiform Receipt from King Nebuchadnezzar's Court Confirms Detail of Old Testament Book of Jeremiah
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's Persecutors
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims

REFERENCES

1. Bienkowski, P. 2001. Iron Age Settlement in Edom: A Revised Framework, in P. M. M. Daviau, J. W. Wevers, and M. Weigl
(eds) The World of the Aramaeans II: Studies in History and Archaeology in Honour of Paul-Eugen Dion: 257 -69. Journal
for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 325. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Herr, L.G. and M. Najjar. 2001. The Iron Age, in B. MacDonald, R. Adams & P. Bienkowski (eds) The Archaeology of
Jordan. 323-345. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Stern, E. 2001. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible Volume II the Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Periods (732
332 B.C.E). New York: Doubleday.
2. Thomas E. Levy, T.E., R. B. Adams, M. Najjar, A. Hauptmann, J.D. Anderson, B. Brandl, M.A. Robinson and T. Higham.
2004. Research Reassessing the chronology of Biblical Edom: new excavations and 14C dates from Khirbat en-Nahas
(Jordan) Antiquity 78: 863-876.
3. He put garrisons in Edom. In all Edom he put garrisons, and all the Edomites became servants to David. And the LORD
helped David wherever he went. (2 Samuel 8:14)

Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King Shishak Confirmed by 14

C Dates
from Tel Rehov
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

The dating of events in Hebrew Old Testament is often assumed to be incorrect by many secular scholars. Much of the scholarship
related to the dating of these sites is based upon pottery and other items that are associated with certain civilizations and times.
However, the discovery of pottery assemblages with biblical data relating to the monarchies of David and Solomon in the
destruction layer of Jezreel, a royal citadel of the Omride Dynasty, which ruled over the northern Kingdom of Israel from 885 to
843 B.C., suggested that the older dates for key sites in Israel (e.g., Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer) might be much later than the time
of King Solomon (second half of the 10th century B.C.). The implication was that archaeological layers traditionally associated with
the monarchies of David and Solomon were too young to fit the biblical claims.

New evidence

A team of archeologists from Netherlands and Israel, Drs. Bruins, van der Plicht, and Mazar examined the site of Tel Rehov, in the
Beth-Shean/Jordan Valley, 4 miles west of the River Jordan.1 14C radiocarbon dating placed the destruction of Tel Rehov at 940-900
B.C., instead of the later date suggested by the associated pottery.

Biblical and extra-biblical evidence

The place name Rehov occurs on the list of cities conquered by Pharaoh Shoshenq I, known as Shishak in the Bible. 2 His Asian
campaign was recorded on the southern wall of the temple of Amun at Karnak in Upper Egypt, where Rehov appears after the term
"The Valley" (probably referring to the Beth-Shean/Jordan Valley) and before the city name Beth Shean. The Bible says that King
Shishak invaded Israel in the fifth year of the reign of Solomon's son, Rehoboam. 3The biblical timeframe would place Solomon's
death at 930 B.C., putting Shishak's invasion at 925 B.C., exactly within the range of radiocarbon dates (940-900 B.C.) for the
destruction of Tel Rehov.

CONCLUSION

High-precision radiocarbon dating of Tel Rehov establishes a date earlier than that suggested by previous studies utilizing pottery
finds. The accuracy of 14C dating calls into question previous studies based solely upon pottery evidence. The current dating of Tel
Rehov confirms the biblical date for Shishak's invasion of Israel.

Las Fechas del Antiguo Testamento de Salomn y del Rey Egipcio Sisac Confirmadas por los Fechados del C14 de Tel Rehov

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Hezekiah's Siloam Tunnel Confirmed Through C-14 Dating
Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel
Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel
Cuneiform Receipt from King Nebuchadnezzar's Court Confirms Detail of Old Testament Book of Jeremiah
Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the Kings
Seal of Gedaliah, Son of Pashur, Confirms the Existence of One of Jeremiah's Persecutors
10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms Biblical Claims

REFERENCES

1. Hendrik J. Bruins, Johannes van der Plicht, and Amihai Mazar. 2003. 14C Dates from Tel Rehov: Iron-Age Chronology,
Pharaohs, and Hebrew Kings. Science 300: 315-318.
2. Solomon sought therefore to put Jeroboam to death; but Jeroboam arose and fled to Egypt to Shishak king of Egypt, and
he was in Egypt until the death of Solomon. (1 Kings 11:40)
3. Now it happened in the fifth year of King Rehoboam, that Shishak the king of Egypt came up against Jerusalem. He took
away the treasures of the house of the LORD and the treasures of the king's house, and he took everything, even taking
all the shields of gold which Solomon had made. (1 Kings 14:25-26)
 Carbon-14 Dating of Copper Smelting in Edom (Jordan) Confirm Biblical Date of King
Solomon's Kingdom
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

Minimalists in archeology say that the events of the early Hebrew kingdoms in the Hebrew Old Testament were mostly made up.
Many skeptics believe that the kingdoms of David and Solomon did not exist because of the paucity of archeological evidence from
that era. However, recent excavations at Tel Rehov are pushing back the dates for the occupation of the biblical lands. Now,
excavations in Jordon reveal extensive copper smelting both before and during the reign of Solomon.

New evidence

Archaeologist Thomas E. Levy (UC San Diego) has reported high-precision radiocarbon dates for copper smelting operations in
southern Jordan in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.1 14C radiocarbon dating revealed continuous
occupation of Khirbat en-Nahas, Jordan from 1100-900 B.C. Khirbat en-Nahas represents 10 hectares that once housed greater
than 100 buildings, including one of the largest Levantine desert fortresses, indicating that this site was no small-time operation,
but was associated with a large, complex society. Many archeologists believed that the kingdom of Israel was not established until
the seventh or eighth centuries B.C., based primarily upon subjective pottery evidence. However, the 14C radiocarbon dating is
accurate to within 30 years and firmly establishes the earlier date for an extensive mining and smelting operation. Dr. Levy's
conjunction of "historical" and "biblical" in the title of his recent publication, along with references to the biblical King Solomon
within the article have irritated some of his colleagues. However, archaeologist William Schniedewind of UCLA agreed with his
assessment, saying Levy "is completely right. The scientific evidence seems to be going in his favor." 2

CONCLUSION

The 14C dates associated with smelting debris layers from Khirbat en-Nahas demonstrate intensive 10th-9th century B.C. industrial
metallurgical activities conducted by complex societies. High-precision radiocarbon dating at Khirbat en-Nahas establishes a date
earlier than that suggested by previous studies utilizing pottery finds. The accuracy of 14C dating calls into question previous studies
based solely upon pottery evidence. The current dating of the site to the 10 th-9th century B.C. agrees with biblical dates for
Solomon's rule of the area.

10th Century Hebrew Inscription on Pottery from Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Confirms
Biblical Claims
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Bible Written Late?

Many skeptics claim that the Bible wasn't written until the fifth century B.C., since ancient Hebrew wasn't even in existence until then. However, recent
discoveries show written Hebrew was in existence by the 10th century, B.C.

Rich Deem

To the surprise of many skeptics, an ancient Hebrew inscription, dated to the 10th century B.C. wasdiscovered in 2006. Now, the
most ancient example of the Hebrew language has been found on a pottery shard in Khirbet Qeiyafa, 20 miles southwest of
Jerusalem, near the Elah Valley in Israel.1

New evidence

The archaeological site of Khirbet Qeiyafa is the location of a massively fortified city of megalithic stones 6-9 ft tall.2 In 2008, two
city gates were discovered, which was very unusual for cities of that time (which usually had only one gate). This unusual
characteristic clearly identified the city as being the biblical Shaarayim, which has the meaning of "double gate." 3 The city is
mentioned three times in the Old Testament (Joshua 15:36, 1 Samuel 17:52 and 1 Chronicles 4:31).4
 Courtesy of University of Haifa

The pottery shard containing the inscription was discovered by Professor Yosef Garfinkel in 2008. It was translated by Professor
Gershon Galil of the Department of Biblical Studies at the University of Haifa. The full translation of the inscription on the pottery
shard reads:

1. you shall not do [it], but worship the [Lord].

2. Judge the sla[ve] and the wid[ow] / Judge the orph[an]
3. [and] the stranger. [Pl]ead for the infant / plead for the po[or and]
4. the widow. Rehabilitate [the poor] at the hands of the king.
5. Protect the po[or and] the slave / [supp]ort the stranger.1

The inscription has similar content to several Old Testament passages, including Isaiah 1:17,Psalms 72:3, Exodus 23:3.5

CONCLUSION

The discovery of the 10th century B.C. Hebrew city of Shaarayim at Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel confirms the existence of a Hebrew
kingdom during the period of the reigns of David and Solomon as described in the Old Testament. The discovery of a pottery shard
containing an ancient Hebrew inscription shows that the Hebrew language was already in existence and makes it likely that the
Hebrews were already recording their history in written records at that time.

Inscripcin Hebrea Del Siglo X En Cermica De Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel, Confirma Las Afirmaciones Bblicas

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REFERENCES

1. Most ancient Hebrew biblical inscription deciphered at University of Haifa.

2. Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor. 2008. Khirbet Qeiyafa: Sha`arayim. Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 8: Article 22.
3. Brown-Driver-Briggs' Hebrew Definitions:
shaarayim ( Strong's H8189)
Shaaraim = "double gate"
1. a town in Judah
2. a town in Simeon

Part of Speech: noun proper locative

A Related Word by BDB/Strong's Number: dual of H8179

4. In the lowland: Eshtaol and Zorah and Ashnah, and Zanoah and En-gannim, Tappuah and Enam, Jarmuth and Adullam,
Socoh and Azekah, andShaaraim and Adithaim and Gederah and Gederothaim; fourteen cities with their villages. (Joshua
15:33-36)
The men of Israel and Judah arose and shouted and pursued the Philistines as far as the valley, and to the gates of
Ekron. And the slain Philistines lay along the way to Shaaraim, even to Gath and Ekron. (1 Samuel 17:52)
They lived at Beersheba, Moladah and Hazar-shual, at Bilhah, Ezem, Tolad, Bethuel, Hormah, Ziklag, Beth-marcaboth,
Hazar-susim, Beth-biri and Shaaraim. These were their cities until the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 4:28-31)
5. Learn to do good; Seek justice, Reprove the ruthless, Defend the orphan, Plead for the widow. (Isaiah 1:17)
Let the mountains bring peace to the people, And the hills, in righteousness. (Psalm 72:3)
nor shall you be partial to a poor man in his dispute. (Exodus 23:3)

Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel1
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

Skeptics often claim that Old Testament writers exaggerated or made up the existence of the Hebrew kingdoms described in the
Old Testament books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. Hebrew rulers David and Solomon, are said to be minor players in the
region at best, or fictional characters at worst. However, new archeological finds are confirming at least some of the historical
claims of the Old Testament. Now, physical evidence confirms that the Hebrews possessed their written language as early as the
10th century B.C.

New evidence

Archeologists discovered an inscribed stone embedded into the wall of an extensive collection of buildings in Tel Zayit, about 35
miles southwest of Jerusalem. The 40-pound stone consisted of two lines of incised letters, representing the 22 letters of the
Hebrew alphabet. Although not identical to modern Hebrew, the letters were recognizable as being an early form of the written
Hebrew language. The site was given a preliminary date of the 10 th century B.C. by examining associated pottery finds.

CONCLUSION

The discovery of a 10th century B.C. Hebrew city at Tel Zayit, Israel confirms the existence of a Hebrew kingdom during the reigns
of David and Solomon described in the Old Testament books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. The presence of an stone incised
with letters from an early version of the Hebrew language makes it reasonable to speculate that the Hebrews were already
recording their history in written records at that time.

Evidencia Temprana (Siglo X AC) de la Lengua Hebrea Escrita en Tel Zayit, Israel

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Cuneiform Receipt from King Nebuchadnezzar's Court Confirms Detail of Old Testament
Book of Jeremiah
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Bible: History or Fiction?

Does the Bible contain real history or is it just made-up fiction? A recent discovery of a sixth century BC cuneiform tablet goes a long way to confirm
the accuracy of biblical narrative accounts.

Rich Deem

Skeptics often claim that Old Testament writers made up the names of rulers and leaders with whom the Israelites reportedly
interacted with. However, the recent discovery of a cuneiform tablet dated to 595 BC confirms one of the minor details about an
obscure official from the court of King Nebuchadnezzar II, mentioned in the Old Testament book of Jeremiah. 1

New evidence

Michael Jursa, associate professor at the University of Vienna, discovered the Assyrian cuneiform tablet in the British Museum's
great Arched Room, which houses 130,000 such tablets. The small tablet, is a bill of receipt acknowledging Nabu-sharrussu-ukin's
payment of 0.75 kg of gold to a temple in Babylon.

The full translation of the tablet reads:

1.5 minas of gold, the property of Nabu-sharrussu-ukin, the chief eunuch, which he sent via Arad-Banitu the eunuch to [the
temple] Esangila: Arad-Banitu has delivered to Esangila. In the presence of Bel-usat, son of Alpaya, the royal bodyguard, [and of]
Nadin, son of Marduk-zer-ibni. Month XI, day 18, year 10 [of] Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. 2

Professor Jursa noted that chapter 39 of the Book of Jeremiah contained the same name - Nebo-Sarsekim, although it was spelled
differently. According to Jeremiah's account, Nebo-Sarsekim was Nebuchadnezzar's "chief officer" and was with him at the siege of
Jerusalem in 587 BC, 8 years after he had provided the cuneiform receipt.

CONCLUSION

The discovery of a cuneiform tablet that confirms the existence of a once-mentioned minor official in the Old Testament book of
Jeremiah is somewhat of a shock to Bible skeptics. Previous to this discovery, the only confirmed biblical figures were well-known
kings. Therefore, this discovery goes a long way to confirm the accuracy of biblical historical accounts.

Early (3rd Century A.D.) Christian Church at Megiddo, Israel1

by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

Dan Brown's book, and recently released movie adaptation, The Da Vinci Code, makes the claim that Christianity as we know it
today was not invented until the fourth century, after the council of Nicaea. Skeptics often claim that the Christian doctrine of
theTrinity and the worship of Jesus was not "invented" until that time. Now, the discovery of a third century church in Megiddo,
Israel discredits that claim.

New evidence

While digging to expand the Israeli prison at Megiddo, Israel, prisoners found a large tile floor. Further excavation revealed the
remnants of the walls of the church, within a larger Roman villa. In addition to beautiful fish mosaics (the original symbol of
Christianity), a number of inlaid inscriptions were found in the tile. The site was dated to the third century through pottery
remnants (first half of the third century) and the style of Greek writing in the inscriptions. One inscription indicated that Gaianus, a
Roman military officer, helped pay for the mosaic. A second inscription was in remembrance of four Christian women (maybe
martyrs?) - three with Greek names, and the fourth with a Roman name. However, the most compelling inscription is the one that
was a tribute to Jesus, "Akeptous, the God-loving, offered this table for (the) god Jesus Christ, as a remembrance." Obviously, the
discovery of a third century inscription calling Jesus God discredits the idea that Jesus Christ was not worshipped until the fourth
century.

CONCLUSION

The discovery of a 3rd century Christian church at Megiddo, Israel, along with an inscription to the "god Jesus Christ" confirms that
Christians worshipped Jesus Christ as God before the council of Nicaea.

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REFERENCES

1. Excavation of an early christian building in Megiddo, with floor mosaics (fish) and three inscriptions

Seal of Queen Jezebel Confirms Her Existence from the Old Testament Books of the
Kings
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION
Did Jezebel Exist?

The Bible contains some rather colorful characters, with one of the more famous Old Testament characters being Jezebel, wife of King Ahab. Did
queen Jezebel really exist as the Bible says?

Rich Deem

According to the Old Testament books of first and second Kings, Jezebel, wife of King Ahab, led the nation of Israel astray through
her idolatry.1 The Bible says that Queen Jezebel was the daughter of a pagan king and followed her father's ways by worshipping
Baal and practicing witchcraft.1 After she married King Ahab, Jezebel led her husband into idolatry 2 and persecuted the prophets of
God so that they had to hide in caves to escape death.3 According to the Bible, Jezebel went as far as to use her husband's seal to
send letters condemning a man to death.4

New evidence

Seal of Jezebel

Dr. Marjo Korpel, a Utrecht University Old Testament scholar, has published a study detailing why a 9th century BC seal probably
belonged to the infamous Queen Jezebel.5 According to Korpel, the seal contains symbols indicating it belonged to a woman
probably of royal lineage. in addition, it is exceptionally large compared to the seals possessed by ordinary citizens. The
inscription's letters spell (l)yzbl, which is the Hebrew spelling of Jezebel.

CONCLUSION

Jezebel, the infamous pagan wife of Israel's King Ahab, seems to have left behind her official seal, a relic dated to the 9th century
BC, according to Dr. Marjo Korpel, who has identified the inscription as being authentic. This is yet another example of the historical
accuracy of the Hebrew Old Testament.

Sello de la Reina Jezabel de los Libros de los Reyes del Antiguo Testamento Confirma Su Existencia

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REFERENCES

1. Ahab the son of Omri did evil in the sight of the LORD more than all who were before him. It came about, as though it
had been a trivial thing for him to walk in the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, that he married Jezebel the daughter of
Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and went to serve Baal and worshiped him. (1 Kings 16:30-31)
When Joram saw Jehu, he said, "Is it peace, Jehu?" And he answered, "What peace, so long as the harlotries of your
mother Jezebel and her witchcrafts are so many?" (2 Kings 9:22)
2. Surely there was no one like Ahab who sold himself to do evil in the sight of the LORD, because Jezebel his wife incited
him. (1 Kings 21:25)
3. for when Jezebel destroyed the prophets of the LORD, Obadiah took a hundred prophets and hid them by fifties in a cave,
and provided them with bread and water.) (1 Kings 18:4)
"Has it not been told to my master what I did when Jezebel killed the prophets of the LORD, that I hid a hundred
prophets of the LORD by fifties in a cave, and provided them with bread and water? (1 Kings 18:13)
4. So she wrote letters in Ahab's name and sealed them with his seal, and sent letters to the elders and to the nobles who
were living with Naboth in his city. Now she wrote in the letters, saying, "Proclaim a fast and seat Naboth at the head of
the people; and seat two worthless men before him, and let them testify against him, saying, 'You cursed God and the
king.' Then take him out and stone him to death." So the men of his city, the elders and the nobles who lived in his city,
did as Jezebel had sent word to them, just as it was written in the letters which she had sent them. (1 Kings 21:8-11)
5. Ancient seal belonged to Queen Jezebel - Utrecht Old Testament expert finds conclusive evidence (Utrecht University)

U.S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT

IS THE BIBLE TRUE?

Extraordinary insights from archaeology and history

The workday was nearly over for the team of archaeologists

excavating the ruins of the ancient Israelite city of Dan in upper
Galilee. Led by Avraham Biran of Hebrew Union College in
Jerusalem, the group had been toiling since early morning,
sifting debris in a stone-paved plaza outside what had been the
city's main gate. Now the fierce afternoon sun was turning the
stoneworks into a reflective oven. Gila Cook, the team's
surveyor, was about to take a break when something caught her
eye -- an unusual shadow in a portion of recently exposed wall
along the east side of the plaza. Moving closer, she discovered a
flattened basalt stone protruding from the ground with what
appeared to be Aramaic letters etched into its smooth surface.
She called Biran over for a look. As the veteran archaeologist
knelt to examine the stone, his eyes widened. "Oh, my God!" he
exclaimed. "We have an inscription!" In an instant, Biran knew
that they had stumbled upon a rare treasure. The basalt stone
was quickly identified as part of a shattered monument, or stele,
from the 9th century B.C., apparently commemorating a military
victory of the king of Damascus over two ancient enemies. One
foe the fragment identified as the "king of Israel." The other was
"the House of David."
The reference to David was a historical bombshell. Never
before had the familiar name of Judah's ancient warrior
king, a central figure of the Hebrew Bible and, according to
Christian Scripture, an ancestor of Jesus, been found in the
records of antiquity outside the pages of the Bible. Skeptics
had long seized upon that fact to argue that David was a mere
legend, invented by Hebrew scribes during or shortly after
Israel's Babylonian exile, roughly 500 years before the birth of
Christ. Now, at last, there was material evidence: an inscription
written not by Hebrew scribes but by an enemy of the
Israelites a little more than a century after David's presumptive
lifetime. It seemed to be a clear corroboration of the existence of
King David's dynasty and, by implication, of David himself.
Beyond its impact on the question of David's existence,
however, the discovery provided a dramatic illustration of the
promise and peril that come into play whenever the Bible is
weighed on the scales of modern archaeology. In one moment,
the unearthing of an inscription or artifact can shed new light or
cast a shadow on a passage of Scripture and in the
process shatter the presuppositions of biblical
scholarship. One kind of truth is confirmedor replacedby
another. In extraordinary ways, modern archaeology has
affirmed the historical core of the Old and New Testaments -
- corroborating key portions of the stories of Israel's patriarchs,
the Exodus, the Davidic monarchy, and the life and times of
Jesus. Where it has faced its toughest task has been in
primordial history, where many scholars find the traces of
human origins obscured in theological myth.
IN THE BEGINNING
Ever since Copernicus overturned the church-sanctioned view of
Earth as the center of the universe and Charles Darwin posited
random mutation and natural selection as the real creators of
human life, the biblical view that "in the beginning God created
the heavens and the Earth" has found itself on the defensive in
modern Western thought. Despite the dominance of Darwin's
theory -- that human beings evolved from lower life forms over
millions of years -- theologians have yielded relatively little
ground on what for them is a fundamental doctrine of faith: that
the universe is the handiwork of a divine creator who has given
humanity a special place in his creation.
These apparently conflicting explanations have played a divisive
role for centuries. In modern times, the supposed incompatibility
of the scientific and religious views of creation have sparked
bitter clashes in the nation's courtrooms and classrooms. Often
the modern debate has amounted to little more than a
shouting match between extremists on both sides --
fundamentalists, who dismiss evolution as a satanic deception,
and atheistic naturalists, who assert that science offers the only
window on reality and who seek to discredit religious belief as
ignorant superstition.
Listening to some of the rhetoric today, one might easily assume
that the views espoused by creationists -- that God created the
universe in six 24-hour days, as a literal reading of Genesis 1
would suggest -- represent the historic position of Christianity
and of the Bible, and that it is only in modern times, with the
rise of evolutionary theory, that creationism has come under
siege. Yet this is hardly the case.
As early as the 5th century, the great Christian theologian
Augustine warned against taking the six days of Genesis
literally. Writing on The Literal Meaning of Genesis, Augustine
argued that the days of creation were not successive, ordinary
days -- the sun, after all, according to Genesis, was not created
until the fourth "day" -- and had nothing to do with time. Rather,
Augustine argued, God "made all things together, disposing
them in an order based not on intervals of time but on causal
connections." Sounding like an evolutionist, Augustine reasoned
that some things were made in fully developed form and others
were made in "potential form" that developed over time to the
condition in which they are seen today.
Now, a growing number of conservative scholars
embrace theistic evolution -- a view that considers evolution,
like all other physical processes known to science, to be
divinely designed and governed. They understand Genesis as
speaking more of the relationship between God and creation
than as presenting a scientific or historical explanation of how
and when creation occurred. "Creation and evolution are not
contradictory," explains Howard Van Till, a professor of
physics and astronomy at evangelical Calvin College in Grand
Rapids, Mich. "They provide different answers to a different
set of questions."
Much the same may be said of disputes over the meaning and
intent of the biblical story of the Flood. Those who take it as
literal history believe that God unleashed a worldwide deluge
that destroyed all air-breathing life on Earth except for those
creatures taken aboard the ark in divine judgment against a
creation gone bad. When God finally allowed the waters to
recede, the ark was emptied and the world was repopulated by
the creatures that disembarked. Based on biblical genealogies,
all of this would have happened less than 10,000 years ago.
While most biblical scholars consider the story of the Flood a
myth, many conservatives have little difficulty imagining that
God could pull off precisely what the Genesis story describes.
As with the Creation narrative, however, the evidence and
arguments from science stack up overwhelmingly against a
literal interpretation of the Flood story. Where, for example,
would such a volume of water have come from, and where
would it have gone afterward? How would mammalian life have
re-emerged on isolated islands and landmasses that emerged
from the receding flood waters? While some scholars allow the
possibility that a catastrophic regional deluge may underlie the
flood legends of the ancient Near East, conservatives argue that
there is, indeed, geological evidence consistent with a universal
deluge. But such arguments have found little support within the
scientific mainstream.
AGE OF THE PATRIARCHS
The book of Genesis traces Israel's ancestry to Abraham, a
monotheistic nomad who God promises will be "ancestor of a
multitude of nations" and whose children will inherit the land of
Canaan as "a perpetual holding." God's promise and Israel's
ethnic identity are passed from generation to generation -- from
Abraham to Isaac to Jacob. Then Jacob and his sons -- the
progenitors of Israel's 12 ancient tribes -- are forced by famine
to leave Canaan and migrate to Egypt, where the Israelite people
emerge over a period of some 400 years.
Modern archaeology has found no direct evidence from the
Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 B.C.) -- roughly the period
many scholars believe to be the patriarchal era -- to
corroborate the biblical account. No inscriptions or artifacts
relating to Israel's first biblical ancestors have been
recovered. Nor are there references in other ancient records
to the early battles and conflicts reported in Genesis.
Moreover, some scholars contend that the patriarch stories
contain anachronisms that suggest they were written many
centuries after the events they portray. Abraham, for example, is
described in the 11th and 15th chapters of Genesis as coming
from "Ur of the Chaldeans" -- a city in southern Mesopotamia,
or modern-day Iraq. But the Chaldeans settled in that area "not
earlier than the 9th or 8th centuries" B.C., according to Niels
Peter Lemche, a professor at the University of Copenhagen and
a leading biblical skeptic. That, he says, is more than 1,000
years after Abraham's time and at least 400 years after the time
of Moses, who tradition says wrote the book of Genesis.
Yet other scholars, like Barry Beitzel, professor of Old
Testament and Semitic languages at Trinity Evangelical Divinity
School in Deerfield, Ill., are neither surprised nor troubled by
the apparent lack of direct archaeological evidence for
Abraham's existence. Why, they argue, should one expect to
find the names of an obscure nomad and his descendants in the
official archives of the rulers of Mesopotamia? These are
"family stories," says Beitzel, not geopolitical history of the
type one might expect to find preserved in the annals of
kings.
While there may, indeed, be no direct material evidence relating
to the biblical patriarchs, archaeology has not been altogether
silent on the subject. Kenneth A. Kitchen, an Egyptologist now
retired from the University of Liverpool in England, argues that
archaeology and the Bible "match remarkably well" in depicting
the historical context of the patriarch narratives.
In Genesis 37:28, for example, Joseph, a son of Jacob, is sold by
his brothers into slavery for 20 silver shekels. That, notes
Kitchen, matches precisely the going price of slaves in the
region during the 19th and 18th centuries B.C., as affirmed by
documents recovered from the region that is now modern Syria.
By the 8th century B.C., the price of slaves, as attested in
ancient Assyrian records, had risen steadily to 50 or 60 shekels,
and to 90 to 120 shekels during the Persian Empire in the 5th
and 4th centuries B.C. If the story of Joseph had been dreamed
up by a Jewish scribe in the 6th century, as some skeptics have
suggested, argues Kitchen, "why isn't the price in Exodus also
90 to 100 shekels? It's more reasonable to assume that the
biblical data reflect reality."
FLIGHT FROM EGYPT
The dramatic story of the Exodus -- of God delivering Moses
and the Israelite people from Egyptian bondage and leading
them to the Promised Land of Canaan -- has been called the
"central proclamation of the Hebrew Bible." Yet archaeologists
have found no direct evidence to corroborate the biblical
story. Inscriptions from ancient Egypt contain no mention of
Hebrew slaves, of the plagues that the Bible says preceded
their release, or of the destruction of the pharaoh's army
during the Israelites' miraculous crossing of the Red Sea. No
physical trace has been found of the Israelites' 40-year
nomadic sojourn in the Sinai wilderness. There is not even
any indication, outside of the Bible, that Moses existed.
Still, as with the patriarch narratives, many scholars argue that a
lack of direct evidence is insufficient reason to deny that the
Exodus actually happened. Nahum Sarna, professor emeritus of
biblical studies at Brandeis University, argues that the Exodus
story -- tracing, as it does, a nation's origins to slavery and
oppression -- "cannot possibly be fictional. No nation would be
likely to invent for itself . . . an inglorious and inconvenient
tradition of this nature," unless it had an authentic core. "If
you're making up history," adds Richard Elliott Friedman,
professor at the University of California-San Diego, "it's
that you were descended from gods or kings, not from
slaves."
Indeed, the absence of direct material evidence of an Israelite
sojourn in Egypt is not as surprising, or as damaging to the
Bible's credibility, as it first might seem. What type of material
evidence, after all, would one expect to find that could
corroborate the biblical story? "Slaves, serfs, and nomads leave
few traces in the archaeological record," notes University of
Arizona archaeologist William Dever.
The dating of the Exodus also has long been a source of
controversy. The book of 1 Kings 6:1 gives what appears to be
a clear historical marker for the end of the Israelite sojourn in
Egypt: "In the 480th year after the Israelites came out of the land
of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the
month of Ziv, which is the second month, he began to build the
house of the Lord." Biblical historians generally agree that
Solomon, the son and successor of David came to the throne in
about 962 B.C. If so, then the Exodus would have occurred in
about 1438 B.C., based on the chronology of the 1 Kings
passage.
That date does not fit with other biblical texts or with what
is known of ancient Egyptian history. But the flaw is far from
fatal. Sarna and others argue that the time span cited in 1 Kings -
- 480 years -- should not be taken literally. "It is 12
generations of 40 years each," notes Sarna; 40 being "a rather
conventional figure in the Bible," frequently used to connote a
long period of time. Viewing the 1 Kings chronology in that
light -- as primarily a theological statement rather than as "pure"
history in the modern sense -- the Exodus can be placed in the
13th century, in the days of Ramses II, where it finds strong
circumstantial support in the archaeological record.
THE RULE OF DAVID
The reigns of King David and his son Solomon over a united
monarchy mark the glory years of ancient Israel. That period
(roughly 1000 B.C. to 920 B.C.) -- described in detail in the
books of 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, and 1 and 2 Chronicles
-- marks the beginning of an era of stronger links between
biblical history and modern archaeological evidence. Before the
discovery of the "House of David" inscription at Dan in 1993, it
had become fashionable in some academic circles to dismiss the
David stories as an invention of priestly propagandists who were
trying to dignify Israel's past after the Babylonian exile. But as
Tel Aviv University archaeologist Israel Finkelstein observes,
"Biblical nihilism collapsed overnight with the discovery of the
David inscription."
In the aftermath, another famous ancient inscription found more
than a century ago has attracted renewed scholarly interest. The
so-called Mesha Stele, like the stele on which the Dan
inscription is etched, is a basalt monument from the 9th century
B.C. that commemorates a military victory over Israel -- this one
by the Moabite king Mesha. The lengthy Tyrian text describes
how the kingdom of Moab, a land east of the Jordan River, had
been oppressed by "Omri, king of Israel" (whose reign is
summarized in 1 Kings 16:21-27) and by Omri's successors, and
how Mesha threw off the Israelites in a glorious military
campaign.
But the name of another of Mesha's conquered foes may lie
hidden in a partially obliterated line of text that, transliterated,
reads b[]wd; the remainder of the inscription is missing. The
French scholar Andr LeMaire, after carefully re-examining the
inscription, has suggested that the line should be filled in to read
bt dwd -- "beit David," or "house of David" -- a reference to the
kingdom of Judah. "No doubt," says LeMaire, "the missing part
of the inscription described how Mesha also threw off the yoke
of Judah and conquered the territory southeast of the Dead Sea
controlled by the House of David."
As significant as they are, these two inscriptions -- both still
contested -- remain for now the only extrabiblical references to
David's dynasty. And both were written more than a century
after the reigns of David and Solomon. Given the grandeur of
the Israelite monarchy under the two kings as described in the
Bible, how could such an influential and popular regime have
attracted so little notice in ancient Near Eastern documents from
the time?
The answer, suggests Carol Meyers, professor of biblical studies
and archaeology at Duke University, may lie in the political
climate in the region at the time, when, she says, "a power
vacuum existed in the eastern Mediterranean." The collapse of
Egypt's 20th dynasty around 1069 B.C. led to a lengthy period
of economic and political decline for a nation that had exerted
powerful influence over the city-states of Palestine during the
Late Bronze Age. This period of Egyptian weakness, which
lasted for over a century (until around 945 B.C.), saw a "relative
paucity of monumental inscriptions," says Meyers. "The kings
had nothing to boast about."
Similarly, the Assyrian empire to the east was unusually silent
from the late 11th to the early 9th century B.C. regarding the
western lands it once had dominated. Assyria was preoccupied,
says Meyers, with internal turmoil following the death of one of
the greatest of its early kings. Another major power in the
region, Babylonia, also was uncharacteristically quiet. For
centuries following a raid on Assyria in 1081 B.C., it seldom
ventured beyond its own borders, says Meyers, "and thus its
records would hardly have mentioned a new dynastic state to the
west."
The reign of David was a time of territorial expansion for the
united Israelite kingdom and was marked, according to the
Bible, by a series of military victories. Twice the Israelite armies
repulsed invasions by the Philistines, a belligerent horde of
pagan marauders who occupied Canaan's Mediterranean coastal
plains. While the Bible depicts the Philistines as a frequent
nemesis of the Israelites, their name does not appear in
ancient nonbiblical sources before 1200 B.C. Some minimalist
scholars have suggested that the biblical stories of run-ins with
the dreaded Philistines were invented by priestly scribes in the
middle of the 1st millennium B.C. to dramatize the military
prowess of the mythical Davidic dynasty.
But modern archaeology has uncovered a wealth of information
regarding the Philistine "sea people" thoroughly consistent with
their portrayal in the Bible. For example, sources including
numerous Egyptian inscriptions indicate that the Philistines
most likely originated in the Aegean area, probably on the
island of Crete. That fits with biblical passages (Jeremiah 47:4
and Deuteronomy 2:23, for example) linking them with Caphtor,
a location most scholars identify with Crete.
Additionally, the Bible depicts the Philistines as expert
metallurgists, and archaeologists have found material evidence
that the Philistines were, indeed, expert metalworkers. Trude
Dothan, a Hebrew University archaeologist who has excavated
many of the Philistine sites, says this superior knowledge no
doubt gave them a military advantage in their early battles with
the Israelites. She notes that in the famous story of the duel
between David and Goliath in 1 Samuel 17, the giant Philistine
warrior is described as wearing a bronze helmet and bronze
body armor and carrying a spear with a shaft "like a weaver's
beam" and with a head of iron. "The Bible compares Goliath's
spear to a weaver's beam," Dothan says, "because this type of
weapon was new to Canaan and had no Hebrew name." Once
again, the Bible and archaeology are in agreement.
THE DAYS OF THE FALL OF THE TEMPLE
Compared with the earlier eras of Old Testament history, the
days of the fall of the temple are a fleeting moment. A life span
of just three decades and a public career of only a few years
leave a dauntingly narrow target for archaeological exploration.
Yet during the past four decades, spectacular discoveries have
produced data illuminating the story of Jesus and the birth
of Christianity. The picture that has emerged overall closely
matches the historical backdrop of the Gospels.
In 1968, for example, explorers found the skeletal remains of a
crucified man in a burial cave at Giva'at ha-Mitvar, near the
Nablus road outside of Jerusalem. It was a momentous
discovery: While the Romans were known to have crucified
thousands of alleged traitors, rebels, robbers, and deserters in the
two centuries straddling the turn of the era, never before had the
remains of a crucifixion victim been recovered. An initial
analysis of the remains found that their condition dramatically
corroborated the Bible's description of the Roman method of
execution.
The bones were preserved in a stone burial box called an
ossuary and appeared to be those of a man about 5 feet, 5 inches
tall and 24 to 28 years old. His open arms had been nailed to the
crossbar, in the manner similar to that shown in crucifixion
paintings. The knees had been doubled up and turned sideways,
and a single large iron nail had been driven through both heels.
The nail -- still lodged in the heel bone of one foot, though the
executioners had removed the body from the cross after death --
was found bent, apparently having hit a knot in the wood. The
shin bones seem to have been broken, corroborating what the
Gospel of John suggests was normal practice in Roman
crucifixions: "Then the soldiers came and broke the legs of the
first and of the other who had been crucified with him. But when
they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did
not break his legs" (19:32-33). While one later analysis drew
some different conclusions about how the man died, [some]
similarities to the biblical account were affirmed.
The discovery also posed a counterargument to objections some
scholars have raised against the Gospels' description of Jesus's
burial. It has been argued that the common practice of Roman
executioners was to toss corpses of crucified criminals into a
common grave or to leave them on the cross to be devoured by
scavenging animals. So it hardly seems feasible, the argument
goes, that Roman authorities would have allowed Jesus to
undergo the burial described in the Gospels. But with the
remains of a crucified man found in a family grave, it is clear
that at least on some occasions the Romans permitted proper
interment consistent with the biblical account.
A find at another Jerusalem site added to the list of Gospel
figures whose existence has been verified by archaeology.
Workers building a water park 2 miles south of the Temple
Mount in 1990 inadvertently broke through the ceiling of a
hidden burial chamber dating to the 1st century A.D. Inside,
archaeologists found 12 limestone ossuaries. One contained the
bones of a 60-year-old man and bore the inscription Yehosef bar
Qayafa -- "Joseph, son of Caiaphas." Experts believe these
remains are probably those of Caiaphas the high priest of
Jerusalem, who according to the Gospels ordered the arrest of
Jesus, interrogated him, and handed him over to Pontius Pilate
for execution.
A few decades earlier, the name of another key figure in the
days of Jesus turned up in the archaeological record: During
excavations in 1961 at the seaside ruins of Caesarea Maritima,
the ancient seat of Roman government in Judea, a 1st-century
inscription was uncovered confirming that Pilate had been the
Roman ruler of the region at the time of Jesus's supposedly
crucifixion. Italian archaeologists working at the city's
magnificent Herodian theater found the inscribed stone slab in
use in the theater's steps. Experts say it originally was a 1st-
century plaque at a nearby temple honoring the emperor
Tiberius. The badly damaged Latin inscription reads in part,
Tiberieum . . . [Pon]tius Pilatus . . . [Praef]ectus Juda[ea]e.
According to experts, the complete inscription would have read,
"Pontius Pilate, the Prefect of Judea, has dedicated to the people
of Caesarea a temple in honor of Tiberius." The discovery of the
so-called Pilate Stone has been widely acclaimed as a significant
affirmation of biblical history because, in short, it confirms that
the man depicted in the Gospels as Judea's Roman governor had
precisely the responsibilities and authority that the Gospel
writers ascribed to him.
THE ROAD AHEAD
Modern archaeology may not have removed all doubt about the
historical accuracy of the Bible. But thanks to archaeology, the
Bible "no longer appears as an absolutely isolated monument of
the past, as a phenomenon without relation to its environment,"
as the great American archaeologist William Albright wrote at
midcentury. Instead, it has been firmly fixed in a context of
knowable history, linked to the present by footprints across the
archaeological record.
Just as archaeology has shed new light on the Bible, the
Bible in turn has often proved a useful tool for
archaeologists. Yigael Yadin, the Israeli archaeologist who
excavated at Hazor in the 1950s, relied heavily on its guidance
in finding the great gate of Solomon at the famous upper Galilee
site: "We went about discovering [the gate] with Bible in one
hand and spade in the other." And Trude Dothan notes that
"without the Bible, we wouldn't even have known there were
Philistines."
Much work remains for the archaeological explorers of the next
century, and many more mysteries of the Bible wait to be
solved. Where, for example, are the lost "Annals of the
Kings" of Israel and Judah cited as literary sources in the
Old Testament book of 1 Kings, and the five books of Papias
mentioned in early church writings as a collection of the
sayings of Jesus? Will further discoveries of hidden scrolls
from the Dead Sea reveal new insights into the birth of
Christianity? Scholars are convinced there is much more out
there waiting to be found. It's just a matter of time. (From Is the
Bible True? by Jeffery L. Sheler)
 ISRAEL'S ORIGINS
(beginning ca. 1400 BC)

by Dr. David Livingston

For some time now many archaeologists, based on the available evidence, have become
convinced that there was no violent military assault on the land by Israel. They believe
the entire account is myth. This is based on the absence of archaeological evidence for a
Conquest like that described in the Bible.

In an earlier day, Albright, and others following his lead, found burn and destruction
levels in many sites all over the land dating to ca. 1290-1200. These, they believed, were the
evidence for an Israelite invasion and destruction of the Canaanite cities at that time.

However, that is much too late for THE Conquest. Furthermore, the Bible clearly says we should
expect burn levels at only three sites: Jericho, Ai, and Hazor (Joshua 6:4; 8:28; 11:13).
At Jericho, Kenyon misread local wares from LB I and thus dated the Israelite destruction
there too early, with respect to the "late date" held by many.

However, Garstang's ceramic finds (now in several museums) and recently rediscovered
(Wood 1990), prove that Garstang had indeed excavated considerable bichrome ware
from the destruction of City IV(whether locally made or not, it is still bichrome ware)
considered by archaeologists to be the sign of an LB I presence. Why do critics of the
story ignore this conclusive information?
As for Ai, its location is still uncertain.

Hazor had a major discontinuity at the end of Late Bronze I at ca. 1400 BC. This
evidence, concerning stratum 2 and 1b, is scattered through the Hazor site publications,
in Hazor: The Schweich Lectures (Yadin 1972: 64, 124-25, 127), in "The Role of Hazor
in the Late Bronze Age" (Bienkowski 1987: 51-52, 58-59), and in the NEAEHL (Stern:
1993: 594-605).

Two Theories to Account for the Presence of Israel in the Land

One theory is that Israel resulted from a long string of semitic migrations from other
areas into the land, these groups finally federating late in the second millennium. Then,
to legitimatize their union they produced books by unnamed priests and others, during
the kingdom period, that were attributed to Moses and others, eventually becoming
theTanach. Thus, the Tanach, for them, is unreliable fiction.
A second theory of the "origin of Israel" is that Canaanite peasants revolted against their
overlords who controlled the towns and cities. After successfully destroying the power of
the oppressors, the peasants opted to adopt YHWH as their god. Likewise they changed
their ethnic identity by calling themselves "Israelites" and composed documents
(mentioned above) to legitimatize their existence. (An expansion of these viewpoints is
found in Finkelstein 1988b: 295-314.)

Why Not Accept the Historical/Biblical Explanation?

What is being overlooked or ignored in these theories are several essential

considerations. For instance, there is the preparation by Egypt for Israels entry.
Thutmosis III and Amenhotep II rampaged through the land one campaign after another.
Scribes wrote long lists of lowland cities these pharaohs conquered or destroyed only a
short time before Israel entered the land. Israel then only needed to go into the
highlands, for the most part, to overcome cities up there. They only burned three cities:
Jericho, Ai, and Hazor (Joshua 6: 4, 8: 28, 11: 13). The latter was in the lowlands, but it
was huge and not likely to have been reduced by the Egyptians. Jericho was too far
inland for the Egyptians and Ai was an insignificant highland town. All three were burned
ca. 1400 BC.

Where did the Israelites live during LB II and IA I? Most of them lived in tents. They had
been nomads for 40 years in the wilderness and were used to living that way. As late as
the time of Samuel and David many Israelites were still living in tents (1 Samuel 4: 10;
13: 2; 2 Samuel 18: 17; 20: 1; 20: 22). Therefore, we need not expect evidence of them
to show up in excavations of towns and cities. Most of them were living in the
countryside. This apparently was the situation throughout the time of the Judges and
even to the late kingdom period. There is a plethora of citations of Israel living in tents.

Why is this important? With the host of Israel living in tents all over the land, one can
hardly expect to find an Israelite "presence," especially since the newcomers left the
towns and cities largely to the former inhabitants. Thus, digging in the cities, one should
not always expect to discover artifacts peculiar to Israel. Most digs, in fact, seem to
indicate that the Canaanites continued as before the invasion. This was the substance of
YHWH's complaint against Israel (Judges 1: 21, 27-35; 3: 1-7).

Signs of Israel in the Land Early in Late Bronze II

1. Cultural changes favor an early (1400 BC) Conquest.

Frederic Brandfon, one of the staff at the Beer-Sheba excavation, summed up the
general picture of excavations at Iron Age sites,

. . . most of the [Iron Age] villages were established prior to the destruction of the urban centers
on the nearby tells. . . . Villages so characteristic of the Israelite settlement period began at a
time when the Late Bronze Age cities had not yet been destroyed. The resulting archaeological
picture is one of cultural overlapping, with urban and rural settlements existing side by side. . . .
Sites typical of the Late Bronze Age -- the Canaanite cities -- and sites characteristic of the Iron
Age -- the Early Iron Age villages are now known to have been contemporary. In relative terms,
the Iron Age appears to have begun earlier than previously suspected. The excavations of the
village sites has raised the date for the beginning of the Iron Age, while the Lachish and Tel Sera
inscriptions have lowered the date for the end of the Late Bronze Age. The result is a broad
range of overlap between what is commonly known as the "Late Bronze Age" and the "Early Iron
Age" lasting almost 100 years, from about 1230 to 1150 B.C.E. (Herzog 1984: 67).

This admirably addresses the situation of Israel living in the countryside in tents while the
towns and cities remained Canaanite, but were gradually taken over by Israelites.

Kempinski, in a summary from Eretz-Israel said the same.

There is no actual break between the end of one period and the beginning of the next.
Rather, there were quite lengthy periods of overlap. Proof for an overlap between the
Canaanite and the "Israelite" culture during the 13th century BCE is found through
examination of four pottery types which emphasizes the borrowing process of the
"Israelite" potters from the Canaanites. The pottery forms utilized to illustrate this process
are (1) the collared-rim storage jar; (2) the multi-handled bowl; (3) the cooking pot; and
(4) the storage-jar (Kempinski 1985: 79*).

Volkmar Fritz, although calling "naive" those who believe in a literal military Conquest (as
we do), published an article which largely supports that view (although we doubt that he
meant to do so). He is confident that the "Habiru" (see below) "may have contributed to
the disappearance of the city-states" (1987: 91). Again, he said, "The establishment of
new settlements in the early Iron Age took place mainly in areas removed from the sites
of the Canaanite cities in Galilee, in the central mountains and in the Negeb" (1987: 92).

Considering objects found in Iron Age settlements, Fritz said, "The objects of the early
Iron Age indicate complete dependence on the culture of the Late Bronze Age" (our
emphasis, 1987: 97). This is what we would expect in an early conquest followed by
Israel slowly taking over the land, which included syncretism in religion.

Yehezkil Kauffman, ". . . the character of Joshuas wars . . . they are wars of destruction
and extermination, not of occupation by immediate settlement. Joshua does not leave
garrisons in the cities which he has captured, but he returns with all the people to the
camp at Gilgal" (his emphasis, 1953: 86). By this we are reminded that Israel did not take
over the cities, but continued to live for some time in tents on the countryside outside the
cities according to studies in the Iron Age Pottery. "All evidence taken together, then,
points to the Canaanite character of Taanach until Period II" (1125 BC, Rast 1978: 15).
Joshua 17: 11 says the same: Taanach was one of those cities belonging to Manasseh
which, although defeated once earlier, continued to be Canaanite (ibid, 12-13).

Concerning all this, I. Finkelstein raised some interesting questions. "Where did over half
of the country's people vanish to at the end of the Middle Bronze Age? And from where
did the people who settled the hundreds of sites in Iron I materialize?" He continues,
"The reasons for the disintegration of permanent settlements at the end of MB II are not
entirely clear. . . . We might be inclined to blame it on Egyptian military conquests at the
beginning of the New Kingdom" (1988a: 40).

We suggest that the answer to the first question is that half the Canaanites were killed in
the Israelite onslaught. The answer to the second is that Israel slowly moved out of their
tents in the countryside and into settlements. The disintegration of MB II cities was
caused by the earlier Egyptian campaigns and finished by the Israelite invasion.

Finally, Finkelstein reports,

". . . . More recently, points of contact and continuity have been highlighted, especially with
respect to pottery. . . . No total cultural break should be expected even if new groups of people
entered the area. The material culture of the new group would soon be influenced by the material
culture prevailing in that area . . ." (Finkelstein 1988a: 37).

Why reject the Bible out-of-hand and have nothing but guesses and opinions? The Bible
is history whether one chooses to accept it as such, or not.

2. Indications of an early Israelite presence in the land.

Danite migration: The tribe of Dan had lived, apparently unsuccessfully, in its
prescribed area for some time (over two-thirds of the book of Judges, to chapter 18)
when they decided to move up to Laish. Avraham Biran says of his excavation of Dan,

"The collared-rim jars probably were bought to the site by the tribe of Dan when they moved
north from their original location near the coast. The archaeological evidence points to a date at
the end of the 13th or beginning of the 12th centuries BC" (Gitin and Dever 1989: 71 abstract).

To that date 100-200 years must be added to the period of the Judges to learn the initial
date of the settlement of the Danites near the coast, which puts them there about 1400-
1350 BC.

Merneptah Stela: In the fifth year of his reign (ca. 1230 BC) this pharaoh took a large
black stela of Amenhotep III and carved his own victory inscription. At the end of 28 lines
of writing he mentions Ashkelon, Gezer, Yano'am, and "Israel." Merneptah would have
gained little credit if he only subjected some insignificant people. So we can be confident
that Israel was well-established in the Land by his time.

Not only were the Hebrews in the land, and already settled by Merneptahs time, but the
land was known as "The Land of the Hebrews" as early as Joseph's day (Genesis
40:15). This may not be an anachronism.

The name "Asher" appears on a stela of Seti I ca. 1320 BC found in Beth Shan
(Pritchard 1966: 477). Called "Aser" (also "Asuru" elsewhere) in Papyrus Anastasi I, this
may be a reference to the tribe of Asher, already settled in the Land by the end of the
thirteenth century.

The Kh. Raddana inscription: A jar handle with an inscription 'Ahilud (Cross and
Freedman), or 'Ahiram (Aharoni). The two former, and excavator Callaway, believe it is
from ca. 1200-1100. But Aharoni was convinced it is as early as 1300 BC (Stern 1993:
1254). Although others say the pottery is later than Aharoni claimed it to be, it should be
considered.

The Isbet Sarta inscription: Moshe Kochavi says it is the oldest Proto-Canaanite
inscription found so far in the country (Stern 1993: 654). Not least is the Amarna
correspondence. Letters sent back and forth between Canaanite rulers and the pharaohs
Amenhotep III and IV (early 14th century) indicate quite clearly that there was an
incursion of hostile people called the "Apiru" or "Habiru." Most significant is the situation
at Shechem which was ruled by Lab'ayu. Nearby city-state rulers complained to the
pharaohs that this man was cooperating with the intruders and even aiding them. "Now
shall we do as Lab'ayu, who gave the land of Shechem to the 'Apiru?" (Wright 1965:
200).

Paralleling this is the description in Joshua 8:30-35 of the host of Israel going up to
Shechem to renew the covenant and half on Mt. Gerizim protest is heard from the
citizens of Shechem, whereas everywhere else in the Land, the inhabitants opposed
Israel. Of course, we assume here that Israel entered the land by 1400 BC.

Amihai Mazar sums it up very well (although he may not agree with our premise that
Israel invaded the land in ca. 1400 BC):

. . . the settlers at first utilized the pottery, arts, crafts and some architectural features of the
Canaanite culture flourish in various areas of the country. . . . The discoveries appear to depict a
settlement by tribal groups who once followed a seminomadic, pastoral way of life (Mazar 1990:
354-55).

The picture in the eastern Negeb. Y. Aharoni said in 1975, "It is certain today that no
settlement of the Late Bronze Age existed in the eastern Negeb" (Aharoni: 1975: 114).
Itshak Beit Arieh in personal correspondence confirmed this. However, that does not at
all disturb our theory. It only strengthens it in that we know the king of Arad attacked
Israel (Numbers 21:1, 33:40, Joshua 12:14). But, since there were no LB settlements in
the eastern Negev, the king of Arad must have been a "hangover" from Middle Bronze
until Israel came through from the southeast. One of two tells, either Masos or Malhata,
both well fortified during MB II, were sites which fill the biblical description.

In Conclusion:

It seems to us that the evidence for an early Israelite presence (ca. 1400 BC) is as good,
if not considerably better, than that produced for a non-invasive, non-destructive, non-
"occupation" of the land sometime following 1250 BC.
Bibliography

Aharoni, Y.
1975 Investigations at Lachish: The Sanctuary and the Residency, Lachish V.
Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology.

Bienkowski, P.
1987 The Role of Hazor in the Late Bronze Age. PEQ: 119: 50-61.

Finkelstein, I.
1988a Searching for Israelite Origins. BAR 14/5: 34-45, 58.
1988b The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement. Jerusalem: IES.

Fritz, V.
1987 Conquest or Settlement: The Early Iron Age in Palestine. BA 50, 84-100.

Gitin, S. and Dever, W. G.

1989 Recent Excavations in Israel: Studies in Iron Age Archaeology.
Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

Herzog, Z.
1984 Beer-Sheba II: The Early Iron Age Settlements.
Tel Aviv University: Institute of Archaeology.

Kempinski, A.
1985 The Overlap of Cultures at the End of the Late Bronze Age
and the Beginning of the Iron Age. EI. 18: 399-407, 79*.

Mazar, A.
1990 Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. New York and London: Doubleday.

Pritchard, J. B.
1966 Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament. Princeton: Princeton
University

Rast, W.E.
1978 Taanach I: Studies in the Iron Age Pottery. Cambridge, MA: ASOR.

Stern, E.
1993 (Ed.) The new Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy
Land.Jerusalem: IES and Carta.

Wood, B. G.
1990 Did the Israelites Conquer Jericho? BAR 16/2: 44-58.

Wright, G. E.
1965 Shechem: The Biography of a Biblical City. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Yadin, Y., et al.

1972 Hazor: The Schweich Lectures. London: Oxford Press.

Khirbet Nisya: The Search for Biblical Ai, 1979-2002

by Dr. David Livingston

To Order Book (click here or scroll down)

This book is a final report on 24 years of excavations at Khirbet Nisya, Israel.

"Khirbet" means "ruins," and "Nisya" means "forgotten." They are the "forgotten
ruins" of what we believe was biblical Ai. (When we first found the site it was
not on the registry of hundreds of sites in Israel at the Israel Antiquities
Authority.) Could this be the Ai of Joshua's time? We believe so and that is
what the book is about.

The book was written with laymen in mind as well as professional

archaeologists. Two-thirds of the book was done to (hopefully) satisfy
professionals. But even that material we tried to deal with in a manner that
might interest nonprofessionals.

There are several chapters suggested by finds at the excavations which are
meant to be enlightening biblically. We consider the Bible as Truth and a guide,
not only religiously, but also historically.

One chapter is an in-depth study on the location of Bethel, the second most-
mentioned city in the Bible next to Jerusalem. Both the traditional locations of
Bethel and Ai apparently were wrong. This has had considerable implications
for dating, especially for dating the Exodus and Conquest. Another chapter
examines the present consensus on dating these two climactic events, and
shows how the scholarly world went the wrong direction, leading to many
current incorrect conclusions regarding locations and dates, all resulting from
previously proposed sites for Bethel and Ai.

One must read the author's correspondence with Drs. Kelso and Albright in an
appendix. The former was one of the author's professors at seminary, a very
close friend, and was actually the editor of The Excavation of Bethel. Their
responses to his changing the locations of both Bethel and Ai are very
instructive.

More than 40 pages of colored photos

More than 150 photographs and plans
29 pottery plates with catalogs
310 pages with a hard binding

Contents of the Book

Excavated periods include findings for:

Middle and Late Bronze. (Photos of bronze MB dagger, scarab,

and pottery.)
Iron Age I and II. (Description of Iron Age I tomb with jewelry.)
Persian. (A necessary period for site to be Ai. Photos of three
Yahud seals.)
Hellenistic. (Photos and plans of two pottery kilns. 12 cooking
pots found in a trench.)
Early Roman. (Details of refuse pit.)
Early and Late Byzantine. (An underground dwelling. Finds
indicating a church.)
Early Islamic. (Unearthing a complete olive oil "factory," and a
silver torque with 30 coins.)
Enigmatic cuttings in bedrock. (Is this a Canaanite temple
foundation?)
 Coins of Khirbet Nisya. (Of more than 220 coins found, 157 are
photographed and catalogued.)
Objects from all seasons. (Long list with photos of interesting
small finds.)

Historical and Biblical studies:

The identification and location of Biblical Bethel. (On the

importance of Bethel's location.)
The identification and location of Biblical Ai. (A thorough study on
the significance of Ai.
Map of the area showing placement of Israelite troops in the battle
for Ai.)
Why correct dates are vital for the Biblical Exodus and Conquest.
(Traces developments in the deviations in dating.)
Israel's origins. (Many scholars today believe Biblical narratives
are myth -- here is the antidote.)
Why use stone vessels and Mikvaot? (Explains some Jewish laws
of cleansing.)
Olive oil production and use in antiquity.