B1 12aHelicopterAerodynamicsStudentResource

Student Resource
Subject B1-12a:
Helicopter Aerodynamics and Flight
Controls
Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold, or
otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
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CONTENTS
Page
Definitions 3
Study Resources 4
Introduction 5
Rotary Wing Theory of Flight 12.1-1
Flight Control Systems 12.2.1-1
Main Rotor Heads (MRH) 12.2.2-1
Main and Tail Rotor Blades 12.2.2-1
Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 1 of 6

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DEFINITIONS
Define
To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
Specify in words or writing.
To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
To establish the identity of.
List
Itemise.
Describe
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or
process.
To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and effect.

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STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen Sanderson Training Products:
A&P Technician Airframe Textbook
A&P Technician General Textbook
Jeppesen, 1980, Helicopter Maintenance
Wagtendonk, W. J., 1996, Principles of Helicopter Flight, Washington US.
Prouty R.W., 1985, Helicopter Aerodynamics, Phillips Pubs U.S.
B1-12a Student Handout

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INTRODUCTION
Thyis subject explain how basic rotary wing aerodynamics is applied to a variety of
different helicopter designs/types and effects in flight. The purpose , function and
opertion of basic helicopter flight control systems and components.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 12.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Define the terms:
air density
angle of attack
axis of rotation or shaft axis
blade loading
centrifugal force
collective pitch
coning angle
cyclic pitch
disc loading
feathering
lift thrust vector resultant
node
pitch angle
relative airflow
thrust or virtual axis
tip path plane.
Describe vortex ring state, power settling, overpitching and their relationship.
Explain torque reaction and describe its effect on directional control of a
helicopter.
Explain gyroscopic precession and describe how its effect is used in the
control of the main rotor disc to provide forward, sideways and rearward
flight.
Explain dissymmetry of lift and describe the design feature that is used to
control it.
Define Corriolis effect.
Describe the design features (lead/lag hinges and underslung rotor) that are
used to relieve stresses created by Corriolis effect, and describe how these
features achieve that result.
Describe ground effect and translational lift and their relationship.
Define translating tendency and describe the two methods (mast offset and
cyclic rigging) of correcting this tendency.
Describe the reason why main rotor blades have built in twist.
Describe what blade tip stall is and why it results in a nose pitch up of the
helicopter.
Describe the aerodynamic features of helicopter autorotation.
Describe the areas of the disc that provide rotor drive and overall lift during
the autorotation.

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Describe static and dynamic stability and state why most helicopters are
considered statically stable and dynamically unstable
Topic 12.2.1 Flight Control Systems and Operations

Explain the layout, operation and maintenance requirements of a typical
cyclic control system and its components (cyclic stick to pitch-change rod
inclusive).
Explain methods used for helicopter pitch attitude compensation with cyclic
application.
Explain the layout, operation and maintenance requirements of a typical
collective control system and its components (collective lever to pitch-change
rod inclusive).
Explain methods used for rotor RPM compensation with application of
collective control.
Explain the principles of operation of a swashplate and state its effect on tip
path plane.
Explain operational methods (tail rotor, bleed air, fan aerodynamic and
contra-rotating) of achieving directional/anti-torque control..
Explain the operation of flight controls by the following methods:
Manual
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Electrical and
Fly by Wire.
Explain the operation and effect of:
Trim control
Fixed and adjustable stabilisers and
Artificial feel
Explain balancing and rigging of flight controls.
Topic 12.2.2 Main Rotor Heads (MRHs)

Describe the physical features of the various main rotor head (MRH) designs
and be able to state which features accommodate the flapping, feathering,
leading and lagging actions of the main rotor blade.
Identify the various types MRH dampers and the describe methods used to
dampen vibration.
Describe the mounting, inspection and maintenance of main rotor heads.
Describe the construction, operation and application of elastomeric bearings
in main rotor heads.
Describe the various methods used to dampen vibration.
Topic 12.2.3 Main and Tail Rotor Blades

Describe the construction, attachment and material used in typical wooden,
metal and composite main and tail rotor blades.
Describe typical inspections/maintenance of main rotor blades.
Describe the built-in crack detection methods used on main rotor blades
(BIM and BIS).

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TOPIC 12.1.1 ROTARY WING THEORY OF FLIGHT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
Newtons First Law.........................................................................................................4
Newtons Second Law.....................................................................................................5
Newtons Third Law........................................................................................................6
Air Density.....................................................................................................................6
Basic Helicopter Theory ...............................................................................................18
Vortex Ring State .........................................................................................................18
Overpitching ................................................................................................................20
Anti-Torque Systems Tail Rotors ..................................................................................21
Helicopter Control........................................................................................................24
Swashplate ..................................................................................................................26
Dissymmetry Of Lift .....................................................................................................28
Gyroscopic Procession..................................................................................................30
Coriolis Effect ..............................................................................................................32
Coning.........................................................................................................................34
Underslung Rotor ........................................................................................................35
Ground Effect ..............................................................................................................36
Translational Lift .........................................................................................................37
Translating Tendency...................................................................................................37
Blade twist...................................................................................................................38
Blade Tip Stall .............................................................................................................39
Autorotation ................................................................................................................41
Helicopter Axis of Stability ...........................................................................................43
Hovering Stability (Pitch/Roll) ......................................................................................45
Longitudinal Stability...................................................................................................46
Lateral Stability ...........................................................................................................46
Directional Stability (Hovering) .....................................................................................47
Directional Stability (Forward Flight) ............................................................................47
Stabiliser Bars .............................................................................................................48
Horizontal Stabiliser ....................................................................................................50
Vertical Stabiliser.........................................................................................................51
Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Newtons First Law............................................................................................4
Figure 2 Newtons Second Law ........................................................................................5
Figure 3 Newtons Third Law...........................................................................................6
Figure 4 Air Density .......................................................................................................6
Figure 5 Inflow Angle .....................................................................................................7
Figure 6 Shaft Axis ........................................................................................................7
Figure 7 Feathering Axis ................................................................................................9
Figure 8 Disc Area .......................................................................................................10
Figure 9 Lift Drag.........................................................................................................11
Figure 10 Blade Stall ...................................................................................................12
Figure 11 Thrust Vector Resultant ...............................................................................13
Figure 12 Nodes...........................................................................................................14
Figure 13 Centrifugal/Centripedal ...............................................................................15
Figure 14 Turning ........................................................................................................16
Figure 15 Acceleration .................................................................................................17
Figure 16 Angle of Bank...............................................................................................17
Figure 17 Lift/Thrust Resultant ...................................................................................18
Figure 18 Vortex Ring State .........................................................................................18
Figure 19 Vortex Ring State .........................................................................................19
Figure 20 Induced Flow................................................................................................19
Figure 21 Overpitching ................................................................................................20
Figure 22 Tail Rotor .....................................................................................................21
Figure 23 Notar............................................................................................................22
Figure 24 Fenestron.....................................................................................................22
Figure 25 Twin Rotor ...................................................................................................23
Figure 26 Tandem Rotor ..............................................................................................23
Figure 27 Cyclic ...........................................................................................................24
Figure 28 Collective .....................................................................................................25
Figure 29 Yaw Control .................................................................................................25
Figure 30 Swashplate...................................................................................................26
Figure 31 Pitch Angle ...................................................................................................27
Figure 32 Rotor Head ...................................................................................................28
Figure 33 Dissymmetry of Lift ......................................................................................29
Figure 34 Blade Tip Speed ..........................................................................................29
Figure 35 Blade Deflection/Deflaction ..........................................................................30

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Figure 37 Coriolis Effect...............................................................................................32
Figure 38 Conservation of Angular Momentum.............................................................33
Figure 39 Coning .........................................................................................................34
Figure 40 Coning Angle................................................................................................34
Figure 41 Underslung Rotor .........................................................................................35
Figure 42 Ground Effect...............................................................................................36
Figure 43 Ground Effect...............................................................................................36
Figure 44 Transitional Lift............................................................................................37
Figure 45 Translating Tendency ...................................................................................37
Figure 46 Blade Twist ..................................................................................................38
Figure 47 Blade Twist ..................................................................................................39
Figure 48 Stall Area .....................................................................................................40
Figure 49 Auto-rotation................................................................................................41
Figure 50 Auto-rotation................................................................................................41
Figure 51 Stall Blade ...................................................................................................42
Figure 52 Stall Region..................................................................................................42
Figure 53 Lateral Stability............................................................................................43
Figure 54 Longitudinal Stability ...................................................................................43
Figure 55 Directional Stability......................................................................................43
Figure 56 Static Stability..............................................................................................44
Figure 57 Negative Static Stability................................................................................44
Figure 58 Neutral Dynamic Stability.............................................................................45
Figure 59 Pitch/Roll.....................................................................................................45
Figure 60 Longitudinal Stability ...................................................................................46
Figure 61 Lateral Stability............................................................................................46
Figure 62 Directional Stability......................................................................................47
Figure 63 Notar............................................................................................................47
Figure 64 Helicopter.....................................................................................................48
Figure 65 Stabiliser Bar ...............................................................................................48
Figure 66 Stabilizer Bar ...............................................................................................49
Figure 67 Stabiliser Bar ...............................................................................................49
Figure 68 Horizontal and Vertical Stabiliser .................................................................49
Figure 69 Horizontal Stabiliser .....................................................................................50
Figure 70 Horizontal Stabiliser .....................................................................................50
Figure 71 Vertical Stabiliser .........................................................................................51

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TOPIC 12.1.1 ROTARY WING THEORY OF FLIGHT

NEWTONS FIRST LAW
All bodies at rest or in uniform motion along a straight line will continue in that state
unless acted upon by an outside force
Newtons first law defines the principle of inertia, which means that bodies tend to keep
doing what they are doing. If they are doing anything at all while in motion, the path
the body travels is a straight line. If change is required, then a force must be applied to
achieve that change. For example, getting a locomotive moving down a track requires a
force which would be greater than the force required to get a small car rolling along a
level road. The fundamental physical difference between a locomotive and a compact car
is their mass, Mass means the amount (or quantity) of matter in a body; it is directly
proportional to inertia. Thus to change the state of rest of any body, a force is required
that must be proportional to the mass of that body. The larger the mass and thus the
greater its inertia, the greater the force required.
A bodys inertia does not change unless its mass changes. A helicopter at sea level or at
altitude, flown fast or slow, has the same inertia, provided its mass does not change.
The term inertia is often confused with momentum; Momentum considers not only the
mass of the body concerned, but also the velocity at which it travels. Bodies at rest
cannot have momentum, although they do have inertia. For a given mass within a body,
the faster it travels, the greater its momentum.
When a helicopter travels faster, its momentum increases and a greater force is required
to bring it to a halt. Alternatively, if its velocity stays the same, but there are more people
on board, then momentum increases, this time because of the increase in mass and
again, a greater force is required to bring the aircraft to a stop.
The greater the mass of a body, the greater its inertia and the greater the force required
to change its slate at rest or uniform motion along a straight line. This principle applies
no matter where the body is or whether it is moving fast, slow or not at all. For a given
mass, however, if it has velocity it will have momentum as well as inertia. The greater the
velocity, the greater the momentum and the greater the force required to change its state
of uniform motion along a straight line.
Figure 1 Newtons First Law

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NEWTONS SECOND LAW

Force is proportional to Mass x acceleration.
To accelerate a body at a given rate, the force used must be proportional to the mass of
that body. Alternatively, if a given mass must be accelerated at a higher rate, then the
force required must be greater.
The accelerated air (the induced flow) through a rotor system, which produces the
required force for sustained flight, is a good example of this law in action. If the amount
of air is increased, then its mass is greater, and as a result the acceleration required can
be reduced to provide the same upward force. Alternatively, if the aircraft is heavier and
the force required to keep it airborne is greater, then for the same mass of air processed
through the rotor disc, its acceleration needs to be greater.
Figure 2 Newtons Second Law

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NEWTONS THIRD LAW

For every action there is an, equal and opposite reaction.
Newtons third law is often misused by assuming that the word action means force. One
force is not always equally opposed by another. Only when no acceleration takes place,
either in terms of speed or direction, could one say that all forces are equal and opposite
and only then could one say that to each force there is an equal and opposite force.
When a helicopter hovers at precisely one height, all actions (and in this case forces)
have equal and opposite reactions, but this applies only so long as there is no
accelerated movement up/down, left/right or fore/aft.
Figure 3 Newtons Third Law

AIR DENSITY
The number of air molecules per unit volume. Air density is primarily influence by:
atmospheric pressure, air temperature and moisture content. Rotor thrust is dependent
on lift production. Density of air has a strong influence on lift produced.
Reduced air density causes the helicopter pilot to struggle with:
A requirement for larger angles of attack.
A worsening TRT/rotor drag ratio.
A requirement for more power.
The helicopters maximum operating altitude and manoeuvrability are therefore directly
related to these limiting factors.
Figure 4 Air Density

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Angle Of Attack
A symmetrical airfoil (and many helicopters blades are of the symmetrical shape) that is
asked to produce practical lift must be inclined to some extent to the relative airflow so
that the airs deflection over the top of the airfoil is greater than that underneath. The
inclination of the airfoil to the airflow is known as the airfoils angle of attack. Angle of
attack and induced flow are inversely proportional for a given blade section and rotor
rpm Angle of Attack: The angular difference between the chord of the blade and the
relative airflow (also known as relative wind).
Inflow Angle
The angle between the plane of rotation and the resultant airflow (relative airflow).
Figure 5 Inflow Angle
Axis of rotation
The line through the rotor head at right angles to the plane of rotation (POR). The blade
actually rotates around this axis.
Shaft axis
The line consistent with the rotor shaft (mast). Only when the plane of rotation is exactly
perpendicular to the shaft axis will the axis of rotation coincide with the shaft axis.
Figure 6 Shaft Axis

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Flapping
Movement of a blade in the vertical sense relative to the plane of rotation.
Lead-lagging (dragging)
Movement of the blade forward or aft in the plane of rotation.
Feathering
The movement of the blade about its axis (which results in pitch angle changes).
Disc loading
The gross weight of the helicopter divided by the disc area, expressed as lb/sq inches or
kg/m2. Since disk area is not constant in flight, it follows that disk loading cannot be
constant.
Blade loading
The gross weight of the helicopter divided by the combined area of the helicopter blades,
expressed as above. Since blade area does not alter, blade loading must be a constant in
flight (ignoring weight and g changes).
Solidity
The ratio of total blade area to disk area. Solidity is a function of ability to absorb power
from the engine and potential to provide rotor thrust.
Flapping
Movement of a blade in the vertical sense relative to the plane of rotation.
Lead-lagging (dragging)
Movement of the blade forward or aft in the plane of rotation.
Coning angle
The angular difference between the feathering axis and the plane of rotation. It may also
be defined as the angular difference between the feathering axis and the tip plane path.
Figure 7 Coning Angle

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Feathering axis
The straight line axis between the root of the blade and its tip about which the blade can
alter its blade angle.
Figure 7 Feathering Axis
Chord (line)
The straight line between the chord of the blade and the plane of rotation. This angle
may be altered by the pilot through movement of the collective lever or through the cyclic
control.
Blade angle (also known as the pitch angle)

The angular difference between the chord of the blade and the plane of rotation. This
angle may be altered by the pilot through movement of the collective lever or through the
cyclic control.
A symmetrical airfoil (and many helicopters blades are of the symmetrical shape) that is
asked to produce practical lift must be inclined to some extent to the relative airflow so
that the airs deflection over the top of the airfoil is greater than that underneath. The
inclination of the airfoil to the airflow is known as the airfoils angle of attack. Angle of
attack and induced flow
are inversely proportional for a given blade section and rotor rpm
Relative Airflow
The resultant airflow to each blade due to its speed/direction and the flow induced
downwards.
Induced Flow: The mass of air that is forced down by the rotor action.
Blade Angle and Angle of Attack

The angle between the chord of the blade and the plane of rotation (Figure) is known as
the blade angle or pitch angle, and is controlled through the collective pitch control. If
the pilot pulls the collective lever up blade angle increases, and if the pilot pushes the
collective lever down, the blade angle decreases. The airflow (vector A-B) is in the plane of
rotation and as long as no other airflows interfere, the blade angle is also the angle of
attack.
The blade angle does not affect the direction from which Vr occurs. Whether the plane of
rotation is parallel to the ground or tilted, Vr will always be parallel to the plane of
rotation.

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Tip path
The circular path described by the tips of the rotor blades. Tip path plane is parallel to
the plane of rotation which acts through the rotor head. A pilot may alter this plane
through movement of the cyclic control.
Tip path plane

The path with in which the tips of the rotor blades travel. It is parallel to the plane of
rotation which acts through the rotor head. A pilot may alter this plane through
movement of the cyclic control.
Disc area
The area contained within the tip path plane. In flight, this area is not a constant since it
is affected by the coning angle of the blades.
Figure 8 Disc Area
Collective pitch
Pitch angle of all main rotor blades is varied equally and simultaneously.
Cyclic pitch
Pitch angle of the main rotor blades is varied individually during a cycle of revolution of
the rotor disc.
Coriolis effect
The tendency of a mass to increase or decrease its angular velocity when its radius of
rotation is varied.
Ground effect
A beneficial gain in lifting power when operating near
the surface.
Gyroscopic precision
A characteristic of all rotating bodies.
Collective pitch angle ( blade angle )

Varied by pilot movement of the collective lever.
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Cyclic pitch angle (blade angle )

Varied by pilot movement of the cyclic control. The cyclic control controls the tilt of the
rotor disc and therefore the direction of flight.
Gyroscopic Precision
When a force is applied to a rotating body parallel to its axis of rotation, the rotating body
will tilt in the direction of the applied force 90 degrees later in the plane of rotation.
Coriolis Effect
Rotor systems that utilize the individual flapping hinge are subjected to the Coriolis effect
to a greater degree than the seesaw system.
Coriolis effect is the change in blade velocity to compensate for the change in distance to
the centre of the axis of rotation as the blade flaps. In other words, as each individual
blade flaps upward on the advancing side, the centre of gravity moves closer to axis of
rotation (the mast).
This has a tendency to accelerate the blade in much the same manner as a figure skater
accelerates a spin by moving his arms inward to the centre of the axis of rotation
Lift
The force produced by the airfoil that is perpendicular to
the relative wind and opposes gravity. The lift is developed
by the rotor blade according to Bernoulli's Principle, which simply states that as velocity
is increased, the pressure
is decreased.
This principle creates a low pressure at the top of the rotor blade, while the bottom of the
blade has an increased pressure. This applies to both symmetrical and
un-symmetrical airfoils. Whenever lift is produced, drag is
also produced. That component of the total air force which is perpendicular to the
relative airflow and in the plane of rotation.
Drag
The force which tends to resist the airfoils passage through the air. Drag is always
parallel to the relative wind and perpendicular to lift. Drag is the force that tends to slow
down the rotor when the angle of attack is increased in order to produce more lift. Drag
varies as a square of velocity.
Figure 9 Lift Drag

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Blade stall
Stall is the condition under which the streamline flow of air separates from the camber of
the blade and reverse flow occurs, resulting in an almost complete loss of lift.
As the angle of attack increases, lift increases until the stall angle is reached, provided
the velocity remains the same. However, as the angle of attack is increased the lift
increases, and so does drag. Because of this increase in drag, the rotor blades have a
tendency to slow down. If this should occur the stall angle will be reached prematurely.
This is the reason that power must also be added in order to maintain the velocity of the
rotor or decreasing the relative wind. However, this situation is avoided because of the
slow reaction time, in when the pitch is added to the rotor system. This also means that
the lift of the rotor could be controlled by varying speed, increasing favour of keeping the
velocity constant and changing the angle of attack.
Figure 10 Blade Stall

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Total Rotor Thrust Vector Resultant

The rotor thrust is dependent on lift production. The resultant vector is known as total
reaction.
Total reaction (TR) shown in the figure is required to provide the opposing force to
weight, but the diagram clearly shows that the TR does not act in line with weight; it
leans back from the vertical. Thus a component of the total reaction must be vectored
that does act in line with and opposite to weight.
That component vector is called rotor thrust (RT), it is the force produced by each blade
section to overcome part of the helicopter weight. When the rotor thrusts of all the blade
sections are combined, total rotor thrust (TRT) acting through the top of the mast
provides the force (or component force) that overcomes the weight of the helicopter.
Figure 11 Thrust Vector Resultant

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Node
Fuselage may be excited by a rotor to bend vertically in a humpback mode. Two points,
"nodes", do not move.
In some cases, a resonance might exist but not be much of a problem. For example, a
fuselage may be primarily excited by a rotor to bend vertically in a humpback mode. Two
points, known as "nodes", do not move. If the only seats are on or close to a node, then
the crew or passengers will experience a smooth flight even though parts of the fuselage
behind and ahead of them may be getting a rougher ride.
Figure 12 Nodes
This is important as vibration can not only affect the aircraft but also cause physical
discomfort and fatigue to the crew. The amount of vibration that the human body can
withstand varies, but at 4 to 7 hertz the lungs and heart are bouncing vertically with the
diaphragm acting as a spring. At around 12 hertz the spinal vertebrae begin to vibrate
bouncing off the pads between the individual vertebrae.
Good seats will tend to lessen the spinal vibration but either situation is best avoided if
crew fatigue and discomfort are to be avoided. Generally, the human body tolerates up-
down vibrations more poorly than side-to-side and fore-aft vibrations.
It has also been found that at higher frequencies humans suffer less discomfort from the
same accelerative G force which would have caused discomfort at lower frequencies.
For example, in a flight test report from the Bell UH-1H it was found that 0.3 Gs at 72 Hz
was tolerable for short times only but the same 0.3 Gs was hardly noticed at 32 hertz.
Anti-node
This is the point in a vibration range where vibration is at its maximum. An anti-node is
the opposite of a node.

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Centrifugal force
The force that pulls a spinning object away from its centre of rotation.
Centripetal force
The force that opposes centrifugal force and acts to the centre of a circle.
Centrifugal force, determined by rotor rpm, acts in line with the plane of rotation and
tries to reduce the conning angle (For a constant radius, centrifugal force is equal to
centripetal force).
Centrifugal force can be used to provide drive to a rotor system by the use of a
centrifugal clutch. The centrifugal clutchs spring-loaded shoes control contact between
the inner part and outer of the clutch.
At low engine rpm, the shoes are held away from the outer part of the clutch by the
tension of springs but as the engine rpm increases, centrifugal force moves the shoes out
and contact is made with the outer part.
Figure 13 Centrifugal/Centripedal
Turning
An object travelling on a curve must have a force pulling it towards the centre of the
curve. That force is centripetal force.
The requirement for centripetal force in a turn is met by total rotor thrust, provided that
it is tilted in the direction of the turn. Thus the helicopter must be banked to make a
coordinated turn.
The tilted total rotor thrust in a banked turn provides two component forces:
The vertical component equal and opposite to weight, which ensures that the
helicopter's altitude in the turn remains constant.
Centripetal force.
Since total rotor thrust must perform an extra task in providing CPF, it follows that its
amount must increase in a turn. This is achieved by increases in blade angles (up
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collective), which adversely affects the total rotor/thrust/rotor drag ratio. As a result
more power must be applied to maintain rotor rpm, especially at higher angles of bank.
One of the main differences between hovering and forward flight is parasite drag: there is
essentially no parasite drag when hovering. Parasite drag increases with the square of
the speed increase, which means that the force required to overcome parasite drag must
become progressively greater as airspeed increases. The force which overcomes parasite
drag is provided by total rotor thrust because, when tilted forward and appropriately
increased, it will produce:
A vertical component equal and opposite to weight.
Thrust, in the direction of flight, to deal with parasite drag.
When the disc is made to tilt forward initially with forward cyclic, the fuselage attitude
remains the same briefly. The forces are then as shown in Slide 17. Parasite drag has
not yet formed or is still insignificant. The slightly increased total rotor thrust (from a
touch of up collective) is inclined forward and produces a nose-down moment around the
aircraft centre of gravity.
Figure 14 Turning

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During the accelerating phase, prior to achieving equilibrium ( Slide 18 ) total rotor
thrust and the resultant are not in line or acting through the aircraft centre of gravity.
Any increase in forward speed must be accompanied by a change in disc attitude so that
increased total rotor thrust (oriented forward) continues to oppose the increased
resultant of weight (a constant) and parasite drag (an increasing variable). The fuselage
attitude also changes so that ultimately total rotor thrust and the weight/parasite drag
resultant continue to act through the helicopter's centre of gravity (as shown by the line
x x ).
Figure 15 Acceleration
Relationship between angle of bank and requirement for total rotor thrust to provide the
vertical component and centripetal force
Figure 16 Angle of Bank

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BASIC HELICOPTER THEORY

The main rotor disc is responsible for both lift and thrust, and that thrust can be
delivered to cause forward, sideways, or backward motion.
Development of lift by use of rotating airfoils.
Main rotor disc provides lift and thrust.
Tail rotor opposes torque reaction developed by main rotor.
Figure 17 Lift/Thrust Resultant

VORTEX RING STATE
Vortex ring state, or settling with power, is potentially hazardous because it places the
helicopter into a descent at an increasing rate. Whats worse, the recovery action from a
vortex ring state may involve even more loss of height. Pilots must use considerable
caution when operating at low height if conditions likely to lead to vortex ring state are
present. It doesnt take much to bring on a vortex ring state.
Imagine a helicopter hovering at altitude. The relative airflow onto each blade section is
dependent upon the induced flow and local rotational speed (Vr), both of which are
greatest near the blade tip. Assuming that the ratio of rotational velocity to induced flow
is more or less constant over the entire blade, then the direction of the relative airflow is
about the same throughout the blade. Because of the higher blade angle at the root
through wash-out, however, the angle of attack at the root is larger than that at the tip.
Figure 18 Vortex Ring State

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Vortex ring state can develop when the helicopter has:

A low or zero airspeed (below translational lift speed).
Some power in use (collective input).
A rate of descent that is in the region of 400 to 800 ft/mm, depending on aircraft
type.
Figure 19 Vortex Ring State

The combinations mentioned above are encountered under the following flight
conditions. All of these flight conditions require that an induced flow be present, some
power be in use and interference to the induced flow by airflow from below the aircraft be
present:
A powered descent at low or zero airspeed at a high rate of descent.
Loss of height during a harsh flare.
Executing a quick-stop downwind.
A squashing recovery, when power is applied at the end of an autorotation.
A downwind approach.
Any factors that involve high collective settings in the hover or slow flight, such as high
gross weight, high altitude, high density altitude and manoeuvres, encourages vortex
ring state to occur sooner.
Figure 20 Induced Flow

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Symptoms of vortex ring state are:

Aircraft vibration and cyclic stick shake.
A random yawing, rolling and pitching increasing rate of descent.
A reduction in cyclic stick effectiveness.
The recommended recovery technique for vortex ring state is:
Cyclic forward (and/or slightly to one side) to increase airspeed.
Brief pause, to allow the airspeed to build up.
Apply power.
The key to recovery from vortex ring state is recognizing the condition and acting before it
develops.
OVERPITCHING
Over-pitching is different from recirculation even though the symptoms have similarity.
While over-pitching can occur at any altitude and at various stages of flight, it is more
likely to occur when approaching a hover or during a hover.
If the rotor rpm decreases during those phases (for whatever reason), total rotor thrust
reduces and an unwary pilot might attempt to restore the rotor thrust by pulling up
collective. Chapter 6 explained that this action invariably tilts the total reaction away
from the axis of rotation, worsening the total rotor thrust/rotor drag ratio. Thus up
collective will only result in further decay in rotor rpm.
Decaying rotor rpm also causes the helicopter blades coning angles to increase. The
consequence of this is that, firstly, the disc becomes smaller so that total rotor thrust
falls off. Secondly, large coning angles cause rotor thrust to point inward so that smaller
vertical components become available to overcome the helicopters weight.
Figure 21 Overpitching
The only recovery action from over-pitching and restore rotor rpm is to roll on throttle
and simultaneously lower the collective lever. This will invariably cause the helicopter to
lose some height.

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Over-pitching may occur when approaching a high altitude landing site if the power
required to hover is not available, As airspeed decreases and the need for power
increases, the helicopters descent rate builds when the engine cannot supply the power
required. Pilots who then instinctively pull up collective to arrest the sink rate are in
trouble. The high inflow angles and associated rotor drag quickly decay the rotor rpm
and the stage is set for over-pitching. The best scenario ends in a hard landing, while the
worst scenario ends in a full rotor stall, at which point the helicopter virtually falls out of
the sky.
ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEMS TAIL ROTORS
A single rotor helicopter will try to rotate under its rotor in the opposite direction,
(Newtons 3rd law), unless fitted with a tail rotor. This rotors thrust leads to a tendency
to drift in that direction unless opposed by mast offset or cyclic rigging.
Tail rotor system:
Counter torque reaction.
Provide directional control.
Maintain balanced flight conditions.
Provide directional control during auto-rotation.
Figure 22 Tail Rotor

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Notar
This is a controllable-pitch Fan installed just aft of the transmission blowing air down
the hollow tail boom to a nozzle with a set of 90% turning vanes. The reaction against the
vanes produces an anti-torque force. Both the pitch of the fan and the size of the nozzle
opening are controlled by the pilots pedal movements.
Figure 23 Notar
Fenestron
A normal rotor has a wake that requires some distance to contract to its final size -
which is only 70% of the rotor diameter. By putting a duct around the rotor, the wake is
effectively matured in the duct and under goes no further contraction downstream, thus
the fenestron can produce the same total thrust for the same power as a tail rotor 30%
larger.
As with the tail rotor, the larger the diameter of the fenestron, the less power it takes
from the engine. To be effective, the depth of the duct should be at least 20% of the fan
diameter, according to the theory. This means that it is difficult to streamline the thick
fan for low drag in forward flight. It also means the air-path into and out of the fan is
tortuous, so its efficiency is penalised.
For this reason, the fenestron is always integrated into a generously sized cambered
vertical stabiliser that can take over the job of torque compensation in forward flight.
This has the advantage of decreasing the loads on the blades and the drive system -
which increases the life of the system.
Figure 24 Fenestron

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Twin rotor design (as in the Chinook)

Counter-rotating designs (where one disc operates clockwise above another, which
rotates counter-clockwise).
Figure 25 Twin Rotor
Tandem and co-axially

On the tandem and co-axially configured helicopters directional stability is dependant
upon which rotor is producing the most amount of thrust in a particular direction. (Note
on the tandem mounted twin rotor designs such as the illustrated Chinook helicopter,
yaw pedal input from the pilot has a control effect on the aft rotor).
Figure 26 Tandem Rotor

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HELICOPTER CONTROL
Cyclic Control
A control called the cyclic controls the plane of the rotor disc and provides pitch and
roll control, using the principle of gyroscopic precession.
Moving the cyclic control left/right, fore/aft or any combination thereof tilts the
swashplate, which changes the blade angle of individual blades, For instance, in a two-
bladed rotor, moving the cyclic forward decreases the blade angle on the right blade and
increases the blade angle on the left blade. Although moving cyclic alters the tilt of the
total rotor thrust, the amount of total rotor thrust is not affected. Cyclic merely points
the total rotor thrust in any required direction, it doesn't increase or decrease it.
Figure 27 Cyclic
Collective control (lever)

Controls Total Rotor Thrust. As the lever is raised, all rotor blade angles increase.
Incorporates:
Anticipator.
Twist Grip.
Collective Control.
Pulling the collective lever up moves the swashplate vertically, so that all blades obtain
the same increase in blade angle. Similarly, pushing the collective down decreases the
blade angle to all blades. Variations in blade angle change the amount of total rotor
thrust produced. Accordingly, changes in collective cause changes in total rotor thrust
(but they do not alter total rotor thrust orientation). The actual vertical movement of the
swashplate associated with up collective depends on where the pitch horn is attached to
the blade.
For example, when the pitch horn is attached to the leading edge of the blade the
swashplate must move up to increase blade angle. If the attachment point was at the
trailing edge of the blade the swashplate must move down to increase blade angle. Pitch
horn location varies from aircraft to aircraft.
An increase in all blade angles (up collective), under most conditions increases rotor drag
and may decrease rotor rpm. To facilitate maintenance of rotor rpm, a correlating unit (a
cam-link arrangement) is fitted between the collective control and the throttle butterfly,
increasing power automatically and avoiding a loss of rotor rpm whenever collective is
pulled up. The correlating unit decreases power when collective is pushed down.
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The twist-grip type throttle at the end of the collective is, in many helicopters,
predominantly an engine rpm fine tune control, even though its use has some influence
on manifold pressure. In most modern helicopters a governor is fitted to automatically
maintain the required engine rpm and therefore rotor rpm.
Figure 28 Collective
Yaw Control (Pedals)

A set of foot pedals adjusts the blade angles on the tail rotor blades, at the same time,
(like a collective), to provide yaw control, similar pedals provide the same function on
NOTAR or dual rotor aircraft
Figure 29 Yaw Control

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SWASHPLATE
Transmits the pilots cyclic and collective control inputs to the rotor disc. The cyclic tilts
the disc in the desired direction of flight. The collective lever changes each blades blade
angle.
Figure 30 Swashplate
Having discussed the anti-torque control we must now consider the collective control and
cyclic control. Both controls perform their functions via a swashplate arrangement (also
known as the control orbit) that varies in design from one helicopter to another. The
following are principles common to most swash-plates.
The swashplate arrangement consists of two circular or angular plates (or stars) fitted
horizontally one above the other and positioned on top of, or near the top of, the mast. A
ball bearing arrangement separates the two plates and allows horizontal (circular)
movement between them. The lower plate is fixed in terms of rotation, but has the ability
to move up and down and/or tilt in any given direction. It is referred to as the stationary
or non-rotating plate (or star). Pilot inputs alter the vertical position of the plate through
the collective control and the tilt of the plate through the cyclic control.
Above the stationary plate is the rotating plate which, as the name implies, has freedom
to rotate. Since the rotating plate always follows the orientation of the stationary plate,
any pilot input to the stationary plate is passed on to the rotating plate above it. The
rotating plate is connected to each individual blade via pitch links to pitch horns fitted
either to the leading or trailing edge of each blade. Thus the rotating plate can alter the
blade angle of each blade
A counter-clockwise rotor in a hover, such as that in Figure, experiences forward cyclic
at position A, causing the blade over the tail to reduce its pitch angle. This action is
simply the result of the swashplate position which feeds the cyclic input through to the
blade in question. The angle of attack of that blade lessens and the blade starts to
descend. When descending, airflow created by the descent causes the relative airflow
onto the blade to come from lower down. This result in the angle of attack returning to
its original value, the blade has flapped to equality.
As the blade progresses on its circular path, blade angles decrease (due to swashplate
orientation) so that the rate at which the blade descends increases while the angle of
attack continuously flaps to equality. Thus the angle of attack essentially does not
change.

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When at position B the blade angle reaches its minimum value and starts to increase,
This is to ensure that the rate of going down is reduced so that the rate becomes zero
when the blade is over the nose at position C. (If the blade angle were allowed to decrease
beyond B, the blade would not stop its descent over the nose of the aircraft.) Thus at
position B the rate of downward movement is maximum, and lessens as the blade
approaches the front.
At position C the rate at which the blade moves down becomes zero and the disc has
reached its lowest point over the nose of the aircraft. The blade angle increases here (due
to the orientation of the swashplate). As a consequence, the blades angle of attack briefly
increases, the relative airflow comes from higher up (because of the blades ensuing
climb) and the angle of attack returns to its original value as it flaps to equality. The
blade angle continues its increase so that the rate of the blades upward movement
increases.
At position D the blade reaches maximum blade angle and the rate of upward movement
is also maximum. From here on, the blade angle decreases so that the rate of upward
movement decreases. Returning to position A the rate of upward movement becomes
zero, the blade reaches its high point over the tail, and the next sequence starts.
Figure 31 Pitch Angle

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Forward cyclic causes the plane of rotation to tilt forward under the Influence of changes
in blade angle while angles of attack remain essentially constant. The rate at which
blades move down and up will be greatest when blade angles are smallest and largest,
respectively. Having established the sequence for forward flight, the same principles
apply for movement in any other direction.
Figure 32 Rotor Head

DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT
Dissymmetry of lift results after a cyclic input changes the plane of rotation (forward in
this case) and forward movement has begun. (For the moment we will not consider the
changes in blade angle that continue taking place as long as the cyclic stick is held in a
steady forward position.). The term dissymmetry of lift is unfortunate. It is the uneven
production of rotor thrust that causes real problems.
Once the rotor disc tilts forward, the aircraft moves away from the hover and goes
through transition (movement from the hover to forward flight and forward flight back to
the hover). Because one rotor blade moves forward and the other blade moves back
relative to the helicopter as forward airspeed is gained, the advancing blade operates at
its rotational velocity plus the airflow created by forward airspeed, while the retreating
blade operates at its rotational velocity minus the airflow created by forward airspeed.
Figure shows a counter-clockwise rotor flying towards the top of the page. It assumes
that the velocity caused by rotation of the blade section is 400 knots and the aircraft
forward speed is 20 knots. The forward speed creates an airflow that moves onto the
entire helicopter at a speed equal to the forward velocity. In Figure this movement is
represented by six arrows of 20 knots each.
The advancing blade section on the right experiences 400 knots from rotor rpm plus the
20 knots created by forward airspeed, an effective relative airflow of 420 knots, The
retreating blade on the left experiences an airflow caused by rotation minus the airflow
from forward speed: 400 knots minus the 20 knots caused by forward velocity, producing
an effective relative airflow of 380 knots.
Lift production is the result of a given angle of attack (the lift coefficient) and velocity (V).
At this stage let us consider the lift coefficient to be the same on both blades. A higher V
(at the square function) on the advancing blade produces more lift than the reduced V on
the retreating blade. Consequently, the total rotor thrust produced on the advancing half
of the disc is greater than that produced on the retreating half and the helicopter rolls to
the retreating side, which is dissymmetry of 4/1.

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Thus dissymmetry of lift is caused by the airflow created by aircraft airspeed, or caused
by the wind when the helicopter is stationary such as when hovering. If the speed of the
helicopter increases, say to 50 knots, or if the wind is stronger, dissymmetry of lift
increases.
Figure 33 Dissymmetry of Lift

They will generate more force, leading to aircraft roll unless compensated for. Blade
flapping, (either hinged or flex), equalises lift across the disc. These movements cause the
induced flow component of RAF to vary and change the AoA on each blade as it rotates.
As the aircraft moves into forward flight, one half of the disc begins to create more lift
than the other half due to the increased airflow on the advancing blade side and
reduction on the retreating side. This is called dissymmetry of lift and if left unchecked
will cause the helicopter to roll over. It was Juan de Cierva who incorporated the flapping
hinge into each blade, eliminating this problem.
The flapping hinge allows each blade to move freely about its vertical axis, or to move up
and down. This movement is referred to as flapping. Since more lift is created by the
advancing blade, the blade has a tendency to flap up. This decreases the angle of attack
and reduces the amount of lift on the advancing side of the disc. At the same time, the
retreating blade takes a more horizontal position (flaps down) which creates a larger
angle of attack and more lift because less lift is being created on the retreating half of the
disc due to the reduced velocity.
Figure 34 Blade Tip Speed

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GYROSCOPIC PROCESSION
Gyroscopic Procession Theory

Deflection takes place 90 in the direction of rotation.
Side input = aft or forward deflection depending on the direction of rotation.
Angle of Attack continuously changing.
An Alternate Explanation of Cyclic Action.
If a horizontally rotating rotor disc reorients itself so that its low point is over the nose of
the helicopter, then the greatest input for downward movement must be made 90
beforehand in accordance with the principle of gyroscopic precession. Thus the blade
angle must be least on the right-hand side of the helicopter, where the rate of downward
movement must be greatest, and beyond which the downward velocity decreases. If the
disc shall have its high point over the tail, the greatest input for upward movement must
be made 90 beforehand, on the left-hand side. That is where the blade angle must be
greatest and beyond which the rate of upward movement decreases.
Figure 35 Blade Deflection/Deflaction
Phase Lag
The operation of the cyclic control was explained in Slide 31 where it was stated that if
the rotor disc is to be lowest over the nose of the helicopter, the greatest input in flapping
down must be made 90 beforehand, that is, minimum pitch angle midway on the
advancing side. The principle of gyroscopic precession then causes the cyclic input to act
90 further on in the direction of rotation. Thus a cyclic input causes the disc attitude to
change, the blade reaching its highest and lowest position 90 later than the point where
the maximum increase and decrease of cyclic pitch are experienced. This phenomenon is
known as phase lag.
Advance Angle
If moving the cyclic control causes the swashplate to tilt in the same direction and if, in
response to changes in pitch angles, the rotor disc tilts 90 out of phase, then the disc
will also be 90 out of phase with the cyclic stick movement. For instance, forward cyclic
would cause a roll to the right or left depending on main rotor rotation.

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To overcome this problem, the orientation of the swashplate and attachments of the pitch
links are altered in such a way that forward cyclic always causes the main rotor to tilt
forward and a similar response applies for flight in any direction.
Using forward cyclic for forward flight, the pitch angle of the blade on the pilot's right
must be at its minimum on counter-clockwise rotating main rotors. The leading edge of
that blade (at that position) is lowest down (or the trailing edge highest up). If the
swashplate has the same tilt as the main rotor, then the pitch link must be attached to
the front of the rotating plate. The lowest position of the swashplate then pulls the
leading edge of the advancing blade lowest down.
The angular difference between the centre of the swashplate and the point on the
swashplate where the pitch link is attached in advance of the blade to which it relates is
known as advance angle.
In A, the swashplate is on the page, while the top of the main rotor mast and the
attached blade are some inches out of the page towards the reader. The pitch link from
the front of the rotating plate to the leading edge of the blade slants up, out of the page.
The advance angle is the difference between the attachment point of the pitch link on the
swashplate and the blade to which it refers.
Thus the advance angle in this case is 90.
Forward cyclic causes the swashplate to have its low point at the front (and the high
point at the rear), as shown in B. The pitch link pulls the leading edge of the blade on the
pilot's right (the advancing blade) as low as it can go (minimum pitch angle). The 90
precession (phase lag) rule then causes the main disc to orient down in front (and up at
the back). The tilt of the main rotor, the tilt of the swashplate and movement of the cyclic
stick are in the same sense, fully compensating for phase lag.
If the same 90 advance angle is used, but the pitch link is attached to the back of the
swashplate, then the top of the pitch link acts at the trailing edge of the blade (see C).
Forward cyclic (D) requires the trailing- edge of the advancing blade to be at its
maximum up, so the swashplate has to have its high point at the back (and the low point
at the front). Again, the swashplate, the cyclic stick movement and the main rotor disc
move in the same sense.
We can therefore conclude that no matter whether the pitch links are attached to the
leading edge or trailing edge of the blades, with an advance angle of 90, the orientation
of the swashplate and the main rotor is the same and in sympathy with cyclic movement,
and full compensation is made for phase lag.

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If the cyclic stick movement is not in sympathy with the swashplate tilt, then the
advance angle has to be adjusted. If the cyclic is 45 out of phase with swashplate
orientation, the advance angle has to be 45 to fully compensate for phase lag.
CORIOLIS EFFECT
Conservation of angular momentum (Coriolis effect) influences the rotational velocity of a
blade when it flaps up or down. Any section of a blade travels on a given radius at a
given velocity and because of this; each section (and ultimately the entire rotor blade)
has a certain angular momentum that tends to be retained,
When the radius on which the centre of gravity of the blade travels is reduced, such as
when the blade flaps up or cones upward, the centre of gravity moves in towards the axis
of rotation (circumference A changes to B in Figure), the blade travels in a smaller circle.
The blade will then increase its rotational velocity to conserve angular momentum (in
this smaller circle). When a blade flaps down its centre of gravity moves out from the axis
of rotation onto a larger radius and its velocity slows down.
Figure 37 Coriolis Effect

Conservation of angular momentum (Coriolis effect) influences the rotational velocity of a
blade when it flaps up or down. Any section of a blade travels on a given radius at a
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given velocity and because of this, each section (and ultimately the entire rotor blade)
has a certain angular momentum that tends to be retained. When the radius on which
the centre of gravity of the blade travels is reduced, such as when the blade flaps up or
cones upward, the centre of gravity moves in towards the axis of rotation (circumference
A changes to B in Figure), the blade travels in a smaller circle. The blade will then
increase its rotational velocity to conserve angular momentum (in this smaller circle).
When a blade flaps down its centre of gravity moves out from the axis of rotation onto a
larger radius and its velocity slows down.
Figure 38 Conservation of Angular Momentum

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CONING
The ability to flap vertically, either through a hinge or flexibility, results in coning. The
blades move upwards due to the vector addition of the lift and centrifugal forces. Rotor
RPM must be maintained above a minimum value to avoid excessive coning.
Figure 39 Coning
Coning angle, governed by the resultant of combined rotor thrust of the blade, and
centrifugal force acting through the blade's centre of gravity. Disc Area is effected by
Coning Angle. Generally speaking, the larger the rotor disc the greater the total rotor
thrust produced. Although the diameter of a given rotor disc ought to be determined by
blade length (a fixed value), the influence of the coning angle is to reduce the size of the
disc to some degree. The coning angle is dictated by two forces, the combined rotor
thrust of the blade and centrifugal force.
In picture you see that the combined rotor thrust of the blade, acting at right angles to
the feather axis, tries to increase the coning angle.
Figure 40 Coning Angle

Centrifugal force, determined by rotor rpm, acts in line with the plane of rotation and
tries to reduce the coning angle. (For a constant radius, centrifugal force is equal to
centripetal force.)
Thus the resultant of a blade's total rotor thrust and centrifugal force determines the
coning angle. If the rotor thrust increases and centrifugal force remains the same, the
coning angle increases and disc area becomes smaller. Similarly, if the centrifugal force
increases (when rotor rpm increases) while rotor thrust remains the same, the coning
angle decreases and disc area becomes larger.

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Without centrifugal force, coning angles would continue to increase until the blades
finally meet directly above the mast. The result would be most unfortunate. It is therefore
very important that you never exceed rotor rpm limits, especially the low limit,
determined by the manufacturer.
With V (rotor rpm) practically a constant, if mass increases then centrifugal force
increases and, for a given rotor thrust produced by the blade, the coning angle
decreases. Thus by adding mass to a rotor blade, centrifugal force increases with
beneficial results for the coning angle. This technique is used in some "high inertia
blades" when a few ounces of lead are placed inside the blade tips, which travel at
considerable speed.
The addition of mass at the tips increases the moment of inertia of blades (which
increases angular momentum) so that for the same rotor rpm, the blades operate at a
smaller coning angle compared to blades without weights at their tips.
UNDERSLUNG ROTOR
The underslung rotor system involves attaching the blades to the rotor head lower than
the top of the rotor mast. This design reduces vibrations within the rotor and minimizes
lead-lag tendencies, thereby reducing stress on rotor head components.
Figure 41 Underslung Rotor

Flapping up or down affects the position of a blades centre of gravity from the axis of
rotation.
For instance, flapping up brings the centre of gravity in closer to the axis of rotation and,
through conservation of angular momentum, the particular blade speeds up, moving
forward on the lead-lag hinge (Coriolis effect) if such a hinge is fitted. The underslung
rotor system tends to reduce the effect and, through that, it reduces stress on lead-lag
links, or on the fore-aft strength of the blades and attachments. (On some two-blade
rotor systems, the flexibility of the mast also assists in reducing the effect of lead-lag
forces.)

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GROUND EFFECT
When flying a helicopter flies near the earths surface, the rotor downwash is unable to
escape as readily as it can when flying higher and creates a ground effect.
Figure 42 Ground Effect

When hovering in ground effect the angle of attack is slightly less, the amount of total
rotor thrust is the same as the gross weight, the blade angle is smaller, the power
required to overcome the reduced rotor drag (or torque) is less and the collective control
lever is lower than when hovering out of ground effect. This conclusion applies equally to
flight in ground effect other than the hover, but the effect is not as great.
Figure 43 Ground Effect

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TRANSLATIONAL LIFT
When hovering in calm conditions, a given induced flow passes at right angles through
the rotor disc. If a 30 knot wind were now to blow, part of the induced flow would be
blown down-wind, parallel to the disc, so that a reduced amount will pass through the
disc. Thus the wind, in this example, has reduced the induced flow, as shown in Figure.
The amount and orientation of the total reaction determine the relationship between
rotor thrust and rotor drag. Reductions in induced flow (which invariably reduce the
inflow angle) and/or favourable angles of attack cause the total reaction to lean more
towards the axis of rotation, with less rotor drag accompanying total rotor thrust and
requiring less power. This is what helicopter operating efficiency is all about.
Figure 44 Transitional Lift

TRANSLATING TENDENCY
You can see in Figure.44, that one part of the main rotor torque couple (the forward part)
points to the right and the tail rotor thrust points to the right as well, The other part of
the main rotor torque couple (the part behind the mast) points to the left. As soon as the
helicopter lifts off, there is a tendency for the aircraft to drift to its right under the
influence of these uneven forces (two to the right and one to the left). This movement is
known as translating tendency, also referred to as tail rotor drift. Translating tendency
must be corrected by moving the cyclic to the left so that the disc tilts slightly left and
stops the drift to the right.
Figure 45 Translating Tendency

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Some designers incorporate methods that automatically correct for tail rotor drift. The
most common ones are:
1. Construction of the main rotor mast so that it tilts slightly to the left and the rotor
disc is automatically oriented to the left.
2. The use of a bias in the cyclic control mechanism. This involves an arrangement
in the cyclic control linkage which holds the cyclic stick slightly to the left, so that
the pilot does not have to place it there.
Translating tendency occurs anytime in flight when power is in use, it must be corrected.
In forward flight and especially at speeds approaching cruise speed or higher, the
directional stability of the aircraft reduces the requirement for anti-torque so that tail
rotor drift becomes less significant.
During a maximum performance takeoff from a confined area, however, where the power
use is high and the airspeed is low, if tail rotor drift is not corrected properly, the aircraft
tends to drift to its right. The reverse applies when a large amount of tail rotor thrust is
used to maintain a constant heading in a hover and the throttle is closed rapidly (to
simulate engine failure). A rather abrupt drift to the left then occurs if the disc is not
levelled (with right cyclic) as the power is reduced.
BLADE TWIST
In viewing the main rotor from the top in a no-wind hover condition (Fig.45), it is quite
evident that different parts of the rotor are moving at different speeds. The fastest portion
is at the tip of the rotor with the least amount of speed at the root portion of the blade.
Figure 46 Blade Twist

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The blade will often have a twist built into it, in order to improve the lift characteristics of
the rotor throughout the blade. The twist will increase from the tip to the root. This twist
will increase the angle of attack of the slower portions of the blades thus increasing the
total lift of the blade (Fig).
Figure 47 Blade Twist

BLADE TIP STALL
The helicopter rotor blades, like any airfoil, are subject to stall. However, a stall of the
rotor is quite different from that of the fixed wing.
As a brief review it was learned that in forward speed the advancing blade is moving at a
faster speed than the retreating blade. As the speed of the helicopter increases, this
speed differential becomes greater.
Because of the dissymmetry of lift, the retreating blade will be seeking a higher angle of
attack than the advancing blade. This, coupled with the low airspeed of the retreating
blade, can lead to blade tip stall.
An airfoil may stall due to any of the following reasons:
Insufficient airspeed.
Too great an angle of attack.
Heavy wing loading.
In a helicopter flying at 200 miles per hour, the advancing blade will have a tip speed of
approximately 600 miles per hour, while the retreating blade tip speed is reduced to 200
miles per hour. At this point, the root areas are producing no lift. The retreating blade
must continue to seek a higher angle of attack in order to maintain lift. Even though the
blade has a twist built into it, the inflow of air into the rotor will be such that it will
increase the angle of attack at the tips. This is due to the tilting of the rotor and its
relationship to the inflow of air to the rotor.
It is not possible, however, to predict at what point the rotor will stall each time due to
the forward speed because several other factors must also be considered. One of these is
wing loading. It is more likely for the blade to stall under heavy loads than under light
loads. Heavy loading will only decrease the speed at which the stall will occur. Other
factors, such as temperature, altitude, and manoeuvres must also be considered. For
these reasons a stall may occur at rather low operating speeds.

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In Fig. 47, a rotor system is shown with the stall area marked. It can be seen that as the
tip enters the stall condition, only a few inches are involved; but as the blade continues,
several feet towards the middle of the blade travel in the stall area, and then it will move
out toward the tip.
Figure 48 Stall Area

The indication of a stall condition will first be a vibration as each blade passes through
the stall region. The beat could be 2:1, 3:1, or 4:1 depending upon the number of blades
in the rotor system. If the stall continues, the helicopter will pitch up. Although the stall
will occur on the left side of the helicopter, due to gyroscopic precession, the result will
be at the tail of the helicopter, which will pitch the nose up.
When a stall is experienced, the corrective action is to reduce forward speed, reduce
pitch, and increase rotor speed if possible; but the important factor is always to unload
the rotor system.

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AUTOROTATION
In the event of total power failure, a helicopter can perform a forced landing by using the
airflow produced by a descent to maintain rotor RPM.
The pilot adjusts collective and cyclic to maintain the recommended airspeed and rotor
RPM as the RAF changes direction, and depending on aircraft type and available terrain,
controls the touchdown with collective and cyclic.
Figure 49 Auto-rotation
Figure 50 Auto-rotation
The driven region, also called the propeller region, is nearest to the blade tips and
normally consists of about 30 percent of the radius. Although lift is provided, the total
aerodynamic force in this region is inclined slightly behind the rotating axis. This results
in a drag force which slows the rotation of the blade.
The driving region or auto-rotative region normally lies between about 25 to 70 percent of
the blade radius. Total aerodynamic force in this region provides lift and is inclined
slightly forward of the axis of rotation. This inclination supplies thrust which tends to
accelerate the rotation of the blade.

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The stall region includes the inboard 25 percent of the blade radius (Fig.50). It operates
above the stall angle of attack and only causes drag which tends to slow the rotation of
the blade.
Figure 51 Stall Blade

In the driven region A, the total aerodynamic force acts behind the axis of rotation,
resulting in an overall dragging force. This area produces lift but it also opposes rotation
and continually tends to decelerate the blade.
Area "C" is the driving region of the blade and produces the forces needed to turn the
blades during autorotation. Total aerodynamic force in the driving region is inclined
forward of the axis of rotation and produces a continual acceleration force.
Near the root E the RAF comes mostly from below so the blade AoA exceeds the stall
value, the force produced here tries to reduce rotor RPM.
The pilot maintains a constant rotor RPM when the driving region pro-autorotation forces
equal the anti-rotation forces from the driven and stall regions.
Figure 52 Stall Region

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HELICOPTER AXIS OF STABILITY
Figure 53 Lateral Stability
Figure 54 Longitudinal Stability
Figure 55 Directional Stability

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Static Stability
Is a measure of an aircrafts INITIAL response to a displacement, without control inputs
from pilot or autopilot.
An aircraft has positive static stability if it tries to return to its initial attitude.
An aircraft which returns to its original attitude through a series of decreasing
OSCILLATIONS exhibits Positive DYNAMIC Stability
Figure 56 Static Stability
Negative Static Stability

A tendency to INITIALLY move farther away from the original attitude following a
disturbance is Negative Static Stability
If you find the oscillations increasing in magnitude as time progresses, Negative Dynamic
Stability is exhibited
Figure 57 Negative Static Stability

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Neutral Dynamic Stability

Is indicated if the aircraft attempts to return to its original state of equilibrium, but the
oscillations neither increase nor decrease in magnitude as time passes. If an aircraft
tends to remain in its displaced attitude, it has Neutral Static Stability.
Figure 58 Neutral Dynamic Stability

HOVERING STABILITY (PITCH/ROLL)
A helicopter experiencing a disturbance (like a gust) in the hover will suffer blowback.
The disc tilts and the helicopter begins to move in that direction, which supplies more
RAF.
This new contribution to the RAF tilts the disc back the other way, providing positive
static stability, but the airframe lags behind.
Further gust activity fuels the oscillation which will diverge, i.e. negative dynamic
stability.
Figure 59 Pitch/Roll

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LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
Gusts encountered in forward flight will have a similar effect as in the hovering case. A
gust from ahead causes blow back to tilt the disc and the TRR back, and the airspeed
reduces. The airframes inertia pitches it nose up, further tilting the disc back. The
airframe swings back nose down, the disc tilts forward, speed increases, and the cycle
repeats itself. Once again, we have positive static stability, but negative dynamic
stability.
Figure 60 Longitudinal Stability

LATERAL STABILITY
If the disturbance is from one side of the helicopter, a similar sequence occurs in roll to
that in pitch, and they are statically stable, but dynamically unstable.
However the resultant sideways flight creates a cross coupling with the normal axis and
the aircraft yaws in the same direction as the roll.
Figure 61 Lateral Stability

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DIRECTIONAL STABILITY (HOVERING)

Typically, the behaviour of a helicopter in the hover depends on the rotor direction of
travel. Basically a gust from the side will cause the aircraft to translate and yaw. Both
actions cause the tail rotor AoA to vary, (change in RAF) and the aircraft anti-torque force
also changes.
So, when the gust finishes, the forces are not in equilibrium and the aircraft yaws back
the other way affecting the RAF again, and we have a divergent oscillation.
The result is positive static stability but negative dynamic stability.
Figure 62 Directional Stability

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY (FORWARD FLIGHT)
Essentially, the same sequence of events occurs as in hovering, except the airflow from
ahead contributes more and more to the natural weather-cocking effect as airspeed
increases.
So, there is positive static and dynamic stability once the helicopter reaches a certain
airspeed.
This effect can be enhanced by the addition of a vertical stabiliser working in the same
way as a fixed wing aircraft.
Figure 63 Notar

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Methods Used To Reduce The Dynamic Instability

There are three basic causes of a helicopters dynamic instability:
Rotor tilt with airspeed changes (Blowback)
Rotor disc following the fuselages pendulosity.
Fuselage pitching with rotor rpm changes, when aircraft CG is not under the disc
centre.
The stability can be improved by utilising gyroscopic rigidity or by reducing the airspeed
and rpm effects of flapping.
Figure 64 Helicopter
STABILISER BARS
A shorter, end-weighted bar placed at right angles under the main rotor (Fig.64) possess
its own gyroscopic rigidity when rotating. If this bar is connected to the pitch control
links, then its rigidity causes it to supply a correcting input and stabilise a disturbance
of the main rotor blades. Movement of the fuselage is not transmitted to the rotor disc.
Figure 65 Stabiliser Bar

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Figure 66 Stabilizer Bar

A similar effect can be obtained with a pair of mini wings on the bar. If a main blade is
disturbed, the mini wing provides a force tending to restore the main blades to where
they where. Both these stabiliser design reduce blowback
Figure 67 Stabiliser Bar
Use of Fixed and Adjustable Stabilisers

Adding horizontal and vertical stabilisers to a helicopter will do exactly the same job as
for a fixed wing aircraft
Figure 68 Horizontal and Vertical Stabiliser

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Stabiliser Angle
Because the main rotor downwash will influence the direction of the relative airflow, the
stabiliser may be attached at a specific angle to the aircraft axes.
HORIZONTAL STABILISER
A horizontal stabiliser acts to provide static stability exactly like that on a fixed wing
aircraft.
The stabiliser is attached in a way that induces an opposite force to any pitch
disturbance.
The effectiveness of a certain sized stabiliser depends on its distance from the aircraft
CG.
Figure 69 Horizontal Stabiliser
Figure 70 Horizontal Stabiliser

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VERTICAL STABILISER
The vertical stabiliser surfaces increase the natural weather-cocking stability by
providing extra surface area behind the aircraft CG. Helicopter must be loaded such that
the CG remains inside the fore and aft limits.
Figure 71 Vertical Stabiliser

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TOPIC 12.2.1 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
Flight Control Systems...................................................................................................4
Cyclic Control ................................................................................................................6
Collective Control...........................................................................................................9
System component CYCLIC and Collective....................................................................13
Swashplate (or Control Orbit) .......................................................................................18
Anti-Torque Control .....................................................................................................19
Tail Rotor Configuration...............................................................................................21
Bell 407 Tail Rotor .......................................................................................................22
Notar System ...............................................................................................................23
Fenestron Tail Rotor ....................................................................................................27
Canted Tail Rotor.........................................................................................................28
Dual Rotors .................................................................................................................28
Contra Rotating Rotors ................................................................................................29
Boosted Flight Controls................................................................................................30
Fly By Wire ..................................................................................................................34
Trim Controls ..............................................................................................................34
Stabilisers....................................................................................................................35
Balancing ....................................................................................................................36
Training Material Only B1 12.2.1 Flight Control Systems and Operations

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Controls ...........................................................................................................4
Figure 2 Boosted Controls ..............................................................................................5
Figure 3 Helicopter Controls...........................................................................................6
Figure 4 Cyclic Control ..................................................................................................6
Figure 5 Cyclic Control ..................................................................................................7
Figure 6 Moving Cyclic Forward Aft ................................................................................7
Figure 7 Moving Cyclic left Right ....................................................................................7
Figure 8 Cyclic Installation.............................................................................................8
Figure 9 Cyclic Components...........................................................................................9
Figure 10 Collective Pitch Control ..................................................................................9
Figure 11 Collective Head.............................................................................................10
Figure 12 Collective RPM Compensation.......................................................................11
Figure 13 Collective Control .........................................................................................11
Figure 14 Bell 412 Collective Control System................................................................12
Figure 15 Push Pull Tubes ...........................................................................................13
Figure 16 Torque Tubes ...............................................................................................14
Figure 17 Bellcranks....................................................................................................15
Figure 18 Bellcrank Installation ...................................................................................15
Figure 19 Mixer Unit ....................................................................................................16
Figure 20 Gradient Unit ...............................................................................................17
Figure 22 Anti-Torque Control......................................................................................19
Figure 23 Tail Rotor Control.........................................................................................19
Figure 24 Rolling Tendency ..........................................................................................20
Figure 25 Tail Rotor Hub..............................................................................................21
Figure 26 Bell 407 Tail Rotor........................................................................................22
Figure 27 NOTOR ........................................................................................................23
Figure 28 NOTAR System .............................................................................................24
Figure 29 Strakes ........................................................................................................25
Figure 30 NOTAR .........................................................................................................26
Figure 31 Fenestron Tail Rotor .....................................................................................27
Figure 32 Shrouded Tail Rotor .....................................................................................27
Figure 33 Cantered Tail Rotor ......................................................................................28
Figure 34 Dual Rotors..................................................................................................28
Figure 35 Contra Rotating Rotors .................................................................................29

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Figure 36 Boosted Flight Controls ................................................................................30

Figure 37 Reservoir ......................................................................................................30
Figure 38 Relief Valve ..................................................................................................31
Figure 39 Filter ............................................................................................................31
Figure 40 Accumulator ................................................................................................32
Figure 41 Actuator .......................................................................................................32
Figure 42 Servo Actuator .............................................................................................33
Figure 44 Fly-By-Wire ..................................................................................................34
Figure 45 Stabiliser......................................................................................................35
Figure 46 Stabiliser......................................................................................................35
Figure 47 Synch Elevator .............................................................................................36
Figure 48 Tail Rotor Drive Shaft ...................................................................................36
Figure 49 Tail Rotor .....................................................................................................37
Figure 50 Old Tail Rotor...............................................................................................37
Figure 51 Blade Balancing ...........................................................................................38
Figure 52 Rigging Effects .............................................................................................39
Figure 54 Rigging.........................................................................................................40
Figure 55 Hydraulic Jack .............................................................................................40
Figure 56 Protractor.....................................................................................................41
Figure 57 Rigging.........................................................................................................41
Figure 58 Rigging.........................................................................................................42

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TOPIC 12.2.1 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
The helicopter has three basic controls that are used to control its flight. They are the
cyclic control, the collective, and the anti-torque/directional control.
Cyclic
Provide directional control about the pitch and roll axis.
Collective
Increases or decreases the pitch on the main rotor blades to allow the aircraft to ascend
or descend.
Anti-Torque/ Directional
Offsets torque of the main rotor and provides directional control in flight about the yaw
axis.
Figure 1 Controls
Allow pilot and AFCS control of the helicopters:
Altitude,
Attitude.
Direction.
Carried out by:
Pushrods.
Cable.
Bellcranks.
Torque shaft.

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Boosted Flight Controls

Boosted by hydro-mechanical, electro-mechanical & electro-hydro-mechanical servo &
actuators The purpose of boosted flying controls is to overcome the flight loads
encountered with helicopters at high speed and high all up weight, and to provide
sufficient force to operate the controls sufficiently.
A considerable force is required to change the pitch of rotating rotor blades, and most
medium to large helicopters incorporate some means of assisting the pilots control effort.
This usually takes the form of hydraulically powered servo jacks fitted to the control
system.
Both main and tail rotor controls may be power assisted. There is usually provision for
reverting to unassisted control if a hydraulic system failure occurs. On larger helicopters
there may be an emergency hydraulic system which may be activated if the primary
system fails.
A typical system uses hydraulic servo units in which the pilot controls a valve inside the
servo to direct hydraulic fluid under pressure to the piston to change the rotor pitch.
Boosted flight controls are covered further in the phase Advanced Systems Airframes.
Figure 2 Boosted Controls

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The helicopter has three basic controls that are used to control its flight. They are the
cyclic control, the collective, and the anti-torque/directional control.
Figure 3 Helicopter Controls

CYCLIC CONTROL
Cyclic alters the plane of the stationary plate of the swashplate so that the rotating plate,
which orients itself in the same plane. Changes the blade angle of a blade continually as
it completes each revolution. When cyclic is moved forward, the stationary plate tilts
forward (to keep things simple just now) and stays like that until the cyclic is
repositioned. As a consequence, the rotating plate increases a given blades pitch angles
for 1800 and decreases them for the next 1800, repeating the cycle as long as the cyclic
remains in one position. The purpose of the cyclic control system is to tilt the rotor disc.
The cyclic control lever is situated between the pilots legs.
Figure 4 Cyclic Control

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The cyclic control is used to tilt the tip path plane of the main rotor. This moves the
thrust of the rotor and lift of the helicopter, pulling the helicopter in the direction of the
tip path plane.
Figure 5 Cyclic Control

As the cyclic is moved forward, the disc tilts forward, moving the helicopter forward.
Likewise, when the cyclic is moved aft, the disc moves aft, moving the helicopter aft.
Figure 6 Moving Cyclic Forward Aft

The cyclic may also be moved from side to side, moving the helicopter sideways. This tilt
of the main rotor is accomplished by changing the pitch of each individual rotor blade
900 prior to the displacement of the cyclic stick because of gyroscopic precession.
Figure 7 Moving Cyclic left Right

Sometimes the cyclic linkage of the main rotor is connected to a horizontal stabilizer
placed on the tail. This is sometimes referred to as an elevator; however, its function is
different than that of a fixed wing elevator. In cruise flight the normal tendency is for the
tail of the helicopter to be high and the nose to be low, due to the thrust of the main
rotor. This tendency increases the drag ratio, which is undesirable when speed is
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important. For this reason, the stabilizer keeps the tail down so that a level flight attitude
may be maintained.
Under other circumstances, such as takeoffs, it may be desirable to fly in a nose down
attitude in order to build up airspeed by obtaining maximum thrust from the main rotor.
Then the stabilizer may be used to allow the tail to come up, allowing the maximum
thrust to be obtained as in a landing configuration. It is important that the nose be
allowed to come up and be brought down. This may also be assisted by the movable
stabilizer. On some helicopters the horizontal stabilizer is fixed in one position. It may be
shaped as an inverted airfoil, forcing the tail downward with a spoiler strip for landing
flares. Some of the newer helicopters are moving the stabilizer electronically in order to
meet the demands of the helicopters airspeed and attitude.
Operation
When the rotor disc is tilted, the thrust of the rotor and the lift of the helicopter is
changed pulling the helicopter in the direction of the required flight. The disc can be
made to tilt in any direction. To overcome the forces of gyroscopic precession, the change
of pitch of each rotor blade is required to be made 90 degrees prior to the placement of
the cyclic stick.
Figure 8 Cyclic Installation

When the pitch of the rotor blades is increased, the amount of power required to
maintain the same rotor RPM is also increased. For this reason, an additional linkage is
required from the collective to the throttle control on reciprocating engines, and to the
governor on gas turbine engines.

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This discussion of the principles of helicopter fight is by no means complete, but should
be sufficient to help the maintenance technician to understand more thoroughly the
principles regarding various maintenance practices that are performed on helicopters.
Push Pull Tubes
Mixing
Bell Crank
Friction Clamp
Yoke
Torque Tube
Figure 9 Cyclic Components

COLLECTIVE CONTROL
The collective pitch control, or collective lever, is normally located on the left side of the
pilot's seat with an adjustable friction control to prevent inadvertent movement. It
changes the pitch angle of all main rotor blades simultaneously, or collectively, and
independent of their position.
As the collective pitch control is raised, there is a simultaneous and equal increase in
pitch angle of all main rotor blades; as it is lowered, there is a simultaneous and equal
decrease in pitch angle. This is done through a series of mechanical linkages and the
amount of movement in the collective lever determines the amount of blade pitch change.
Changing the pitch angle on the blades changes the angle of attack on each blade. With
a change in angle of attack comes a change in drag, which affects the speed or r.p.m. of
the main rotor. As the pitch angle increases, angle of attack increases, drag increases,
and rotor r.p.m. decreases.
Decreasing pitch angle decreases both angle of attack and drag, while rotor r.p.m.
increases. In order to maintain a constant rotor r.p.m., which is essential in helicopter
operations, a proportionate change in power is required to compensate for the change in
drag. This is accomplished with the throttle control or a correlator and/or governor,
which automatically adjusts engine power.
Figure 10 Collective Pitch Control

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Collective Lever
Bell 206BIII JetRanger Collective lever (Refer Figure 11 Collective Head)
The collective lever is connected to the rotor system via push pull tubes. The 206 also
has a droop compensation device which senses changes in the collective pitch lever and
increases or decreases fuel to the engine somewhat in anticipation of a change in power
required. This helps to minimize the RPM fluctuations during collective pitch change.
The lower left hand arrow points to the twist grip throttle. This performs the function of
an engine condition control, with positions for off, idle, and flight. In the flight position
the throttle is rolled full open, and the fuel control (governor) controls the amount of fuel
going to the engine in order to maintain proper rotor RPM.
Between the flight and idle positions, the throttle can be used as a manual throttle,
although this would only be done during an emergency (or simulated emergency)
condition. This is useful during any event which would cause engine or rotor RPM to go
too high, such as a high side governor failure or short shaft failure.
The throttle can be rolled off to limit the amount of fuel going to the engine so that RPM
is maintained in the green operating arc. Another time when this is useful is while
landing after a tail rotor failure. The throttle can be manipulated to produce the amount
of torque required to line the landing gear up with ground track during a running
landing. The throttle can not be used to increase fuel flow over what the governor is
commanding, which means it can not be used as a manual fuel control to correct for a
low side governor failure.
The third from the top on the left hand side arrow is pointing to the idle release button.
When the throttle is rolled from "off" to "idle", the idle release button snaps into a detent
which prevents the throttle from being rolled back to "off". This prevents the pilot from
flaming out the engine when going from "flight" to "idle". In order to move the throttle
from "idle" to "off", the pilot must hold down the idle release button while rolling the
throttle to "off".
The second from the top on the left side hand arrow is pointing at the starter button.
Pushing this button causes the starter/generator to act as a starter motor, turning over
the engine. The starter can also be used to motor the engine in order to cool it down by
forcing cool air through it.
The upper left hand arrow points at the landing light switch, which is a three position
switch. The three positions are "off", "forward" and "both". In forward, only the forward
pointing light is activated. In "both", the forward and the downward angled lights are
activated.
The right hand arrow on the bottom points to the RPM adjustment button. By holding it
in "increase" or "decrease" the pilot can set the RPM that the governor will attempt to
maintain.
Figure 11 Collective Head

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Rotor Rpm Compensation

An increase in all blade angles (up collective), under most conditions, increases rotor
drag and may decrease rotor rpm. To facilitate maintenance of rotor rpm, a correlating
unit (a cam-link arrangement) is fitted between the collective control and the throttle
butterfly, increasing power automatically and avoiding a loss of rotor rpm whenever
collective is pulled up. The correlating unit decreases power when collective is pushed
down.
Figure 12 Collective RPM Compensation
Figure 13 Collective Control

The twist-grip type throttle at the end of the collective is, in many helicopters,
predominantly an engine rpm fine tune control, even though its use has some influence
on manifold pressure. In most modem helicopters a governor is fitted to automatically
maintain the required engine rpm and therefore rotor rpm.

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Collective Control System

Bell 412 collective control system is illustrated as an example.
Figure 14 Bell 412 Collective Control System

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SYSTEM COMPONENT CYCLIC AND COLLECTIVE
Push-pull Tubes
The push-pull tubes used in a cyclic or collective system may vary in construction. Some
have forked rod ends installed on both ends. Others use combinations of forked and
spherical bearing ends. Some end fittings are adjustable, while others are not. Where
very fine adjustments are called for, one end may often be coarse threaded and the other
end fine threaded. There seems to be a tendency to reduce the number of adjustable
tubes. Many of the rod ends are sealed with PROSEAL or METAL SET on the adjustable
ends, providing a good moisture seal, preventing corrosion on the inside of the tube.
When the rod ends are removed, maintenance shops will often make a policy of flushing
tubes with a primer.
Wear factors do not progress on a straight-line factor. For example, .001 of an inch wear
that occurred in 500 hours of operation may quadruple in the next 500 hours of
operation. As the wear factor increases in one area, it will add to the wear factor in units
connected to it. Since every unit is connected to another, the whole helicopter is
connected in this progression. The replacement of one worn rod end is good cheap
maintenance.
Figure 15 Push Pull Tubes

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Torque Tubes
Torque tubes are used for several different purposes in flight control systems of
helicopters. They usually lie perpendicular to the center line of the helicopter and are
attached to each end of the structure by a bearing so that partial rotation of the shaft
may take place.
The tube is usually held by a saddle. The torque tube may, in some instances, be used to
convert a rotary motion to a linear motion, such as the movement of the collective. It may
also be used to transfer the motion to two points, such as the rotor and the engines to
change direction or mechanical advantages, or to transfer a movement from one place to
another.
Torque tubes are inspected periodically for security, bearing wear, and cracks, especially
at the horn attachment point and rod attachment point.
Figure 16 Torque Tubes

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Bellcranks
Bellcranks are used in conjunction with push pull rods. Their function is mainly to
change the direction of movement within the system. Bellcranks are also used to change
the travel of rods and provide the required mechanical advantage.
Bellcranks are constructed of aluminium cast and are often fitted with spherical bearings
to allow smooth operation of the collective system.
Closely related to the function of the torque tube is the bellcrank, mainly used to change
direction with a push-pull tube. The bellcrank may not be used to change direction, but
will always change the travel of the tube and the mechanical advantage. See Fig. 6-25 for
some typical bellcranks.
Figure 17 Bellcranks
Figure 18 Bellcrank Installation

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Mixer box
Another item closely related to the torque tube and bellcrank is the mixer box. Most
helicopters use a mixer box for cyclic and collective inputs prior to the swashplate. The
purpose of the mixer is to prevent the collective input from affecting the cyclic input as
they move together or in relation to each other. If such a device were not installed,
movement of the collective would change the height of the cyclic setting on the
swashplate and the cyclic setting would alter the collective.
When the collective is pulled upward, the swashplate will move upward and the cyclic
control movement that was already present will move the same amount in the same
direction. This will move the swashplate up parallel to its original position. As the
collective is lowered, the swashplate will lower, staying parallel to its position.
Figure 19 Mixer Unit

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Gradient Unit
Since many Helicopters today use a hydraulic boost on the controls, feel of movement of
the control is removed. This feel is artificially added. this is accomplished by what is
commonly referred to as a gradient unit. Gradient units may be found on all inputs to
the cyclic and are sometimes found with the tail rotor system and collective. Basically
these gradient units are spring units that are compressed and released as movement of
the control are made. This spring compression takes place in both directions. These
units are usually made for each input and are not interchangeable. They may be
adjusted for the required spring tension. The units are always installed in conjunction
with the control system, never as an integral part of the system. In addition to their use
as an artificial feel, they are often used to help trim the helicopter, in conjunction with a
magnetic brake unit.
Helicopters, like fixed wing aircraft, may require trimming to hold proper flight attitude
this is commonly due to load distribution. Unlike fixed wing aircraft, it would be most
difficult to install movable trim tabs that could be used to adjust flight characteristics.
For this reason, the pilot is forced to use the cyclic for these corrections. This means that
if the aircraft flew somewhat nose heavy a constant back pressure would be required
during flight, If the aircraft flew one side low as well, both back pressure and side
pressure would be required. This could become very tiring in a very short time. With the
gradient system and a magnetic brake, the cyclic may be moved to make the required
attitude change and to engage the magnetic brake. From that point the gradient spring
will relieve the required force to hold the cyclic, so that the aircraft remains in the
trimmed attitude. Aircraft may still be flown working against the gradient unit as usual.
A trim motor is quite similar to a gradient unit.
Basically it works on the same principle, except that the trim or movement of the cyclic is
done by use of a linear actuator in conjunction with a switch on the cyclic. This linear
actuator moves the stick against spring pressure to trim the helicopter.
Figure 20 Gradient Unit

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SWASHPLATE (OR CONTROL ORBIT)

The swashplate consists of two stars (also known as orbits or plates) that transfer pilot
cyclic and collective inputs to the blades. It controls the main rotor disc orientation and
the amount of rotor thrust produced. The pilot control linkage system is connected to the
lower (stationary) star which does not rotate but has the freedom to move up or down
and tilt in any direction.
A bearing, such as a ball bearing race, is fitted between both plates so that movement of
the pilot-activated stationary plate is transferred to the blades via the rotating plate.
In the right-hand diagram the cyclic has tilted the swashplate and if the collective lever
had been raised or lowered at the same time, the swashplate would have moved vertically
in the same tilted position (up or down, or down and up, depending on where the pitch
links are attached to the blades).
The rotating star above the stationary lower star is attached to each blade via a pitch link
to the pitch horn.
The pitch horn is an attachment at the leading edge or the trailing edge of each blade. If
a pitch horn is attached to the trailing edge of a blade, moving the pitch horn up reduces
the blade angle, and if it is attached to the leading edge of the blade, moving the pitch
horn up increases the blade angle. Therefore, raising the collective lever does not
necessarily mean that the swashplate goes up; it depends on whether the pitch link is
attached to the leading or trailing edge of the blade. where it is assumed that the
collective lever is raised. This action should result in an increase in blade angles on all
blades simultaneously.
In A the pitch horn is on the leading edge of the blade and to increase the blade angle,
the pitch link must push the pitch horn up; therefore the swashplate must move up. In
B the pitch horn is on the trailing edge of the blade and to increase the blade angle, the
pitch link must pull the pitch horn down; therefore the swashplate must move down.
Thus it depends on the rotor head design as to how the swashplate responds to raising
or lowering of the collective lever.
Tip path plane

The path with in which the tips of the rotor blades travel. It is parallel to the plane of
rotation which acts through the rotor head. A pilot may alter this plane through
movement of the cyclic control.

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ANTI-TORQUE CONTROL
The anti-torque pedals are sometimes referred to as the rudder pedals. They are operated
by the pilots feet and change the pitch of the tail rotor, which is used to control the
torque of the main rotor. In addition to the anti-torque correction, the pitch of the tail
rotor is changed to give the helicopter heading control. During takeoff; the power applied
to the main rotor is at its maximum. At this time the highest positive pitch will be
required by the tail rotor. On U.S.-made helicopters, this is added to the tail rotor by
depressing the left pedal.
Figure 22 Anti-Torque Control

NOTE: Foreign-made helicopters have main rotors that turn in the clockwise direction,
which means that the torque will react in the opposite direction, requiring right pedal to
b added during takeoff During cruising flight, the pedals are held in the neutral position,
which applies some positive pitch to the tail rotor in order to correct for the lesser
amount of torque applied by the main rotor.
Figure 23 Tail Rotor Control

Methods of achieving Anti-Torque and Directional Control has plagued designers since
the inception of helicopter flight. Many designs have been used to eliminate the anti-
torque problems.
The disadvantages of designs such as single rotors powered by ram jets fitted to the tips,
Coaxial Rotor Systems, Two Main Intermeshing Rotors and Bleed Air Nozzles seem to out
weight their advantages. Most helicopters use one main rotor with an auxiliary rotor
fitted on the tail.
The main purpose for the anti-torque rotor is to provide the required thrust to overcome
main rotor torque. The anti-torque rotor also enables the helicopter to have hover turn
capability and balanced forward flight. An anti-torque device e.g. a tail rotor is required
to prevent the aircraft rotating the opposite way to the main rotor.
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When in powered flight in a single-rotor helicopter, the main rotor tries to remain
stationary while the fuselage is subjected to a torque couple trying to rotate it in a
direction opposite to that of main rotor rotation. Since potential yaw is caused by a
torque couple it is logical that an opposing couple should be used to counteract it; when
equal and opposite, the nose of the aircraft would not yaw left or right.
The use of an opposing couple, however, poses considerable construction problems and
for that reason the torque couple is opposed by a moment produced by the thrust of the
anti-torque rotor (tail rotor) positioned at the tail. The magnitude of a moment is
determined by the force applied over a given distance. Thus the tail rotor, producing
thrust to the right, provides the force required while the position of the tail rotor well
behind the mast (upon which the torque couple is centred) gives the required distance. If
this distance is increased, the anti-torque moment produced by the tail rotor thrust is
more powerful.
Translating tendency (tail rotor drift)

You can see that one part of the main rotor torque couple (the forward part) points to the
right and the tail rotor thrust points to the right as well. The other part of the main rotor
torque couple (the part behind the mast) points to the left. As soon as the helicopter lifts
off, there is a tendency for the aircraft to drift to its right under the influence of these
uneven forces (two to the right and one to the left). This movement is known as
translating tendency, also referred to as tail rotor drift.
Translating tendency must be corrected by moving the cyclic to the left so that the disc
tilts slightly left and stops the drift to the right. Some designers incorporate methods that
automatically correct for tail rotor drift. The most common ones are: Construction of the
main rotor mast so that it tilts slightly to the left and the rotor disc is automatically
oriented to the left. The use of a "bias" in the cyclic control mechanism. This involves an
arrangement in the cyclic control linkage which holds the cyclic stick slightly to the left,
so that the pilot does not have to place it there.
After translating tendency has been corrected for by slightly tilting the disc to the left, the
horizontal component of total rotor thrust points left while tail rotor thrust points right.
These two vectors form a couple tending to roll the helicopter to its left.
Figure 24 Rolling Tendency

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TAIL ROTOR CONFIGURATION

Like the Main Rotor System must be able to perform negative and positive pitch change
for directional control under powered and autorotation conditions.
The purpose of the antitorque system is to provide directional control of single main rotor
helicopters. Directional control is accomplished by pedals operated by the pilots feet,
which change the pitch of the tail rotor.
There are various types of anti torque tail rotor control system used in helicopters such
as:
Conventional tail rotor.
NOTAR.
Fenestron (Fantail) tail rotor.
Conventional Tail Rotor

The drive for the tail rotor is supplied from, or connected to, the main transmission of the
helicopter. It is necessary for the tail rotor to rotate at all times during flight, even if the
engine is not operational.
Figure 25 Tail Rotor Hub
Tail Rotor Components

Hub
The tail rotor hub is similar in construction to a fully articulated rotor hub, but only
flapping and feathering hinges are necessary.
The hub is splined and secured to the drive shaft of the tail rotor gearbox.
Pitch Change Assembly
Tail rotor blades must be able to change pitch to alter the heading of the helicopter. The
blades must be free to swivel about their pitch change axes. This is achieved by attaching
a pitch change rod to the trailing or leading edge of each blade. The pitch change rods
and the star at the centre of the rods forms a spider. The centre shaft of the spider
passes through the centre axis of the tail rotor.

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BELL 407 TAIL ROTOR

Two bladed system mounted on a Tail Rotor Gearbox at the rear of the tail cone and in
conjunction with the vertical fin maintain directional control and stability. Driven by
shafting from the Main Transmission. Controlled by the Tail Rotor pedals via bellcranks
and control tubes.
Figure 26 Bell 407 Tail Rotor

Mounted at an angle to the vertical. In addition to anti-torque and directional control it
also provides lift.

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NOTAR SYSTEM
Propels air through variable jets fitted on either side of the tail cone.
This is a controllable-pitch Fan installed just aft of the transmission. Blowing air down
the hollow tail boom to a nozzle with a set of 90% turning vanes. The reaction against the
vanes produces an anti-torque force. Both the pitch of the fan and the size of the nozzle
opening are controlled by the pilots pedal movements.
A NOTAR system is one where directional control is achieved without the use of a tail
rotor. A shortened tail rotor shaft connected to the main gearbox drives a variable pitch
fan which propels air down the tail cone to variable jets on either side of the tail to
provide yaw control.
More anti torque reaction is produced by the circulation control tail boom. A slot on the
lower right hand side of the boom directs a jet of air nearly tangential to the boom's
surface which entrains the rotor wakes boundary layer on the right side delaying its
separation and bending the whole wake flow to the left. This distortion of the wake
produces suction on the right side of the boom which helps to counteract the main rotor
torque.
Figure 27 NOTOR
Utilises a variable pitch propeller driven by the Main Transmission. Also uses the main
rotor thrust over the tail cone to create a suction on one side of the tail cone. Rotor less
Anti-Torque System.
Some helicopters are equipped with anti-torque systems that do not use the conventional
tail rotor. An example is the NOTAR helicopter produced by McDonnell Douglas (MD).
The explanations are based on the main rotor rotating anti-clockwise when viewed from
above, and thus during powered flight the anti-torque force will be required to act
towards the right when viewed from behind the aircraft.

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There are a number of features in the NOTAR systems that improve on the conventional
tail rotor design such as:
Elimination of the hazards associated with tail rotor strike.
Elimination of foreign object damage to the tail rotor.
Elimination of tail rotor blade stall and improved control in crosswind conditions.
Reduced vibration.
Figure 28 NOTAR System
Components
The MD NOTAR anti-torque system has the following components:
An air intake at the top rear of the fuselage
A fan, driven from the main gearbox, which forces low pressure air from the intake
into and through the tail boom
Two slots along the right-hand side of the tail boom that allow some of the fan-
driven air to escape so that this air can energize the boundary layer of the main
rotor downwash on that side (see Figure)
A tail thruster cone which permits high speed fan-driven air to exit through a
"direct jet thruster"
Fixed baffle plates which turn the fan-driven flow of air more or less at right
angles before exiting through the rotatable direct jet thruster cone
In addition to the above there are two movable vertical stabilizers which come into play
during forward flight.
Finally, the 520N has a strake along almost the entire length of the tail boom on the
opposite side to the slots, ie, on the left-hand side.

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Strakes and Anti-Torque

The near-vertical downwash from the main rotor passing the tail boom can be utilized for
anti-torque purposes by "spoiling" the downward airflow on the left-hand side of the tail
boom (viewed from the rear). A simple means of achieving this is by using a "strake", a
flat metal strip attached lengthwise more or less at right angles to the tail boom. It has
been shown that the best results are achieved when the strake is attached above the
midway line of the tail boom.
In accordance with Bernoullis theorem when an airflow is forced to curve, its velocity
increases and pressure reduces, resulting in a lift force at a right angle to the airflow. In
similar fashion as an airflow passing an airfoil, this lift process also occurs when the
main rotor downwash passes the tail boom.
When the downwash is vertically down, the curving around the tail boom on the left is
identical to that on the right and the lift forces to either side would cancel out. However,
if the airflow on one side is deliberately made turbulent, then the lift force on that side
reduces sharply while the lift force on the other side is retained.
The effect of the strake on the airflow around the tail boom, commonly referred to as the
"Coanda Effect". It can be seen that the remaining lift force to the right results in the tail
boom moving to the right, in the same direction as the required anti-torque . As a
consequence, the thrust provided by the tail rotor can be reduced; - tail rotor blade pitch
angles will be smaller which means that the problem associated with left pedal limits is
eased. There is also a significant reduction in power required , and this has particular
importance for improved anti -torque capability at higher weights, higher altitudes etc.
Figure 29 Strakes
The coanda effect is at a maximum when the helicopter is in the hover in nil wind
conditions when the main rotor downwash is as near to the vertical as possible. As
forward speed increases, or when there is a wind blowing, the main rotor downwash
develops a horizontal component which lessens the benefit of the strake. But this loss is
somewhat compensated in forward flight by an increase in directional stability when the
fuselage tends to align itself with the direction of flight.
A secondary benefit of the strake is an improvement in maintaining heading when flying
sideways to the right, or when experiencing a crosswind from the right because more left

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pedal is available. However, as sideways speed increases and a smaller percentage of the
main rotor downwash passes the tail boom, the benefit decreases. This is aggravated by
the increasing pressure build-up on the right of the fuselage and tail boom as sideways
speed increases, this factor varies greatly between different helicopter designs.
A disadvantage of the strake is its exposure to downward pressure from the main rotor
downwash, and to some extent, its weight. The additional total rotor thrust required to
overcome these factors depends largely on the strake design. The combination of main
rotor downwash plus vectored fan exhaust creates a side force opposing torque.
In addition to the nozzle reaction, another contribution to the required anti torque force
is provided by the circulation - control tail boom. This concept makes use of the
deflection of the main rotor wake as it passes the circular tail boom. This is
accomplished by a jet of air blowing from the pressurised boom through a slot on the
lower right hand side.
The jet of air comes out nearly tangential to the booms surface and entrains the
boundary layer on the right side - delaying its separation and bending the whole wake
flow to the left. This distortion of the wake produces suction on the right side of the boom
which helps to react the main-rotor torque. As a matter of fact, the design calculations
indicated that about two thirds of the anti torque force in hover should come from this
effect. In forward flight, the rotor wake dose not impinge on the boom, so the forces must
come from the deflected jet and the cambered vertical stabiliser.
Figure 30 NOTAR

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FENESTRON TAIL ROTOR

Minimises accidental damage.
Produces same thrust as 30% larger tail rotor.
Forward flight torque compensated by vert stabiliser.
Shrouded Tail Rotor.
Figure 31 Fenestron Tail Rotor

Conventional (exposed) tail rotors operate in difficult airflow conditions. Main rotor
downwash, disturbances from the fuselage and other sources tend to subject the tail
rotor to confused airflows. The position of the tail rotor at the end of the tail boom
subjects it to vibration. The risk of damage from foreign objects striking the tail rotor and
the potential threat of injury to persons from the exposed blades favour a protected
environment for the tail rotor.
The shrouded tail rotor, also known as a Fenestron, provides that protection. It consists
of a number of small blades rotating within a protective shroud. Because asymmetry of
lift is eliminated there is no requirement for the blades to have flapping ability, they only
need freedom to feather. A servo unit is needed to facilitate pitch control and a structural
problem occurs fitting the shroud in the tail boom assembly. Comparing tail rotor
designs we can say that the conventional tail rotor is simpler to build and install, but the
shrouded Fenestron eliminates most of the confused airflows onto the blades and
protects the rotor and ground personnel from damage. Finally, the Fenestron is more
effective compared to conventional tail rotors of similar diameter.
Figure 32 Shrouded Tail Rotor

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CANTED TAIL ROTOR

A canted tail rotor is a standard tail rotor that is angled from the vertical- in addition to
providing directional control and anti torque reaction; a canted tail rotor can provide
lifting force in a hover. With a system, the rotor blades and head may canted at 20
degrees upward, which will provide a 2.5% of the total lifting force in a hover for the tail
of the helicopter.
Figure 33 Cantered Tail Rotor

DUAL ROTORS
Operates two main rotor system mounted for and aft in the fuselage.
While the conventional tail rotor produces the simplest remedy to main rotor torque, the
following alternative designs are available:
Figure 34 Dual Rotors

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Dual Rotor Helicopter

The force which tends to rotate the fuselage in a helicopter when the rotor spins can be
countered by using two rotors turning in opposite directions. These rotors can be
mounted one above the other and driven by coaxial shafts, or one rotor can be located at
the front of the fuselage and the other at the end.
Twin rotor design (as in the Chinook).

Counter-rotating designs (where one disc operates clockwise above another, which
rotates counter-clockwise).
Sideways tail propulsion through high velocity jet flows from adjustable nozzles. This
principle is incorporated in the NOTAR design.
CONTRA ROTATING ROTORS
Two main rotor systems mounted on a co-axial mast the rotors rotating in opposite
directions.
Figure 35 Contra Rotating Rotors

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BOOSTED FLIGHT CONTROLS

The hydraulic system contains all the components normally found in a hydraulic system.
The system includes the following items:
Hydraulic pump.
Reservoir.
Relief valve.
Filters.
Accumulators.
Actuators.
Boosted Flight Controls Pumps

Hydraulic pumps are normally driven by the transmission to ensure that hydraulic
power will be available during autorotation; Pumps are usually gear or piston type.
Figure 36 Boosted Flight Controls
Boosted Flight Controls Reservoir

The reservoir contains a screen in the filler cap and a sight gauge to check the level of
fluid.
Figure 37 Reservoir

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Boosted Flight Controls Relief Valve

The system pressure is set with a conventional type relief valve. The pressures vary
considerably from one system to another. Some systems are 250 psi, while others are
2000 psi. With the higher pressures, the components may be built lighter.
Figure 38 Relief Valve
Boosted Flight Controls Filters

Many newer filtering systems are using pop-out warning buttons to indicate bypassing of
the filter. Most of these filters are either a throw-away type or require ultrasonic cleaning.
Figure 39 Filter

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Boosted Flight Controls Accumulators

The accumulators are of a conventional piston type. On many of the smaller systems, no
accumulator will be found.
Figure 40 Accumulator
Boosted Flight Controls Actuators

The hydraulic actuators differ from those on other hydraulic systems. Some move the
piston while others move the cylinder. The cylinders are also equipped with pilot and
irreversible valves. Some actuators are dual actuators with the cylinders being fed by two
separate hydraulic systems.
Figure 41 Actuator

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Boosted Flight Controls Servo Actuators

Servo actuators are installed in the system to assist the pilot in movement of the
controls, and for prevention of rotor feedback
Figure 42 Servo Actuator
Flight Control Fly-By-Wire

The fly-by-wire system electronically links the controls inside the cockpit with the
actuators, the movement of which enable the helicopter to manoeuvre where and how the
pilot intends. Eliminating the traditional mechanical linkage saves weight, reduces
maintenance costs, adds capability and improves performance.

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FLY BY WIRE
Although not new in concept, complete re-development of the system was seen to be
necessary in recent years, as a means of controlling some highly sophisticated types of
aircraft coming into service. The problem associated with such aircraft has been one of
designing conventional forms of mechanical linkage to suit the complex flight control
systems adopted. Thus, an FBW system, as the name very aptly suggests, is one in
which wires carrying electrical signals from the pilots controls, replace mechanical
linkages entirely. In operation, movements of the control, and the forces exerted by the
pilot, are measured by electrical transducers, and the signals produced are then
amplified and relayed to operate the hydraulic actuator units which are directly
connected to the flight control surfaces.
Figure 44 Fly-By-Wire
TRIM CONTROLS
Helicopters do not have trim tabs such as fixed-wing aircraft. Instead, trimming is
generally achieved through either of the following.
Bias Control
Bias control involves increasing or decreasing the tension at will in one or more of the
linkages leading from the pilot controls to the blade control mechanism. For instance, by
increasing the tension in the linkage system leading to the swashplate so that it provides
a slight amount of left cyclic, the cyclic stick is automatically held in that position so that
less pilot input is needed.
Electronic Servo Systems

Computer-based inputs to the hydraulic actuating arms ensure that the aircraft is kept
in a desired configuration without further pilot actions. Thus the helicopter autopilot can
be seen as a type of trim control.

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STABILISERS
Stabilisers are flat-plate or airfoil shaped surfaces attached horizontally to the tail boom
or to the rear of the fuselage. Their main function is to stabilise the fuselage to prevent
follow-through pitching movements when flap-back occurs.
A gust from straight ahead during forward flight causes blow-back, so the disc tilts back
and the fuselage pitches up. This pitch up produces an increased angle of attack on the
stabiliser, which results in greater lift production at the rear of the aircraft. As a
consequence, the nose is prevented from pitching up further and in some designs, it is
actively encouraged to pitch down to some degree. Thus stabilisers tend to dampen
dynamic oscillations by stabilising the fuselage and the disc.
Stabilisers are helpful for longitudinal stability in forward flight, but they can be
detrimental to rearward flight. When flying backwards the stabiliser accentuates
longitudinal oscillations and a dangerous situation can develop in a short period of time.
Figure 45 Stabiliser
Stabilisers are fitted to some helicopters at odd angles because the angle of attack on the
stabiliser is influenced by the airflow from forward flight as well as that from rotor
downwash slanting rearward in forward flight. Design tests are usually conducted to
determine where, and at what angle, to place the stabiliser to make the best use of its
functions. Stabilisers are generally set up to function best at normal forward cruise
speeds.
Figure 46 Stabiliser

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Synch Elevators.
Synch elevators are stabilisers, but instead of being rigidly attached to the fuselage
empennage, they pitch up and down with fore/aft cyclic movements (they are
synchronised), Synch elevators strengthen the degree of response from the stabilizer at
varying airspeeds.
Synthetic Stabilising. It is difficult to provide satisfactory longitudinal stability even with
the best designed stabilisers. Modern helicopters are therefore equipped with electronic
stabilisation, such as gyro-controlled autopilots and computers, which provide inputs
into the main control linkage system.
Figure 47 Synch Elevator

BALANCING
During manufacture, the shafts are normally statically balanced only; the clamps used
were positioned to reduce the possibility of vibration and the tail rotor blades are
balanced against a master blade. These precautions, however, will not eliminate the need
for balance in the field. The tail rotors will still require a static balance, both span-wise
and Chordwise, and will require dynamic balance as well.
Figure 48 Tail Rotor Drive Shaft

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Static balance can be accomplished in several different ways. As on the main rotor,
balancing equipment for the specific tail rotor is often available from the manufacturer.
Universal balancing equipment is also available for a number of tail rotors. Addition of
weight in areas other than those authorized would be dangerous. Basically the balance
procedure for the tail rotors are similar, except the actual balancing point may vary.
Figure 49 Tail Rotor

Many older blades had the spanwise weight placed on the blade tips and Chordwise
weights added to the blade. Most newer blades have the weight added to the hub of the
blade.
Figure 50 Old Tail Rotor

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Balancing Procedures
Blades are balanced in either a vertical or horizontal position. Fig shows a tail rotor
placed in a universal balancer. This balancer operates in the same manner as the
universal balancer used on the main rotors. The bushings, etc., are made for the specific
rotor while the balancing arbour, with the correct bushing and holders, may fit several
different tail rotors. Like the arbour used on the main rotor, the arbour utilizes a disc
attached to the cable and dampened in oil. Weight is added to the blade at the
predetermined locations until a perfect circle is visible between the disc and the collar of
the balancer is shown in view A of Fig. This type of balancer is very sensitive and will be
disturbed by any air currents. All static balancing must be accomplished in a closed
room to insure accuracy of the procedure.
Figure 51 Blade Balancing

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Control Rigging
Maintenance is usually confined to removal and replacement for items other than rod
ends and bolts. However, many of the items in a control system are adjustable, and
control movements are quite critical. For this reason, it is often necessary after removal
and replacement of components, that the particular control system be rigged; meaning
that the system must be adjusted so that the correct amount of pitch is present on the
collective and the cyclic travel is within tolerances.
Figure 52 Rigging Effects

This is done by a number of methods. Rigging the controls on most of the early
helicopters was quite complex. This was mainly due to the little thought that was given
to maintainability at the time of manufacture, and the fact that the fuselages were often
built with such tolerances as .125 inch. These machines had adjustments on both ends
of each push-pull tube, and bellcranks were set at a number of degrees from the centre
line of the bellcrank.

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Regardless of the type of helicopter, rigging procedures must be in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions, to insure that the helicopter acquires no unsafe flight
characteristics from the rigging procedure. This does not mean that minor adjustments
will not be required after the initial flight. Even these minor adjustments must be in
accordance with the maintenance manual and in small increments to avoid unstable
flight characteristics.
Figure 54 Rigging
In order to perform rigging of the flight controls, some equipment will be necessary. In
many instances special tools such as jigs, rigging pins, and holding fixtures will be
required. Other items of the helicopter, such as mast alignment, which would adversly
affect the rigging often require checking.
The equipment required for rigging the cyclic and collective varies with the type of
helicopter to be rigged. In addition to common hand tools, because it may be necessary
to level the helicopter, suitable jacks of sufficient capacity for the levelling operation may
be needed. This situation is seldom experienced with the newer helicopters. If levelling is
required, instructions will be given in a separate section of the maintenance manual.
Figure 55 Hydraulic Jack

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Other common equipment used in rigging procedures are a measuring scale, used to
obtain required dimensions, and a universal protractor (propeller protractor). The
protractor is used to obtain predetermined degrees in the bellcranks, swashplate, etc.
Figure 56 Protractor
Some helicopters manufactured today make use of rigging jigs and pins to aid in the
rigging procedure. Pins are placed in predetermined locations to hold bellcranks; so rods
may be adjusted according to a set length. Jigs may be used for a variety of rigging tasks,
as a holder for the swashplate, or as a template to determine the degrees of travel.
Figure 57 Rigging

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Usually the rigging procedure of the cyclic would consist of placing the cyclic control in
the neutral position, which would be straight up or perpendicular to the floor. A number
of devices have been made for specific helicopters for centring the cyclic in this position.
Once the cyclic is centred, the rods are adjusted to the next check point. This may be a
bellcrank that is either held in place by a rigging pin or is to have a preset angle
determined by a protractor. When the bellcrank is in the correct position, the next
reference point may be the hydraulic servo unit. Normally these are adjustable in length
and the servo valve is set in neutral. The actuator may be attached to the swashplate
which must be set to a fixed number of degrees by a protractor or another rigging fixture.
Figure 58 Rigging
From this point the control rods which go to the rotor are set. The rotor may be held in
position or be checked with a protractor for its neutral position. After this neutral
position is established, the extreme positions are set by stops, which may be located on
the bellcranks or on the swashplate. Although oversimplified, these would be typical
basic steps that would be taken in the rigging of a cyclic system.

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B1.1 - 12.2.2 MAIN ROTOR HEADS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
Rigid Rotor.....................................................................................................................5
Semi-Rigid Rotor............................................................................................................7
Fully Articulated Rotor...................................................................................................9
Semi-Rigid Rotor Bell 206 ............................................................................................15
Fully Articulate Rotor S-58...........................................................................................17
Helicopter Vibrations ...................................................................................................21
Main rotor head inspection ..........................................................................................26
Training Material Only B1-12.2.2 Main Rotor Heads

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 MRH ................................................................................................................4
Figure 2 Rigid Rotor .......................................................................................................5
Figure 3 Rotor -Rigid......................................................................................................6
Figure 4 Semi Rigid........................................................................................................7
Figure 5 Underslung Rotor .............................................................................................8
Figure 6 Fully Articulate Rotor .......................................................................................9
Figure 7 Fully Articulate Rotor Components .................................................................10
Figure 8 Bell 205 Damper ............................................................................................10
Figure 9 Multi Disc Dampener .....................................................................................11
Figure 10 Hydraulic Dampener ....................................................................................11
Figure 11 Dampener ....................................................................................................12
Figure 12 Elastromeric Dampener ................................................................................12
Figure 13 Elastometric Bearing ....................................................................................12
Figure 14 Cylindrical Elastometric ...............................................................................13
Figure 15 Spherical Elastometric Bearing.....................................................................13
Figure 16 Conical Elastometric Bearing........................................................................14
Figure 17 Bell 206 MRH...............................................................................................15
Figure 18 Bell 206 Blade Attachment ...........................................................................16
Figure 19 Trunnion Assembly ......................................................................................17
Figure 20 MRH S-58 ....................................................................................................17
Figure 21 S-58 MRH ....................................................................................................18
Figure 22 Dampener ....................................................................................................18
Figure 23 Fully Articulated MRH Components S-76......................................................19
Figure 24 Fully Articulated MRH Components..............................................................20
Figure 25 Fully Articulated MRH Components - Dampers .............................................20
Figure 26 Vibration ......................................................................................................21
Figure 27 Helicopter Landing - Vibrations ....................................................................22
Figure 28 MRH ............................................................................................................22
Figure 29 Maintenance MRH........................................................................................23
Figure 30 Correctable Vibrations..................................................................................23
Figure 31 Vertical Vibrations........................................................................................24
Figure 32 Lateral Vibrations.........................................................................................25
Figure 33 MRH Vibrations............................................................................................25
Figure 34 Helicopter Inspection....................................................................................27

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Figure 35 MRH Maintenance........................................................................................27

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MAIN ROTOR HEADS

The Rotor Head transfer the pilots flight control movement into changes of blade pitch
which in turn affects the lift of the blades and controls the main disc attitude.
The Main Rotor Head design must accommodate the following stresses:
Vibration.
Twisting.
Flexing.
Modem technology has resulted in the production of rotor systems that use the combined
principles of two or all of the above described rotors For instance, some manufacturers
refer to their system as a 'semi articulated rotor" while others combine the principle of
the rigid hub with flexible blade root attachments Most rotor systems can be classified
fundamentally as fully-articulated, semi-rigid or right.
Figure 1 MRH
Rotor Heads
There are actually three major types of rotor heads in use today. They are described as:
Rigid.
Semi-Rigid.
Fully articulated.
The latter two (semi-rigid and fully articulated) are the most widely used.
Rigid Rotor Systems

Blades and mast are rigid in respect to each other but allow for pitch change.
Semi-Rigid Systems
Two bladed underslung.
Fully Articulated
Incorporate hinge mechanism allowing individual movement of the blades.

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RIGID ROTOR
The rigid rotor system makes use of a feathering axis only. For this reason the
possibilities of this system have been neglected over the years due to the inability to
correct for dissymmetry in lift. The certified helicopters that make use of the rigid rotors
today use fibreglass blades which are designed to flex, giving flapping motion as well as
the lead-lag properties to the blade rather than to the hub.
At least one other rigid rotor was built and used experimentally in which the blade angles
of each individual blade were changed during rotation. By using this method, corrections
in dissymmetry in lift were made (Fig. 2-30). However, experimental work in this area has
been discounted at this time.
To allow change of pitch of each blade, the hub may have a feathering bearing of either
metal or elastomeric construction. Some rigid rotor systems use a torsionally flexible
beam in place of the feathering bearing.
Most rigid rotors used today have fibreglass or composite blades that are designed to flex,
providing flapping and lead and lag motions from the blade itself instead of the hub.
One piece titanium forging incorporating provisions for a feathering axis only. The blades
are constructed of reinforced glass fibre with a large amount of elasticity. Because of this
elasticity and the forces applied, the blades lead, lag and flap independently allowing a
fully articulated action.
Figure 2 Rigid Rotor

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Rigid rotors are more common in smaller helicopters because bearing-less hubs have the
following advantages:
Simplicity.
Reduced component numbers.
Improved reliability and maintainability.
Weight, cost and drag are reduced.
Composite materials offer long fatigue life.
Another advantage found in some rigid rotors is that the effects of air and ground
resonance are reduced because the natural frequency of the rotor is so high.
A disadvantage experienced in some rigid rotor systems is the high control loadings. This
can be overcome by fitting a control gyro to the hub. With suitable linkages, the pilot
controls the gyro which in turn stabilisers and controls the rotor head.
This system allows the blade freedom to feather only it does not allow for freedom to flap
or lead lag (drag) Control loads in this type of rotor are very high and stability is difficult
to achieve. In advanced rigid-rotor systems, it is usual to incorporate computer systems
to facilitate ease of control and stability.
Figure 3 Rotor -Rigid

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SEMI-RIGID ROTOR
The semi-rigid rotor is probably the most popular rotor system. However, some of the
newly designed heads may change this situation within a few years. The semi-rigid rotor,
like the rigid rotor, makes use of a feathering axis for pitch change. In addition to this
movement, the rotor is allowed to flap as a unit. For this reason it is sometimes referred
to as a seesaw rotor system. Some are built with additional movement about the
chordwise axis by use of a gimbal ring. The reason for this additional movement is to
compensate for the Coriolis Effect as described earlier. Other semi-rigid systems correct
this problem with a built-in correction factor in the swashplate which changes pitch
angles during rotation.
The head shown in the top view has movement on two axes while the bottom head has
movement on one axis only.
Figure 4 Semi Rigid

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The Underslung Rotor is a semi rigid rotor system where the rotor is mounted below the
top of the mast. This keeps a small distance between the centre of gravity of the blades
and the axis of rotation of the blades.
Figure 5 Underslung Rotor

This system allows blade freedom to flap and feather but not to lead lag. This rotor
utilises the see saw' principle where one blade flaps up while the other flaps down
around a gimbal ring arrangement also referred to as a teetering hinge. It is a common
system used in two bladed rotors.
Although lead lag forces apply in this system just as they do in fully articulated rotors,
lead lag is usually absorbed within the blades themselves. Some semi rigid systems
utilise flexible units at the blade attachment point and/or a flexible mast to absorb a
degree of lead lag forces.
Function and Effects of the Semi-rigid Rotor:
The elimination of flapping and drag hinges simplifies construction.
The blades are fixed to the hub and do not depend on centrifugal force for rigidity.
Because of the seesaw flapping it is more subject to wind gusts.
More bending forces are applied to the blade roots because of the lack of hinges.
Semi-rigid rotors require under slinging of the rotor.
It is quite obvious that semi-rigid rotors can be built simply and can also perform quite
well, but are not as smooth as the fully articulated head when both are functioning
correctly

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FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR

Function and Effects of the Fully Articulated Rotor:
The rotor disc may tilt without tilting the mast because of the flapping hinge.
Flapping hinges relieve bending forces at the root of the blade, allowing coning of
the rotor.
The flapping hinge reduces gust sensitivity due to the individual blade flap.
Flapping hinge bearing areas are subject to heavy centrifugal loads.
The flapping hinge introduces geometric imbalance.
o This geometric imbalance requires an additional drag hinge.
The drag hinge relieves bending stresses during acceleration of the rotor.
Drag hinge bearings are subject to high centrifugal loads.
A smoother operation might be obtained by the fully articulated rotor. However, until
quite recently this could be obtained only by making a more complex rotor head. For this
reason the fully articulated head did not reach the great popularity that was attained by
the semi-rigid rotor system.
Figure 6 Fully Articulate Rotor

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The fully articulated rotor system is one that utilises the feathering axis for the blade
pitch, an individual flapping hinge for each blade, and a lead-lag hinge for each blade. At
the present time there are probably not as many fully articulated heads as semi-rigid
heads, but because of new technological developments in this area, this trend may soon
be reversed.
Figure 7 Fully Articulate Rotor Components
Bell 205 Dampeners

The function of the stabiliser damper assembly is to restrict the travel of the stabiliser in
both directions. The dampers consist of a cylindrical housing divided into four chambers
by a wing shaft. The wing shaft has passages which allow fluid to move from one
chamber to the other when the shaft is turned. An attached arm is connected to the
stabiliser bar through the linkage. A metering valve controls the rate of movement.
Figure 8 Bell 205 Damper

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Multi Disc Dampener

Multiple disc arrangement in a cylinder submerged in hydraulic fluid for cooling. The
amount of friction is control by the spring tension on the top of the disc pack.
Figure 9 Multi Disc Dampener
Hydraulic Dampener
Controls the rate of dampening by fluid passing through a metered orifice. Newer
dampers are sealed thus NOT allowing for field adjustments.
Figure 10 Hydraulic Dampener

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Elastromeric Dampener
New type of damper utilising elastomerics contained in a cylinder. Works on the principle
of Hysteresis (After compressing or absorbing shear load it will slowly return back to its
original shape).
Figure 11 Dampener
Figure 12 Elastromeric Dampener
Elastometric Bearings
Basic construction of a elastomeric bearing is the placing of alternating layers of
Elastomers (Rubber) between metal laminates. Elastomeric Bearings are used for
Oscillating Loads where complete rotation is unnecessary. Do not confuse this with the
rotational and thrust loads of roller or ball bearings
Figure 13 Elastometric Bearing

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Cylindrical Elastometric Bearing

Absorbs high radial loads and provide movement for radial oscillating (Teeter-Totter).
Figure 14 Cylindrical Elastometric
Spherical Elastomeric Bearings

Absorb heavy Torsional loads providing movement about the three axes. (Tail Rotor Pitch
Mechanism)
Figure 15 Spherical Elastometric Bearing

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Conical Elastometric Bearings

Absorbs high radial and axial loads with some movement in both directions.
Figure 16 Conical Elastometric Bearing

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SEMI-RIGID ROTOR BELL 206

A more modern semi-rigid rotor head is that used on the Bell 206. This head was
designed as a WET head, although many have been converted to DRY heads. The yoke (1)
is the main structural member of the head. This steel unit is shaped to give a 2'12 degree
pre-cone angle to the rotor blades. On the inside of the blade bore of the yoke is a cap
and pin assembly (6, 7, 8) used to retain a tension-torsion strap (11) to the yoke. This
tension-torsion strap is made of fine wire wrapped around two spools thousands of
times.
Figure 17 Bell 206 MRH

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The cap assembly is held in place by the static stops (9) bolted to the yoke. The grip
assembly (21) is supported by two bearings (20) on the yoke. It is secured to the yoke by
a latch bolt passing through the grip and the tension-torsion strap and is secured to the
yoke with the cap and pin. The pitch horn (17) bolts to the grip for pitch change. This is
also the attachment point for the oil reservoir (14) and sight glass to lubricate the grips.
Another interesting feature of the grips is the hollow blade bolts (25) used for the
addition of weight for spanwise balance. It might also be noted that no drag braces are
used.
The blade is supported by a latch mechanism in place of the drag brace.
Figure 18 Bell 206 Blade Attachment

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Placed on the top of the yoke is a trunnion assembly. It is bolted to the yoke with two
pillow blocks (10) which act as oil reservoirs and bearing retainers for the trunnion (3).
The flap restraint is placed on top of the trunnion (2) which limits the flapping action of
the rotor at low RPM.
Figure 19 Trunnion Assembly

FULLY ARTICULATE ROTOR S-58
One of the early rotor heads is used on the S-58 helicopter. Although this head is not the
earliest, it is similar in design to many of the heads used on Sikorsky helicopters.
Figure 20 MRH S-58

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Figure 21 S-58 MRH hows that the head consists of a hub (75) which is splined to the
mast and flanged to accommodate an upper and lower plate assembly (48, 91). The plate
assemblies form the support for the four lead-lag hinges (113) that are placed on tapered
roller bearings and form the support of the individual flapping hinge for each blade. The
sleeve spindle assembly (18) comprises the other half of the flapping hinge and is pinned
to the lead- lag hinge by a horizontal pin (15).
Figure 21 S-58 MRH

The forked end of the pin acts as part of a hinge mechanism for the dampeners (12)
which control the rate of the lead-lag of the rotor blades.
Figure 22 Dampener
The sleeve spindle assembly also provides the feathering action of the blade. The sleeve
(53) attaches to the pitch horn and slides over the spindle (63). Thrust loads of the blade
are taken up by a thrust bearing stack (57) which allows pitch change of the blades. The
flapping and drooping action of this rotor is limited by flap and droop steps attached to
the lead-lag hinge.
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Fully Articulated MRH Components S-76

The main rotor consists of a fully articulated main rotor head and four main rotor blades.
Major components of the main rotor head include a bifilar vibration absorber, a one-piece
forged aluminium hub, four dampers, a swashplate and four pitch control rods.
Attached to each of the four arms of the hub is a spindle assembly consisting of a
spindle, elastomeric bearings, control horn, anti-flap restrainers, and droop stop
assembly. The outboard cuff area of each spindle is the attachment point for the four
main rotor blades.
Figure 23 Fully Articulated MRH Components S-76

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The first unusual feature of the rotor head is the bifilar vibration absorber that is
mounted on top of the rotor. This system has been used on other Sikorsky helicopters,
such as the S-61-N, with much success in reducing the vibration levels and stresses
placed on the helicopter. The bifilar system works on the same principle as the dynamic
dampeners used for many years in reciprocating engines. It is made up of a blade
assembly placed on top of the rotor, with four weights attached at intervals between the
main rotor blades. The weights are attached by bolts, thus forming a very loose fit. This
loose fit allows the weight to oscillate. As the rotor turns, centrifugal force holds the
weights outward, causing impulses to be absorbed by the oscillating weights.
Figure 24 Fully Articulated MRH Components

S-76 has simplified rotor head construction considerably by the use of elastomeric
bearings. The head design is improved by the elimination of lead-lag hinges and flapping
binges. The movement is accomplished by elastomerics.
The hub is one unit bolted to the mast, with four sockets for the rotor blades. The blade
itself contains an integral spindle with a lug for pitch change, two elastomeric bearings,
and a spindle nut.
Figure 25 Fully Articulated MRH Components - Dampers

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The blade is attached to the hub by a row of bolts fastening the elastomeric bearing to
the hub. This elastomeric bearing is built up of laminations of metal and elastomers
bonded together in a soup bowl design with a hole in the bottom. With this design the
blades may flap, lead, and lag. This eliminates the flapping and lead-lag hinge from the
system. The elastomeric bearings require no lubrication.
The pitch axis passes through this bearing by use of the integral spindle. The thrust load
is carried from the spindle nut, through another thrust type elastomeric bearing to the
retention bearing, which is bolted to the hub. The dampening action of the blade is
accomplished through a conventional hydraulic dampener.
HELICOPTER VIBRATIONS
With as many rotating parts as a helicopter has, we must expect it to vibrate. These
vibrations are caused by out of balance forces resulting from uneven rotor mass
distribution, aerodynamic forces associated with incorrect blade tracking and forces
resulting from unbalanced components such as drive shafts.
Pilots need to understand the cause and effect of helicopter vibrations, since higher than
normal vibrations result in premature component wear and in the case of severe
vibration, even structural failure.
Figure 26 Vibration

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Types of Vibrations
Vibrations fall into two categories, those that are non-correctable and those that are
correctable.
Figure 27 Helicopter Landing - Vibrations
Non-Correctable
3Vibrations are essentially those that the manufacturer cannot eliminate completely.
They are generally caused by aerodynamic forces that "excite" natural resonance in
blades and other helicopter components. The age of the helicopter, normal wear of
components and loose parts aggravate the degree of non-correctable vibration it
experiences. The problem can be managed by proper maintenance, but it cannot be
eliminated.
Figure 28 MRH

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Non-correctable vibrations are normally related to the number of blades that make up
the rotor system, commonly referred to as "n-per-rev," where "n" equals the number of
blades. A five-blade rotor system would experience a "five-per-rev" vibration, which is
evident if all the other "correctable" vibrations are eliminated. The two-per-rev vibration
in many Bell helicopters, with their semi-rigid rotor systems, is familiar to many pilots.
Figure 29 Maintenance MRH
Correctable
Vibrations are predominantly caused by out-of-track blade(s) and/or by uneven mass
distribution within the rotor system. A blade is tracking correctly when its path of travel
is the same, or nearly so, as the preceding blade.
Even mass distribution is obtained when the centre of gravity of the overall mass of the
spinning rotor is precisely located on the axis of rotation.
Figure 30 Correctable Vibrations

Correctable vibrations caused by inadequacies in tracking or balance are either "vertical"
(at right angles to the plane of rotation) or "lateral" (parallel to the plane of rotation).

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Vertical Vibrations
When a vibration is caused by an out-of-track blade (an aerodynamic cause), the result
is a one-per-rev vertical vibration. A faulty trailing position of the trim tab or wear in
pitch link bearings can cause incorrect tracking. The problem can also show up when an
old blade or a repaired blade is installed among new blades.
Figure 31 Vertical Vibrations
A pilot can easily detect vertical vibrations by resting the forearm on the knee and
allowing the wrist to relax. Vertical vibrations move the relaxed hand up and down at the
rate of one shake per revolution of the rotor. Another good tell-tale sign is the vertical
movement of the (rod-type) HF antenna that is often mounted horizontally forward from
the nose cone of some helicopters. Blade tracking can be a tedious process, particularly
when the rotor consists of more than two blades. Correction for tracking is normally
done by adjusting pitch links and trim tabs positioned at the trailing edge of blades.
Having tracked the blade into the correct plane while in the hover, it is likely that it will
be out of track again at a given forward speed.
Thus the blades must be checked (normally through the use of strobe lights and blade
markers) while the helicopter flies at different speeds. The final correction is always a
compromise of the least out-of-track condition in the greatest range of airspeed. Most
manufacturers stipulate a limit for the degree of out-of track vibration.

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Lateral Vibrations
The steering wheel of a car vibrates if the mass of each front wheel is not correctly
distributed. We solve the problem by attaching small weights to the rim of each wheel so
that the centre of gravity of its total mass is as close to the centre of rotation as possible.
The same principle applies to spinning rotors. When the mass of the rotor is not evenly
distributed, it causes a "lateral" one-per-rev vibration, which shakes the helicopter from
side to side.
There are many reasons for lateral vibrations, including blade damage, an uneven
coating of ice or dust, shedding from one blade of blade tape (which helps prevent
corrosion), or peeling paint, all of which produce an imbalance in weight distribution.
Figure 32 Lateral Vibrations

A mechanical cause can be faulty drag dampers, which cause the angular difference
between blades of a three-or-more blade rotor to be unequal. For instance, if the angular
difference between blades of a three blade rotor is not 120, the total mass of the rotor
shifts off centre. Similarly, drainage of grease from one bearing near the hub and not
from others produces imbalance.
Lateral vibrations are eliminated by placing the correct amount of lead weight on or near
the rotor hub or at a position determined by the manufacturer.
Figure 33 MRH Vibrations

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MAIN ROTOR HEAD INSPECTION
Main rotor Head Adjustment

1/rev vibrations caused by mass or aerodynamic unbalance are controlled by tracking
and balancing. Ideally, the forces produced by each of the rotor head components would
exactly cancel because of the symmetry of the rotor. In actual practice, this is seldom the
case. Because of manufacturing tolerances or wear of components, there is usually some
unbalance of these forces.
If this unbalance is large, an objectionable 1/rev vibration will be felt in the helicopter.
Tracking refers to the adjustment of blade pushrods and/or tabs to match the flight
characteristics of the blade set. Balancing is done by adding weights to the rotor head.
Overspeed Inspection Requirements:

Main rotor head overspeeds above the specified limit require these procedures:
Remove main rotor head, including main rotor blades and swashplate, from helicopter,
and send to overhaul and repair facility.
Note: Tag all components upon removal and explain reason for removal. Record on tags
the exceeded speed.
NOTE: If engine overspeed has also occurred, remove engine drive shafts and send to
overhaul and repair facility. Troubleshoot engine overspeed protection system for
malfunction.
Visually inspect main gear box chip detector/strainers and oil filter element for
contamination if installed.
Inspect other gear boxes required by relevant maintenance manuals.
Sudden Stoppage, MRH Overhaul

Sudden stoppage of the main rotor occurs when there is a sudden deceleration after
contact with an object such as the ground, trees, etc. This force will be transmitted
throughout the system, not only the point of impact. Damage to the blades is normally
quite obvious at the point of impact, but they may also have secondary damage in the
root area of the blade. The bonds may be loosened and spars may have cracks, etc. In
addition, this may be transmitted to the rotor head. The inspection could require
complete disassembly of the rotor head and the normal overhaul inspection performed.
On some rotor heads certain parts may be required to be replaced without inspection. On
others, it may require replacement of the entire rotor head.
Inspection could include teardown and inspection of the mast bearings, transmission,
transmission mounting, structural bolts, and tail rotor drive assembly. The extent of this
inspection is often governed by the extent of the damage found in one or more areas such
as bent drag braces, damaged mast bearings, etc.
Sudden stoppage of the tail rotor can also lead to secondary damage; which may include
twisting of the tail boom structure, structural damage to the hanger bearing mounts and
tail boom attachment points. This type of damage would be in addition to the damage to
the rotor and drive train.
Other special inspections that could affect the airframe would be if an over speed or over
torque occurred. In such circumstances, the maintenance manual will provide the

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inspection criteria for special inspections and designate the areas of the airframe to be
inspected.
Figure 34 Helicopter Inspection
MRH Servicing
The servicing of the rotor head normally consists of lubrication. Proper lubrication of the
rotor head cannot be stressed enough. The greasing of the head is done with a hand-type
grease gun, using the manufacturer's specified grease. The intervals are also specified by
the manufacturer. However, when operations are conducted in certain areas, more
frequent greasing is advisable. For example: a sandy environment would require more
frequent lubrication to remove the sand from the greased areas. Although the wet head
should require less servicing and lubrication, leaks may occur. Most systems will have
some leakage, but excessive leakage will cause bearing damage
Normal rotor head inspections are visual. Loose items, such as rod ends, will only add to
a more rapid deterioration of the head. The feel of the movements and the possibility of
cracks should not be omitted from any inspection criteria.
On certain heads, periodic inspections may be required. These might include such items
as DYE CHECK inspections, partial disassembly, and rotation of bearings. These could
be required at different intervals of time or as the result of Airworthiness Directives.
Special inspection of the rotor system will be required when certain circumstances exist,
such as overspeeds, sudden stoppage and hard landings. The inspections will vary with
the design of the head and the requirements of the manufacturer.
Depending upon circumstances, the inspection required may be only a through visual
inspection, while in other situations it may require a complete teardown or replacement
of the rotor. Manufacturer's publications cover the special inspections in detail.
Figure 35 MRH Maintenance

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Removal and installation of MRH

Removal and installation of MRH varies from design to design. Some rotor heads may be
removed with the blades installed, while others will require blade removal prior to
removing the heads. This is usually dictated by the size of the rotor and the equipment
available.
The first step in the removal of any rotor system is to disconnect the flight controls
attached to the rotor head. The controls are usually attached by bolts through rod ends
and close tolerance bolts.
After the controls are disconnected, some have other items that may be required to be
removed, such as stabilizer bars, collective controls, dampener reservoirs, and
driveshafts. The mast nut used to hold the rotor head to the mast assembly are of a
special nature and will require a special wrench for installation and removal. The torque
used may require a hydraulic wrench or multiplier wrench. Once the nut is removed, the
head may need special hoisting slings or eyes for lifting the rotor system. The rotor,
removed with the blades, requires a suitable stand on which to sit the rotor assembly.
When blades are to be removed and the rotor system is installed on the helicopter, the
support of the blade is even more critical because of the height and the damage that may
occur during removal. For this reason the blades are usually removed from the aft of the
helicopter. This may also require support to the remaining blades.
After the blades are removed, it is important that they be stored on blade racks. This will
prevent blade damage. The rotor heads should be placed on a suitable stand to prevent
damaging the head.
The head has to be disassembled for inspection if required by manufacturer. This
procedure requires several special tools. No rebuilding should be attempted without the
proper equipment. After disassembly, clean the parts and check part dimensions.
After the parts have been inspected, they are ready for reassembly.
MRH Reassembly
After the head is reassembled, the blades may be reinstalled, taking the same
precautions used in disassembly. At this point, a series of maintenance procedures may
begin, including:
Blade alignment.
Static main rotor balance.
Vibration check.
Tracking.
Spanwise dynamic balance of the rotor.
Blade sweeping.
Electronic balancing.
Dampener maintenance.
Counterweight adjustment.
Autorotation adjustments.

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12.2.3 MAIN AND TAIL ROTOR BLADES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
Wooden rotor blades ......................................................................................................4
Metal rotor blades ..........................................................................................................9
Metal Blade Crack Detection ........................................................................................14
Fiberglass or composite blades.....................................................................................14
Training Material Only B1-12.2.3 Main and Tail Rotor Blades

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Paul Cornu.......................................................................................................3
Figure 2 Rotor Blade ......................................................................................................3
Figure 3 Wooden Rotor Blade .........................................................................................4
Figure 4 Wooden Rotor Blade .........................................................................................4
Figure 5 Bell Rotor Blade ...............................................................................................4
Figure 6 Main Rotor Blade .............................................................................................5
Figure 7 Wooden Blade Damage .....................................................................................5
Figure 8 Wooden Blade Deterioration .............................................................................6
Figure 9 Wooden Blade Rot ............................................................................................6
Figure 10 Wooden Blade Inspection................................................................................7
Figure 11 Wooden Blade Repair .....................................................................................7
Figure 12 Inspection and Cleaning .................................................................................8
Figure 13 Blade Balancing .............................................................................................8
Figure 14 Damaged Blade ..............................................................................................9
Figure 15 Helicopter Metal Blades ...............................................................................9
Figure 16 Metal Blade Repair .........................................................................................9
Figure 17 Blade Inspection...........................................................................................10
Figure 18 Composite Blade Construction......................................................................10
Figure 19 Blade Inspection...........................................................................................11
Figure 20 Helicopter Main Blade ..................................................................................12
Figure 21 Rotor Blade Construction .............................................................................12
Figure 22 BIS...............................................................................................................13
Figure 23 Blade Repair ................................................................................................13
Figure 24 BIM..............................................................................................................14
Figure 25 Composite Blade Contruction .......................................................................15
Figure 26 Blade Construction ......................................................................................15
Figure 27 Fibreglass Spar ............................................................................................16
Figure 28 Metal spar ....................................................................................................17
Figure 29 Composite Blade ..........................................................................................17
Figure 30 Blade Damage ..............................................................................................18

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12.2.3 MAIN AND TAIL ROTOR BLADES

Paul Cornu in his first helicopter in 1907. Note that he is sitting between the two rotors,
which rotated in opposite directions to cancel torque. This helicopter was the first flying
machine to have risen from the ground using rotor blades instead of wings.
The first rotors were made of wood and used on several of the early models. Many are
still in use today. Next came metal blades, generally of bonded constructions, with some
still used in current production. The next type of construction is the composite blade.
Utilizing several types of materials including fibreglass in its construction. This is the
newest type of blade.
Figure 1 Paul Cornu

Since the rotor blade is the wing of the helicopter, it is very important that its care and
inspection are well understood. The blade produces the lifting force of the helicopter and
is exposed to many load factors not common to the fixed wing. This includes centrifugal
force, twisting movements and rapid span movements. For this reason, the blades are a
most critical item and should be treated as such.
Figure 2 Rotor Blade

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WOODEN ROTOR BLADES

The first production rotor blades were laminated wood. Various types of wood were used,
such as birch, spruce, pine, and balsa, in combinations to obtain the strength and
aerodynamic shape necessary for rotor construction. A steel core was placed within the
wood lamination near the leading edge of the blade. This steel core acts as a mass
balance of the blades.
Figure 3 Wooden Rotor Blade

The exterior of the blade is covered with resin impregnated fibreglass cloth.
Approximately two-thirds of the outboard portion of the leading edge of the blade is
protected with a stainless steel cap for abrasion purposes. This cap is placed flush with
the contour of the blade and riveted into place. At the butt of the blade are metal plates
attached with screws. These plates axe commonly referred to as cheek plates and provide
a surface for the grip attachment and the drag brace assembly.
Figure 4 Wooden Rotor Blade

Located on the upper surface are tow pins, tacks with the heads protruding, for the
centre of gravity and centre of pressure locations. These are used as reference points for
maintenance purposes. On the outboard trailing edge is a trim tab riveted through the
wood. The tab is used to adjust each blade for track by bending the tab. At the tip of the
blade is a tip pocket used for spanwise balance. Weights are added as necessary.
Figure 5 Bell Rotor Blade

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Due to the variations of wood, most blades are in matched pairs, meaning that one blade
cannot be changed by itself. During construction each blade is matched to a master
blade and then matched to the pair. At least one manufacturer has a system of matching
blades of different pairs.
Figure 6 Main Rotor Blade

A disadvantage is the effect of moisture on the blade. This situation can be corrected
with a short run-up of the helicopter.
An advantage of this type of blade is its lifetime. Its use depends upon its condition,
unlike metal blades which must closely meet inspection requirements.
Figure 7 Wooden Blade Damage

It would be difficult to discuss the specific inspection requirements of each
manufacturer, therefore the inspection requirements will be discussed in general terms
only.

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The two ways the integrity of the blade will be affected are deterioration and damage.
Deterioration is usually a very slow process of exposure to the elements. It leads to
problems with the covering, attachment point, and the butt area of the blade.
Figure 8 Wooden Blade Deterioration

only.
The first sign of covering problems is deterioration, or actual loss, of the finish. This will
leave the glass cloth exposed and allow moisture to enter the blade, leading to rot of the
wood. Any exposed cloth must be repaired immediately. The blade must be examined for
loose screws and rivets. Even though one loose screw or rivet will not result in the
ultimate failure of the rotor blade, it may lead to the identification of other problems,
including rot in the wood, or moisture in the blade.
Figure 9 Wooden Blade Rot

only.
Repairs should be made to the affected areas. The butt of the blade is subject to checking
or delaminating. The maintenance manual must be consulted as to the crack allowance.
If cracks are within limits, they should be repaired as prescribed in the appropriate
manual.

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Damage to the blade may occur either while the blade is static or rotating. The latter is
the more serious damage, because the force of the impact may be transmitted through
the blade causing additional damage elsewhere. Since the blade is covered, it is often
difficult to detect damage at a point other than where the strike occurred. This type of
damage can often be discovered by observing bulges or buckles in the cover, especially
when flexing the blade. For these reasons, visual inspection of the leading edge is
important. Impact in that area will have the most transmitted force. If the impact is great
enough to stop the rotor, a special inspection of the helicopter will be required, and a
possible rotor system replacement.
Figure 10 Wooden Blade Inspection

More damage probably occurs to rotors in the static position than while rotating. Often it
is the result of careless ground handling techniques. This type of damage, while not as
serious as rotating damage, could still result in blade failure. Common damage of this
type will be tears in the cover, damage to the wood, and leading edge damage. In most
instances, this is repairable by following manufacturers recommendations. Most shops
will send the blade out for repair if the damage is extensive. However; any damage may
be serious and should be taken care of immediately
Figure 11 Wooden Blade Repair

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Normal maintenance of the wooden rotor blade consists of inspection and blade cleaning.
The blades may be washed with soap and water. A soap quite often used for this purpose
is flax soap. It is quite mild and will not corrode the blade. Any caustic solution or
solvent may harm the blade and should be avoided. The blades are often waxed after
washing. An abrasive cleaner type wax should not be used because this will be
detrimental to the finish.
Figure 12 Inspection and Cleaning

Localised areas may be painted as required. If refinishing of the entire blade is necessary,
rebalancing will be required. Paints for these purposes should be used as directed by the
manufacturer for compatibility reasons. If new paint is to be applied to the complete
blade, precautions should be taken to remove all foreign material and to distribute the
paint evenly over the entire blade. Prior to painting, the paint should be mixed and
divided into equal amounts to ensure that each blade receives the same amount of paint.
This will simplify the balancing procedure after the painting is completed.
Figure 13 Blade Balancing

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Other maintenance may include the replacement of trim tabs, stainless steel leading edge
repairs, cover, and wood repairs. if damage is extensive, the blades are sent to a repair
facility. Often exchange units are used if the repairs are extensive, depending on the time
available.
Figure 14 Damaged Blade
METAL ROTOR BLADES

Metal rotor blades have been in production for a period of at least twenty years. Because
of construction expense and the various manufacturers involved, the construction varies
considerably.
Figure 15 Helicopter Metal Blades

A distinct advantage to the metal blade is the quality control during construction. Single
blades may be changed without the use of matched sets. All blades are matched to the
master blade at manufacture. This system allows additional weight to be added to the
blade at manufacture to obtain the best aerodynamic characteristics and give the blade
sufficient weight to develop the inertia necessary for autorotation.
Figure 16 Metal Blade Repair

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Like any other metal component exposed to stresses induced in flight, the blade must be
time life limited. This is a disadvantage compared to the wooden blade that has no finite
life limitations.
Figure 17 Blade Inspection

One item that all blades have in common is a bonded type of construction. This is done
by a heat and pressure process and has some advantages that are very important to the
integrity of the rotor blade.
They are:
Even distribution of stresses
Continuous contact between mating surfaces
Smoother contours
Flexible joints
Reduced weight
Figure 18 Composite Blade Construction

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The disadvantage to this type of construction is the inability to re-bond the structure in
the field.
Figure 19 Blade Inspection

The blade construction is usually of aluminium alloy Fig. shows the typical construction
of an early type of metal blade. The spar is of box construction, running the full span of
the blade. This is the main structural component of the blade. The skin is simply a wrap-
around, giving the blade its aerodynamic shape. This skin is bonded to the spar I-
channel and the trailing edge strip. A stainless steel strip is attached in the same
manner to the leading edge and acts as an abrasion shield to the blade. Without this
protection the blade would erode quite rapidly in adverse conditions such as sand and
dust.
Grip plates and doublers are added at the root of the blade to spread the attachment
stresses over a wide area of the blade. A trim tab is placed on the outboard trailing edge
for track adjustment. Weights may be added at the tip pocket for balance purposes.
These are mounted directly to the spar and are accessible by removing the tip cap.
Additional weights are often placed inboard of the tip weight for inertia.

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These are sometimes referred to as midspan weights and are attached at manufacture of
the blade The midspan weight should not be disturbed for field balancing.
Figure 20 Helicopter Main Blade

Another type of construction is shown in Fig. 5-35. With this blade, the same basic
techniques are used in the blade construction with a wrap-around skin bonded at the
trailing edge to a strip. The interior of the blade is quite different. The box beam is the
main structural component, with a honeycomb core giving the support and shape to the
skin of the blade.
Figure 21 Rotor Blade Construction

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This particular blade is also equipped with an integral inspection system (BIS). This
system consists of an electronic detector unit with a memory and crack detection
circuits. The detector is activated by a centrifugally operated mercury switch when the
main rotor is turning, or by depressing the test button on the detector unit. During
testing, a flashing red light indicates a satisfactory condition, and a steady red light
indicates a possible blade crack, requiring a more detailed blade inspection.
Figure 22 BIS
Another type of metal blade construction is shown in the figure. This blade is
constructed of one spar that serves as the structural support and the leading edge of the
blade. Bonded to this main spar are sections of airfoil referred to as pockets. The butt
section of the blade is quite unique because a steel cuff section is bolted to the spar. This
type of blade also makes use of a blade crack indicator system. This system is referred to
as BIM, or Blade Inspection Method. The spar is pressurized with an inert gas. An
indicator is placed at the blade root. This indicator is nothing more than a pressure
switch that moves a striped tube up and down with changes in pressure. A normal
indication is shown in Fig. If a crack should occur in the spar, the pressure will be lost
and the colour of the indicator will change.
Figure 23 Blade Repair

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METAL BLADE CRACK DETECTION
BIM Indication
This type of blade also makes use of a blade crack indicator system. This system is
referred to as BIM, or Blade Inspection Method. The spar is pressurized with an inert
gas. An indicator is placed at the blade root. This indicator is nothing more than a
pressure switch that moves a striped tube up and down with changes in pressure. A
normal indication is shown in Fig. 5-38. If a crack should occur in the spar, the pressure
will be lost and the colour of the indicator will change.
Figure 24 BIM
Metal Blade Maintenance

There are several other types of construction in use, but most of these are quite similar
to previously mentioned types. As with wooden blades, metal blades may be washed with
soap and water and waxed. Some solutions of a caustic base and certain solvents should
be avoided because of their effect on the bonding, which may destroy the integrity of the
blade. In some areas where the blades are exposed to salt water, they are washed daily
and a thin film of oil is applied.
FIBERGLASS OR COMPOSITE BLADES
Another material for blades is fibreglass. The concept of fibreglass blades started in the
mid 1950s with about four companies involved in the development. These were Parsons,
Aerospatiale, Boelkow, and Boeing-Vertol. Although other manufacturers have become
involved, these manufacturers were responsible for much of the early development and
research. This type of blade, with many variations, will undoubtedly be around for many
years.
The blade is manufactured of several types of materials even though it is covered with
fibreglass. Several different construction concepts have been tested or are presently
being tested. At present two systems are in use on production type helicopters.

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They are a fibreglass spar blade and a metal spar blade.
Figure 25 Composite Blade Contruction
Fibreglass Spar
A typical fiberglass spar blade is used on Bell 412 helicopter. Each main rotor blade
consists of a fiberglass main spar assembly, a Nomex honeycomb core, fiberglass skins,
and a stainless steel tip cap. The main structural member is the spar assembly. This
assembly is made up of two forward (upper and lower) and two aft spar caps and a nose
block. The spar caps are fabricated from spanwise-oriented unidirectional glass fibers
that wrap around the two bolt holes in the blade root and extend to the steel tip cap. An
abrasion strip, made of stainless steel outboard and titanium inboard, protects the
leading edge.
Figure 26 Blade Construction

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Each blade has a stainless steel leading edge abrasion strip with a nickel cap to protect
against erosion. The nickel cap, can be removed and replaced without removing the
stainless steel strip. Trim tabs are bonded to a sacrificial fiberglass strip so the tab can
be replaced in the field without damaging the blade skin. Provisions are made for track
and balance adjustments after repairs with access to the balance weight through the
blade tip. Balance weight pocket covers on the upper surface have been eliminated to
reduce corrosion and to enhance aerodynamics.
Figure 27 Fibreglass Spar

Each blade has a stainless steel leading edge abrasion strip with a nickel cap to protect
against erosion. The nickel cap, can be removed and replaced without removing the
stainless steel strip. Trim tabs are bonded to a sacrificial fiberglass strip so the tab can
be replaced in the field without damaging the blade skin. Provisions are made for track
and balance adjustments after repairs with access to the balance weight through the
blade tip. Balance weight pocket covers on the upper surface have been eliminated to
reduce corrosion and to enhance aerodynamics.
Metal Spar
Sikorsky S-76 main rotor blade is used as an example to explain metal spar composite
blade. The primary structural member of the main rotor blade in S-76 is the welded
titanium spar which provides the majority of the flatwise, torsional, and centrifugal load-
carrying ability. The spar is made from titanium sheet that is cold-formed into a cylinder,
then seam-welded into a tube. Holes with bushings for four through-bolts are at the root
end for attachment of the blade to the spindle. A cover skin is made from cross-plied
woven fiberglass with graphite trailing edge reinforcing strips. Wire mesh impregnated in
the cover skin provides lightning protection. The leading edge of the cover is protected
from erosion by a titanium nosepiece.

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The outer portion of the blade radius is protected by a nickel erosion strip over the
titatium leading edge. A Nomex honeycomb core supports the cover skin aft of the spar.
Reinforced damper attachment lugs are an integral part of the root end trailing edge of
the blade. Balance weights made from Fiberglass and lead rod are bonded to the spar
leading edge, for chordwise balance. At the spar tip end, spanwise and chordwise shim
weights are attached to the spar, inside the tip cap for final blade balance during
manufacture of the blade. A field replaceable Kevlar tip cap with a swept leading and
trailing edge is attached to the blade with flush-head screws. This increases blade
performance and reduces tip noise in forward flight.
Figure 28 Metal spar

Many other materials may be used with this construction, such as carbon fibre skin,
kevlar skin, titanium leading edges and honeycomb fillers. The construction materials
will differ with the manufacturer and the characteristics desired in the blade. The
composite blade should not be referred to as a fibreglass blade, because it is in reality a
metal spar using fibreglass materials to build the remainder.
Figure 29 Composite Blade

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Fiberglass blade vs Metal blade

There are several apparent advantages of the fibreglass construction over the metal. The
major one is the life of the blade. From all indication the fibreglass blade will have no
finite life, as does the metal blade. In addition, the fibreglass blade will be less
susceptible to notch damage, due to the threads of the roving. Corrosion of fibreglass is
non-existent. Bonding or delamination problems can often be repaired by epoxy resin
injections and may be performed in the field. For these reasons there will be undoubtedly
more fibreglass or composites on the market with the new helicopters.
Fiberglass blade Metal blade

Life of Blade Infinite life Finite life
Notch damage Less susceptible Easier susceptible
Corrosion Non-existent Existent
Figure 30 Blade Damage


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Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 1 of 6

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 2 of 6

Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 3 of 6

Wagtendonk, W. J., 1996, Principles of Helicopter Flight, Washington US.

Prouty R.W., 1985, Helicopter Aerodynamics, Phillips Pubs U.S.

B1-12a Student Handout

Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 4 of 6

Topic 12.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 5 of 6

Topic 12.2.1 Flight Control Systems and Operations

Topic 12.2.2 Main Rotor Heads (MRHs)

Topic 12.2.3 Main and Tail Rotor Blades

Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 6 of 6

TOPIC 12.1.1 ROTARY WING THEORY OF FLIGHT

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

TOPIC 12.1.1 ROTARY WING THEORY OF FLIGHT

Figure 1 Newtons First Law

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

NEWTONS SECOND LAW

Figure 2 Newtons Second Law

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

NEWTONS THIRD LAW

Figure 3 Newtons Third Law

Figure 4 Air Density

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Figure 5 Inflow Angle

Figure 6 Shaft Axis

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Figure 7 Coning Angle

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Figure 7 Feathering Axis

Blade angle (also known as the pitch angle)

Blade Angle and Angle of Attack

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Tip path plane

Figure 8 Disc Area

Collective pitch angle ( blade angle )

Cyclic pitch angle (blade angle )

Figure 9 Lift Drag

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Figure 10 Blade Stall

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Total Rotor Thrust Vector Resultant

Figure 11 Thrust Vector Resultant

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Figure 16 Angle of Bank

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

BASIC HELICOPTER THEORY

Figure 17 Lift/Thrust Resultant

Figure 18 Vortex Ring State

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight

Vortex ring state can develop when the helicopter has:

Figure 19 Vortex Ring State

Figure 20 Induced Flow

Symptoms of vortex ring state are:

Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight