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Workbook 4 ESO
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4O ESO
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Workbook 4 ESO
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INDEX
UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD.....................................................................9
1. MAGNITUDES AND MEASUREMENTS. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNITUDES................................................ 9
2. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS. MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLES. CONVERSION FACTORS.................10
Length, surface and volume. Charts of units...............................................................................................12
3. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION..................................................................................................................................14
4. MEASURING DEVICES..................................................................................................................................15
5. MEASUREMENT ERRORS.............................................................................................................................16
6. ANALYSIS OF DATA.......................................................................................................................................17
6.1 Proportional graph..............................................................................................................................18
6.2 Quadratic graph..................................................................................................................................18
6.3 Inverse proportion..............................................................................................................................19
7. WORKING IN THE LABORATORY. SCIENTIFIC METHOD. STUDY OF A PENDULUM LIKE MOTION................20
8. WORKING IN THE LABORATORY. SECURITY RULES AND LABORATORY REPORT..........................................21
9. READING COMPREHENSION. SEARCH OF INFORMATION USING THE INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES.............................................................................................................22
10. LABORATORY ACTIVITY: CALCULATING THE DENSITY OF A SUBSTANCE GRAPHICALLY...............................22
11. VOCABULARY REVIEW.................................................................................................................................23
12. FINAL ACTIVITIES........................................................................................................................................24
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UNIT 4: ASTRONOMY......................................................................................................................67
1. INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMY................................................................................................................67
2. READING COMPREHENSION: GEOCENTRIC AND HELIOCENTRIC MODELS.................................................67
3. READING COMPREHENSION: GALILEOS TELESCOPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE..............................................68
4. MOTION OF PLANETS AND SATELLITES. KEPLERS LAWS.............................................................................69
5. NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION..............................................................................................................70
5.1 Centripetal Force.................................................................................................................................71
5.2 Applying Newtons Laws.....................................................................................................................71
6. WEIGHT ON FALLING BODIES......................................................................................................................72
7. READING COMPREHENSION: CONTEMPORARY COSMOLOGY....................................................................72
8. ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES AND ITS APPLICATIONS...........................................................................................73
9. LABORATORY ACTIVITY: MEASURING THE GRAVITY CONSTANT OF THE EARTH.........................................73
10. VOCABULARY REVIEW.................................................................................................................................75
11. FINAL ACTIVITIES........................................................................................................................................76
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Mechanics is the science concerned with the equilibrium or motion of bodies in a particular frame of reference.
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which describes the motion of objects using words, numbers, graphs and
equations without taking in mind the origin of that motion. The goal of any study of kinematics is to develop
models that serve to describe and explain the motion of real-world objects.
In order to study a body in motion completely, it is necessary to know all the concepts and magnitudes which
are involved in it.
(0,0) X
In most of the examples you will work in this unit, the most suitable frame of reference will have the (0,0) point
in the starting point of the motion. Take in mind that the frame of reference should be the same during all the
study of the motion.
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Physics and Chemistry
However, when the motion has only one dimension, it may be studied in two different ways:
A horizontal motion may be studied along the X axis and the position is represented by x
X
The position vector x has a positive value.
X
A vertical motion may be studied along the Y axis and the position is represented by y.
YY
Notice that the position is a vector magnitude measured in meters (m) in the SI.
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Y B
t2
Displacement r
Distance s
t1
When the trajectory described by the body in motion is a straight line without any change in the direction, the
covered distance corresponds to the numerical value of the displacement:
t1 x t2
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Physics and Chemistry
When the body in motion is approaching to the reference frame, the representation of the movement
is the following:
t2 x t1
1. The position of a moving body throughout the time is shown in the following table:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4
Position, X (m) 2 8 20 34 52
a. At which distance from the observer does the movement start?
b. Calculate the displacement in the intervals: from 0s to 1s, from 1s to 3s and from 2s to 4s.
c. Calculate its total displacement.
2. An observer situated on the ground, studies how a stone falls from a plane. The following table shows its
position throughout the time:
Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20
Position, Y (m) 2000 1878 1510 898 40
a. How high is the plane flying?
b. Calculate the displacement of the stone in the intervals: from 0 to 5, from 5 to 10, from 10 to 15 and
from 15 to 20.
c. What do you observe in your calculations
d. How may you explain the negative value of the displacement?
1.4 Velocity
Velocity is a vector magnitude which informs about the rate that an object changes in position. The direction of
the velocity is the same that the direction of the body motion:
x
v
When a horizontal motion is being studied, the numerical value of the velocity is calculated:
x x2 x1
v= =
t t2 t1
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Workbook 4 ESO
Or, when a vertical motion is being studied, the numerical value of the velocity is calculated:
y y2 y1
v= =
t t2 t1
Actually, this equation is used to calculate an average velocity of any motion when the velocity of the movement
is changing.
Instantaneous velocity is defined as the velocity of a body in motion in an exact moment. Take in mind that
the instantaneous velocity at a point on the path corresponds to the average velocity when time interval gets
smaller and smaller, almost cero.
So, if the velocity of the motion is changing, this equation allows us to calculate an average velocity, but, if the
body keeps the same velocity, the instantaneous velocity is also calculated by this equation.
The SI unit for velocity is m/s, although the unit km/h is commonly used.
EXERCISES
1. The position of a moving body throughout the time is shown in the following table:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4
Position, X (m) 0 8 20 34 52
a. Calculate the average velocity in the intervals: from 0s to 1s, from 1s to 3s and from 2s to 4s.
b. Calculate average velocity in its motion.
1.5 Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector magnitude that is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity.
An object is accelerating if its velocity is changing. An average acceleration of the movement is
calculated by:
v v2 v1
a= =
t t2 t1
Actually, this equation is used to calculate an average acceleration of any motion when the acceleration of the
motion is changing.
Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the acceleration of a body in motion in an exact moment. Take in mind
that the instantaneous acceleration at a point on the path corresponds to the average acceleration when time
interval gets smaller and smaller, almost cero.
So, when the acceleration of the motion remains constant this equation allows us to calculate the instantaneous
acceleration.
The SI unit for acceleration is m/s2
In a rectilinear motion the direction of the acceleration vector is defined following the rules:
When the object is speeding up the acceleration has the same direction of the velocity.
a
v2 v1
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Physics and Chemistry
When the body is slowing down the direction of the acceleration is the opposite the velocity direction.
a
v2 v1
1. The acceleration of a body is 2 m/s2. It means that the mobile . Its velocity
in m/s throughout ..
2. Calculate the acceleration of a train if its velocity is 60 km/h after 10 seconds of departing.
3. A cyclist rides at a speed of 18 km/h and 5 seconds later his velocity is 22 km/h. Calculate the acceleration
of his motion.
4. A car is driven at a speed of 70 km/h. Its driver slows down and stops in 3 seconds. Calculate the
acceleration of the motion.
x = xo + v (t to )
The next step is to learn how to use this equation with the following examples, which show usual problems of
uniform rectilinear movement:
2. In the final step of a factory production, boxes, over a conveyor belt, cover a distance of 12 m in 4 s.
Which is the velocity of their motion?
Data Solving method
xo = 0 m In the general equation xo, to, x and t are replaced for their values
to = 0s x = xo + v(t to)
x = 12m 12m = 0 + v(4s 0)
t = 4s 12m = v 4s
v=? 12m
v=
4s
v = 3 ms
In order t o solve this problem in a more direct way, the definition of velocity may be used:
x xo
v=
t to
3. From two points of a billiard table, two balls are thrown at a constant rate in order to converge and
collide. One of them is thrown from A point at a rate of 0,5 m/s and the other is thrown 2 s later from
B point at a rate of 1,5 m/s. If the distance from A to B is 3 m, in which position do both balls collide?
Take the reference frame in A point.
VA VB
A B
x0A= 0 m x0B= 3m
t0A= 0s t0B = 2s (The movement starts 2 s later)
Data
vA= 0,5 m/s vB = 1,5 m/s (the velocity is directed in the negative direction)
t to collide = ? t to collide=?
equation
xA = 0,5t xB = 3 1,5(t 2)
In the moment of the collision both balls have the same position, so xA=xB:
0,5t = 3 1,5(t 2)
The time to collide can be calculated:
0,5t = 3 (1,5t + 3)
2t = 6
t = 3s
The collision takes place after 3 seconds the ball in A starts its movement.
Now, t is replaced for 3 s in one of the equations of xA or xB:
xA= 0,5m/s 3s xB = 3m 1,5m/s(3s 2s)
xA= 1,5 m xB = 1,5 m
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Physics and Chemistry
4. Car A, moving at a speed of 108 km/h, passes through cero point of a road and 5 minutes
later a second car B passes through it at a speed of 115,2 km/h. Calculate the position from
cero point at which car B catches up with car A.
VB
XA=XB
VA
0
x0A= 0 m x0B= 0 m
t0A = 0 s t0B= 5 min = 300 s
Data
In the moment that B catches up with A, both cars have the same position, so xA= xB:
30t = 32(t 300)
The time to collide can be calculated:
30t = 9600 + 32t
2t = 9600
t = 4800s = 80 min
They are in the same position 80 minutes later that the car A passes through 0 point.
Now, t is replaced for 4800 s in one of the equations of xA or xB:
xA = 30m/s 4800s xB = 32m/s(4800s 300s)
xA = 144000 m = 144 km xB = 144000 m = 144 km
Solution: Car B catches up with car A, 144 km away from de zero point.
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Workbook 4 ESO
tt == 0s tt == 2s tt == 4s tt == 6s
6s tt == 8s
8s tt == 10s
10s
0s 2s 4s
xx == 0,5 xx == 1,25
1,25 m
xx == 0m
0m xx =0,25
=0,25 m
m 0,5 m
m xx == 0,75
0,75 m
m xx == 11 m
m m
Notice that the train engine covers a distance of 0,25 m each 2 seconds, so its velocity is constant and it has a
value of:
0,25 m
v= = 0,13 m/s
2s
If x-distance is plotted versus time:
x (m)
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 t (s)
x - distance versus time is a proportional graph whose slope (gradient of the line) represents the velocity
of the train engine, which is constant:
x x2 x1
v= =
t t2 t1
When velocity versus time is represented, as the velocity value remains constant the graph corresponds
to a straight line parallel to the x- axis:
v (m/s)
1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
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Physics and Chemistry
Practice the study of graphs in uniform rectilinear motion solving the following exercises:
1. Describe the motion represented in the following graphs:
x (m)x (m)
x (m) x (m)x (m)
x (m) x (m)x (m)
x (m)
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2. Represent the graph position versus time of the following motions and calculate their velocities :
a. A body is approaching to the observer at a constant velocity from 20 m in 15 seconds
b. A car situated 5 meters far from the observer goes away at a constant velocity and gets a position of
50 m in 10 seconds.
c. A car goes away at a constant rate from the reference point to 50 m far away in 2 seconds.
3. Interpret the following graph which represents the motion of a boy from his home. To do it:
a. Interpret each stretch
b. Calculate the velocity in each stretch
x (m)
1200
C D
800 A B
400
E
0 10 30 40 t (min)
20
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Workbook 4 ESO
As the acceleration of the motion does not change throughout the time, the equation of the velocity may be
obtained from the definition of acceleration:
v vo
a=
t to
Where:
v0 represents the initial velocity
t0 represent the initial time
v is the velocity when the time is t
Reordering the equation:
a = (t to) = v vo
v = vo + a (t to)
Notice that de velocity equation corresponds to a straight line, so when velocity versus time graph is
represented, a straight line is obtained. Bellow, it is represented a general example where v0 and t0 are
different from cero:
v (m/s)
v
V0
t0 t t (s)
The painted area below the graph represents the displacement x in the time interval t = t-t0. When this area
is calculated:
x = vo (t to) + 12 (v vo) (t to)
Where:
x = x xo
Reordering the equation of velocity:
v vo = a(t to)
When x and (v-v0) are substituted by their values in x equation:
x xo = vo (t to)+12a(t to) (t to)
So:
x = xo + vo(t to) +12 a(t to)2
This is the general equation of the position in a rectilinear uniformly accelerated motion.
So to summary, a rectilinear uniformly accelerated motion is defined by two equations:
v = vo + a (t to)
x = xo + vo(t to) +12 a(t to)2
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Physics and Chemistry
Now, look into the following exercises in order to learn how to use them:
1. A car starts from rest and gets the velocity 100 km/h in 20 s.
a. Calculate the acceleration of the motion
b. Calculate the distance covered by the car in the 20 s.
Data Solving method
x0 = 0 m a) Beforehand, we need to know the final velocity v in the International
v0 = 0 m/s System unit:
t0 = 0s km 1000m 1h
100 = 27,78 ms
v = 100km/h h 1km 3600s
t = 20s The definition of acceleration or the velocity equation of the motion may be
used to calculate the acceleration:
x=?
v vo
a=? v = vo + a (t to) or a =
t to
27,78m/s 0m/s
a=
20s 0s
a = 1,39 m/s2
b) The equation of the position x need to be used:
x = xo + vo(t to) + 1 a(t to)2
2
1
x= 1,39m/s 20s2
2
2
x = 277,8 m
2. A car moving at a velocity of 40 m/s slows down in order to avoid to crash into a wall situated 200 m
away. Calculate the minimum acceleration needed to avoid the collision.
Data Solving method
x0= 0 m a) The velocity equation of the motion may be used to calculate the acceleration:
v0= 40 m/s v = vo + a (t to) or 0 m/ s = 40 m/s + a(t 0)
t0 = 0s at = 40
v = 0 m/s But two unknown magnitudes have to be found, so we need to use the
x = 20 m equation of the position, x:
t =? x = xo + vo(t to) + 1 a(t to)2
2
a=? m
200m = 0m + 40 t + 1 at2
s 2
200 = 40t + at1 2
2
So, we have two equation with two to solve a system:
at = 40
200 = 40t + 1 at2
2
To solve the product a.t is substituted for its value, which is 40:
200 = 40t + 1 (40)t
2
200 = 20 t
t = 10 s
Replacing the time in the equation:
at = 40
a = 4 m/s2
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Workbook 4 ESO
t = 0s t = 2s t = 4s t = 6s t = 8s
v v2 v1
a= =
t t2 t1
6 v (m/s)
0 2 4 8 10 t (s)
0,14
0,12
The graph velocity versus time of the motion of the toy train 0,1
engine will be represented:
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
2 4 6 8 10 t (s)
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6 6 6
4 4 4
2 2 2
x (m)
E
1200
D
800 B C
400
0
10 20 30 40 t (min)
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Example A Example B
y0
2
a = -9,8m/s V0
Example A represents a body which is thrown up with a vertical velocity V0. As the acceleration has a direction
opposite the velocity, the body slows down and reaches a maximum high when its velocity is cero. In a following
step the body falls down in a motion represented in example B.
Example B represents a body which is let falling down without any initial velocity. As the acceleration has the
same direction of the velocity, the body speeds up till getting the floor.
The following graph represents the movement of a body which is thrown up with a V0= 20 m/s
Graph velocity versus time: Graph position y versus time:
y (m)
v (m/s) 20
15
20 10
10 5
1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
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Physics and Chemistry
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Acceleration is the vector magnitude which produces a change in the velocity vector. But the velocity vector can
change in:
1. Module: when the rate or speed is increasing or slowing down. The acceleration which produces this
change in the velocity module is called tangential acceleration. It has been studied in the accelerated
motions above.
2. Direction: when the trajectory described by the body in motion is curvilinear. The acceleration which
produces this change in the velocity direction is called normal acceleration or centripetal acceleration.
Where v is the speed and R in a circular motion corresponds to the radius of the circle.
( 0)
=
( t t0)
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Physics and Chemistry
When angular displacement is measured in degrees, then angular velocity can be expressed in degrees per
second.
When angular displacement is measured in revolutions, then angular velocity can be expressed in revolutions
per second (rps).
In order to convert to the IS unit it is necessary to take in mind this equality: 1 revolution= 2 rad
So when the angular velocity is expressed as 30 rps, it can be converted to the IS unit following the process:
rev 2 rad
30 = 60 rad/s
s 1 rev
Sometimes angular velocity is expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm). For example 30 rpm is converted to
the IS unit in the following way:
rev 2 rad 1min
30 = rad/s
s 1 rev 60s
Other two interesting magnitudes are:
Period (T) is the time invested in covering a complete revolution. It is expressed in seconds.
Frequency (f)is the number of revolutions covered in a second. It is expressed in hertz (Hz). Notice that
1 hertz = 1 rev/s so the frequency corresponds to the angular velocity expressed in rps.
Period and frequency are inverse proportional magnitudes, what means that:
1
T=
f
Angular magnitudes and are proportionally related to linear magnitudes s and v in such a way that:
When the angular displacement is a revolution, 2 rad, the distance covered corresponds to 2R meters
When the angular displacement is a half of revolution, rad, the distance covered corresponds to R
meters.
Generalising, when the angular displacement is rad, the distance is R meters. Then the equation that relates
angular displacement and distance is expressed:
s=R
v=R
Now, look into the following exercise in order to learn how to solve problems of circular motion:
Example: A fly stops 5 cm away from the central point of a disc, which is moving at an angular
velocity of 45rpm. Calculate:
A. The angular velocity expressed in the IS unit.
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Workbook 4 ESO
F. Its period
Data Solving method
f = 0,75 Hz We have to relate frequency to period
1 1
T= = = 1,33 s
f 0,75
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Distance
Time (s)
0 cm 10 cm 20 cm 30 cm 40 cm ........ cm ........ cm
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t7
t8
t9
t10
t EA
5. Calculate and answer:
a. What is the average velocity between 0 and 10 cm?
b. What is the average velocity between 0 and 20 cm?
c. What is the average velocity between 0 and 30 cm?
d. What is the average velocity between 0 and 40 cm?
e. What is the average velocity between 0 and .. cm?
f. What is the average velocity between 0 and cm?
6. Taking in mind the ball trajectory and the calculated average speeds. What sort of motion are you experi-
menting with?
7. Write the equations of the motion:
8. Does the motion have normal acceleration?
9. Does the motion have tangential acceleration?
10. Fill the following table with the average values:
11. Draw a graph representing position on the ordinate axis and time on the abscise axis. Which sort of graph
have you drawn?
12. Draw a graph representing position on the ordinate axis and the square of time on the abscise axis. The
gradient of the resulting line represents a half of the acceleration of the motion. Calculate the gradient of
the line and then the acceleration.
13. Express the final equations of the motion.
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Once you have realized that the car in front of you has stopped and you have hit the brakes, the car starts to slow
but it doesnt stop immediately. It needs certain time to stop and it goes a certain distance while it stops, which
will depend on the initial speed of the car.
That is why it is so important to keep the security distance and to respect the speed limit; we can avoid many
accidents by respecting it!
1. What factors do the reaction time depends on? Can you think about more factors that dont appear in the
text?
2. Why do you think is it important to respect the speed limit?
3. You are travelling in a car at a speed of 120 km/h. The car in front of you stops suddenly. Imagining that your
reaction time is 1,5 s, what distance do you travel before stopping?
4. Repeat activity 3 but with an initial speed of 100 km/h. what distance will you travel then before stopping?
5. In a foggy day, why Is it even more important to respect the security distance?
9. VOCABULARY REVIEW
Kinematics Types of motion Vocabulary related to the motion
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Physics and Chemistry
25
15
20 80 100 t (s)
13. Draw in a position-time graph a train motion studied from the platform:
a. The train uniformly approaches to the platform from 100 meters away
b. The train stops at the platform 10 seconds later
c. During 10 seconds travelers leave the train
d. The train starts and uniformly moves away covering 100 m during the following 10 seconds.
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Workbook 4 ESO
x (m)
60
B
A
40 C
D
0
10 20 30 t (s)
9. The car A leaves Toro and drives to Zamora at a constant speed of 110 km/h. Five minutes later, the car B
leaves Zamora and drives to Toro at a constant speed of 120 km/h. The distance between Toro and Zamora
is 32 km. Calculate:
a. How long does it take to the car A to meet car B?
b. The position both cars meet each other, taking the reference frame in Zamora.
10. Interpret the following graph which represents the movement of a boy from his home. For doing it, interpret
each stretch and calculate the velocity in each stretch
x (m)
900
600
B C
A E
300
D
0 10 30 40 t (min)
20
50