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FARM animal practice

Abdominal ultrasonography as
an adjunct to clinical examination
1. Small ruminants
Phil Scott

Abdominal ultrasonography is a diagnostic technique that can be used

Phil Scott graduated from
Edinburgh in 1978 and has been
involved in farm animal practice
ever since. He is currently a
reader in farm animal studies at
Edinburgh. He is a diplomate of the
European College of Bovine Health
Management and the European
College of Small Ruminant Health
Management, and was appointed
to the Farm Animal Welfare
Council in 2007.
doi:10.1136/inp.d8204
in farm animal practice as a complementary adjunct to a thorough clinical
examination. This article describes the ultrasonographic findings that can
be visualised in the abdomen of small ruminants and outlines some of the
common indications for ultrasonography. It illustrates how this modality
can be readily incorporated into a clinical examination on farm to provide
an accurate demonstration of underlying pathology. A second article, to
be published in the February issue of In Practice, will discuss the use of
abdominal ultrasonography in cattle.
Ultrasound use
Ultrasonography has been successfully employed in
commercial sheep flocks for the past 30 years to deter-
mine fetal number and gestation length (Fig 1), per-
mitting more precise management of ewes and their
nutrition during late gestation. More recently, modern
portable ultrasound machines have provided veterinary
practitioners with an inexpensive, non-invasive tool
with which to further examine all organs of the ovine
abdomen, including the digestive, urinary and repro-
ductive tracts. With moderate experience, ultrasound
examination of specific organs generally takes no more
than five minutes, including preparation time. The
results are immediately available, making this comple-
mentary diagnostic technique an excellent adjunct to Fig 1: Ultrasound image of a ewe showing the
hyperechoic fetal skeleton at around four months
a thorough clinical examination. Investment in ultra-
gestation (litter size is generally determined between
sound equipment (Box1) is less expensive than that for 45 to 90 days). The probe is placed in the right inguinal
radiography and the technique has no special health region pointing dorsally
and safety requirements or restrictions.
Ultrasound examinations are most usefully cavity and subcutaneously. The possibility of hydro
employed to identify the distended bladder caused by nephrosis can be investigated by transabdominal
obstructive urolithiasis (Fig 2), and highlight the extent examination of the right kidney via the right sublum-
of urine accumulation both within the abdominal bar fossa, and confirmed by the increased width of the
renal pelvis and reduced cortex (Fig 3). Pathological
changes associated with fasciolosis are generally iden-
tified on postmortem examination at flock level, while
obstetrical problems, such as uterine torsion, are cor-
rected by surgery without further investigation.

Box 1: Ultrasound examination

equipment
A 5 MHz linear transducer connected to a real-time
B-mode ultrasound machine employed for transrectal
A B
pregnancy diagnosis can be used for most abdominal
Fig 2: (a) Ultrasound image showing a distended bladder in a pedigree ram caused by ultrasound examinations. For examination of the
obstructive urolithiasis. The bladder was in contact with the ventral abdominal wall right kidney, a 5 MHz sector transducer is necessary
and therefore readily accessible for transabdominal ultrasound examination. to ensure good contact with the concave flank of the
(b) Postmortem examination of the ram (in dorsal recumbency, with its head to the left) right sublumbar fossa.
confirmed obstructive urolithiasis

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FARM animal practice

undertaken in the standing animal using a 5 MHz lin-

A genic appearance. Intestinal motility and diameter can
Fig 3: (a) Transabdominal ultrasonogram of the
dorsal aspect of the right paralumbar fossa
immediately caudal to the last rib in a sheep, showing
hydronephrosis of the right kidney. (b) Hydronephrosis
confirmed on postmortem examination as seen by the
increased renal pelvis and reduced cortex
ear array or sector scanner. The right inguinal region
is chosen because the left side of the abdomen is largely
occupied by the rumen. If the bladder is enlarged, an
estimate of its size can be obtained by moving the
5 MHz linear scanner (field depth 10 cm) cranially
along the ventral midline from the level of the pubic
symphysis. The digesta content of the small intestine
is hyperechoic, but fluid distension gives a hypoecho-
readily be determined.
Ultrasonographic findings
Abdominal wall
Subcutaneous urine accumulation along the prepuce
and ventral abdominal wall can occur in male sheep
with urethral rupture (Fig4a). The extent of this fluid
accumulation can be accurately defined by ultrasound
examination, which will reveal multiple pockets of
urine within subcutaneous tissue in affected cases
(Fig4b). Ultrasonography can also be used to identify
herniated organs and underlying diseases, including
rare conditions, such as rupture of the prepubic ten-
don (Fig5).

B
Gastrointestinal tract
Ascites can be present without significant accumula-
tion of fluid at other sites, such as subcutaneous tissue
Ultrasound examination in the submandibular region (bottle-jaw) and the bris-
ket (Fig 6a). It is characteristically observed in sheep
Right kidney with adenocarcinoma of the small intestine in which
Examination of the right kidney necessitates either
clipping or shaving the wool over an area of the right
sublumbar fossa immediately caudal to the last rib and
the last intercostal space. The sector transducer head
is held firmly against the skin to ensure good visualisa-
tion of the right kidney juxtaposed the caudal lobe of
the liver. The right kidney appears as an ovoid structure
with a homogeneous echoic parenchyma surrounding
the hypoechoic renal pelvis. Ultrasonographic differ-
entiation of the renal cortex and medulla has not been
described in small ruminants.

Liver
The liver can be imaged immediately caudal to the cos- A B
tal arch at the level of a line joining the right wing of
Fig 4: (a) Examination of the ventral abdominal wall adjacent to the penis in a pedigree
the ilium to the elbow, with a 5 MHz sector probe head ram was suggestive of urethral rupture thought to be due to an obstruction.
pointed toward the opposite (left) elbow. The liver may (b) Ultrasound image taken from the same animal showing subcutaneous accumulation
extend forward to the sixth intercostal space in sheep, of urine in multiple pockets
especially during advanced pregnancy. The anechoic
lumen of the portal and hepatic veins can be seen within
the liver. The wall of the portal veins is characterised by
an echogenic border. The intrahepatic bile ducts are only
visible when there is bile stasis or they are calcified. The
caudal vena cava is situated more dorsally and medially
than the portal veins and has a characteristic triangular
shape on cross section. The portal vein is situated ven-
trally and laterally, is circular in cross section and has
A B
stellate ramifications into the liver parenchyma.
Fig 5: (a) Scottish halfbred ewe with a large ventral swelling due to rupture of the
Caudal abdomen prepubic tendon several months earlier. The ewe was in good body condition (score 35
out of 5) and eating well. (b) Ultrasound image taken from the same animal showing
Ultrasound examination of the caudal abdomen, localised peritonitis associated with rupture of the prepubic tendon that occurred
including the bladder, uterus and small intestine, is several months earlier, but was not detected during clinical examination

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FARM animal practice

Fig 6: (a) Greyface ewe with

ascites due to an adenocarcinoma
of the small intestine.
(b)Postmortem image of the
adenocarcinoma, showing
where transcoelomic metastasis
A B
impaired lymphatic drainage

transcoelomic metastasis impairs lymphatic drainage
(Fig 6b). Accumulation of transudate is also common
in some cases of bacterial endocarditis, which may
lead to right-sided heart failure.
On ultrasound examination of standing animals,
ascitic fluid appears as an anechoic area with abdominal
viscera displaced dorsally (Figs 7a, 8). When interpret-
ing ultrasonograms, it is important to refer to the depth
of field indicated by the centimetre marker dots on one
side of the image (Fig 7b). The intestines are clearly
outlined as hyperechoic (bright white) lines or circles
containing material of varying echogenicity, which is
propelled along by intestinal contractions (Box 2).
Ascites must be differentiated from urine accu-
mulation. However, uroperitoneum is almost always
accompanied by bladder distension, with urine leak-
ing across the compromised bladder wall, permitting
immediate differentiation from ascitic fluid (Fig 9).
Rupture of the bladder is rare. Gross inspection and
smell of an abdominocentesis sample, and comparison
of fluid and serum creatinine concentrations, can also
help to differentiate between ascites and urine accu-
mulation.
Except for subacute fasciolosis (Fig 10), which is
becoming more common in UK sheep flocks during
the autumn months, significant peritoneal exudation
is rarely seen in sheep. Localised peritonitis has been
observed in some sheep with very large ventral swell-
ings due to rupture of the prepubic tendon several
months earlier (Fig 5). The prevalence of peritonitis in
sheep is unknown as such animals are rarely presented
for veterinary examination.

A B

Fig 8: (a) Ultrasound image from a sheep showing dorsal displacement of the rumen
A from the abdominal floor by a large volume of transudate contained within the
abdominal cavity. (b) Ultrasound image from a sheep showing displacement of the liver
from the right abdominal wall by a large volume of transudate contained within the
abdominal cavity. The liver appears more hyperechoic than normal, which is consistent
with changes secondary to chronic venous congestion

Fig 7: (a) Ultrasound image taken from the ventral

midline of the same animal as pictured in Fig6. The
small intestines and omentum are displaced dorsally in
the ascitic fluid, which appears as an anechoic (black)
area. (b) Compare the volume of ascites shown in this
image with that pictured in (a) by referring to the
centimetre calibrations at the side of the images
Fig 9: Ultrasound image showing
uroperitoneum in a sheep accompanied by
bladder distention, with urine leaking across
the compromised bladder wall Fig 10: Sheep with subacute fasciolosis

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Box 2: Intestines imaged from the
inguinal region
By maintaining the probe head in the same position for
30 to 60 seconds, digesta can be visualised as multiple
small dots of varying echogenicity, forcibly propelled
within the intestines. This prevents confusion with the
ultrasonographic appearance of other structures such
as abscesses or fluid accumulation within the uterine
horns (eg, in cases of metritis or pyometra).
Ileus
Ileus most commonly results from peritonitis, causing
irregular fluid distension of up to 3 to 6 cm in diameter
in some sections of the intestine. On ultrasonography,
the intestinal contents are more anechoic than normal
and there is no peristalsis. In the case of an obstruc-
tion, sections of intestine proximal to the lesion are
dilated, while those distal to the lesion appear empty.
Intussusception
Intussusception causes initial mild colic followed by
inappetence and constipation. Transabdominal palpa-
tion may reveal an elongated mass in the abdomen in
young or growing lambs. Ultrasound images of intus-
susception would reveal fluid distension of the intes-
tine cranial to the lesion and narrowing caudally, but
there are no reports of this in the literature.
Abnormal abomasal diameter
in neonatal lambs
The abomasal diameter of neonatal lambs can be meas-
ured using a 5 MHz sector scanner applied at right
angles to the abdominal wall, with animals positioned
in dorsal recumbency. Due to their sparse fleece, it is
not necessary to clip the wool from the ventral abdo-
men of lambs to achieve good quality ultrasonograms.
On ultrasound examination, the abomasum can be
clearly identified as a hypoechoic area delineated by
a hyperechoic wall. The vertical distance should be
measured between the probe head and the far aboma-
sal wall.
Ultrasound examination of the abomasum of neo
natal lambs immediately alerts clinicians to whether the
lambs have suckled or not. The difference in lamb abo-
masal diameter before and after suckling is so large
3 cm versus 8 to 10 cm that minor errors in record-
ing individual lambs does not affect the collection of
meaningful data from 20 or more lambs or its inter-
pretation (Scott and others 1997). Furthermore,
visually presenting ultrasonograms to clients show-
ing the large abomasum of lambs that have suckled
compared with those of the small empty abomasum
of hungry lambs, enables the veterinary surgeon to
immediately emphasise potential husbandry deficien-
cies to all members of farm staff before further losses
occur.
Alternatively, blood samples can be taken from
lambs over 24 hours old to measure total plasma pro-
tein concentration using a refractometer to determine
passive antibody transfer. While inexpensive, these
measurements require some laboratory work and
incur delays compared with the immediate impact of
on-farm ultrasonography. However, adequate aboma-
sal diameter only indicates volume ingested and does
FARM animal practice
Fig 11: Ultrasound image from
a sheep showing large volumes
of peritoneal exudate and
fibrin tags on the liver capsule,
caused by migrating liver
flukes, which extend onto the
omentum
not ensure full passive antibody protection, as it is not
a measurement of colostrum quality.
Liver
Subacute fasciolosis is common in sheep and may
cause death. In severe cases, ultrasound examination
of the liver will reveal considerable peritoneal exudate
and fibrin deposition on the liver capsule caused by
penetrating immature flukes. The hyperechoic lattice-
work appearance of the fibrinous reaction within the
abdomen contrasts with the excess anechoic peritoneal
fluid (Fig 11). In less severely affected sheep, ultra-
sound examination of the liver may reveal multiple
hyperechoic dots in the parenchyma, corresponding
to multifocal abscessation containing large numbers
of degenerate neutrophils and eosinophils (Scott and
others 2005). The diagnosis of subacute fluke infesta-
tion in sheep is more often based on the measurement
of serum glutamate dehydrogenase concentration and
postmortem examination of fatalities.
Liver size has been measured in sheep by direct-
ing the ultrasound beam to image the common hepatic
duct, with a significant positive linear correlation
reported between liver weight and ultrasound meas-
urement. Multiple hyperechoic dots within the liver
parenchyma in sheep represented an accumulation of
inflammatory cells in animals with subacute fasciol
osis, which resolved within one month of treatment
with triclabendazole (Scott and others 2005).
Large liver abscesses caused by Corynebacterium
pseudotuberculosis, the causal agent of caseous lym-
phadenitis (CLA), are not uncommon in many coun-
tries, including the USA, and these lesions should be
easily identified during ultrasound examination. In the
UK, visceral CLA is a rare manifestation of Cpseudo
tuberculosis, and infection is typically restricted to the
lymph nodes of the head. The potential use of ultra-
sonography of the liver as a system of mass screen-
ing for cystic echinococcosis has been reported in
Tunisia (Lahmara and others 2007). While hepato-
cellular tumours are not uncommon in older sheep
in the UK, such lesions are usually only recognised at
slaughter in ewes culled due to poor condition. Gall
bladder distension is a common finding in cachectic
sheep.
Urinary tract
Partial or complete urethral obstruction in mature
rams occurs most commonly at the vermiform appen-
dix. The calculus can often be felt within the vermiform
appendix of the extruded penis, and diagnosis can be
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A Fig 13: Ultrasound image showing the presence of fine

Fig 12: Ultrasound images showing (a) a distended
bladder in a mature ram, and (b) another distended
bladder cranial to the pelvic brim in a lamb
B determined within 10 to 20 seconds of on-farm ultra-
confirmed when excision of the vermiform appen-
dix produces a free flow of urine. However, it is not
possible to determine the duration of the obstruction
and establish an accurate prognosis based on clinical
examination alone. Demonstration of hydronephrosis
at first presentation affords a more accurate prognosis
than collection of a blood sample for testing.
Although five- to 10-fold elevations of blood urea
nitrogen and creatinine concentrations occur as a
result of partial or complete urethral obstruction,
such increases are not pathognomonic, and there are
no recognised threshold concentrations above which
urolithiasis is confirmed. Examination using a 5MHz
linear array scanner readily identifies a distended blad-
der and uroperitoneum if present. However, it may not
be possible to measure the true size of the bladder, as it
may extend up to 20 cm in diameter (Fig 12a) thereby
exceeding the 10 cm field of many linear array scan-
ners. It must be remembered that the bladder in nor-
mal male sheep is contained within the bony pelvis.
Extension of the bladder up to 10 cm or more over the
fibrin tags in a lamb with uroperitoneum
pelvic brim is abnormal, making the actual size of the
bladder of secondary importance.
Free urine within the abdominal cavity appears as
a uniform anechoic area, but cannot be differentiated
from ascitic fluid on ultrasound examination alone.
Partial or complete urethral obstruction results in blad-
der distension and, if not relieved, urine leakage into
the abdominal cavity. Rupture of the bladder is rare.
Bladder distension is therefore a very useful indicator of
partial or complete urethral obstruction, which can be
sound investigation. The distended bladder extends 6
to 8 cm in diameter cranial to the pelvic brim in 20 to
40 kg growing lambs (Fig12b) and 16 to 20 cm diam-
eter in 80 to 100 kg mature rams (Fig 12a). The bladder
wall appears as a hyperechoic circle, while oedema of
the wall results in widening of this white line (Fig12b).
Fibrin tags can sometimes be visualised within the
uroperitoneum as fine hyperechoic filaments within the
anechoic fluid (Fig13).
Urinary tract infections leading to cystitis and
pyelonephritis are rare in sheep, with the exception of
male animals that have undergone surgery to bypass
the site of urolithiasis. In such cases, on ultrasound
examination, the bladder wall appears much thicker
than normal, with fibrin tags on the mucosal surface
that appear as hyperechoic strands (Fig 14a). Large
fibrin clots are occasionally seen within the bladder in
advanced cases of cystitis (Fig 14b).
Kidney
The grossly distended bladder confirms the diagnosis
of a partial or complete urethral obstruction. After

A B

Fig 14: (a) Ultrasound image showing a thickened bladder wall in a sheep with cystitis. Fibrin on the mucosal
surface appears as hyperechoic strands and the bladder contains large fibrin clots. (b) Ultrasound image showing
a large fibrin clot in the bladder of a sheep with cystitis. The mucosal surface is very irregular due to fibrin
deposition

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FARM animal practice

A
Fig 16: Marked hydroureter
Fig 15: (a) Ultrasound image from a sheep showing at postmortem examination
advanced hydronephrosis, as identified by the grossly of a ram with obstructive
increased renal pelvis, which is represented by the urolithiasis. The kidney shows
anechoic (fluid-filled) centre of the kidney. less advanced hydronephrosis
(b) Postmortem image of a kidney from the same case than in Fig15b
showing advanced hydronephrosis

Fig 17: Examination of the left

B kidney in sheep is unnecessary
correction of a urethral obstruction, prognosis is
assessed by determining the duration of the obstruc-
tion, which results in hydronephrosis. Advanced
hydronephrosis can be identified by the presence of a
grossly increased renal pelvis, which is represented by
the anechoic (fluid-f illed) centre of the kidney (Fig15).
Hydroureter is obvious even in less advanced cases of
hydronephrosis (Fig 16). It is not possible to easily scan
the left kidney in sheep, but in any case this is unlikely
to be necessary because a urinary tract obstruction
is distal to the ureters and thus the condition should
equally affect both kidneys (Fig 17).
Kidney rupture
While rupture of the bladder has not been observed
by the author as a sequela to obstructive urolithiasis,
rupture of the kidney can occur. The true incidence of
this condition is not known, as few rams are examined
because the urinary tract
obstruction is distal to the
ureters and therefore the
condition affects both kidneys
equally
either ultrasonographically or at postmortem examin
ation. The rupture of only one kidney may result in
the ram being presented some days or even weeks
later. Kidney rupture may lead to the accumulation of
urine (Fig 18) or blood (Fig 19) in the retroperitoneal
space. The postmortem examination findings evident
in Fig 18b are consistent with kidney rupture and
urine leakage over several weeks. Ultrasound images
can be readily obtained as part of the routine clinical
examination on farm and such images are representa-
tive of the underlying pathology. Surgical correction
would be undertaken only in rams that do not display
signs of advanced hydronephrosis or other kidney
pathology.

A B
Fig 18: (a) Ultrasound image of the right kidney in a Suffolk ram, showing advanced
hydronephrosis with a large amount of fluid surrounding the kidney bounded by a
thick capsule containing large fibrin tags. (b) Postmortem examination confirmed the
ultrasonographic findings
Fig 19: Ultrasound image of the right kidney in a
Suffolk ram, showing haemorrhage following kidney
rupture into the site where the right kidney should
normally be situated. Kidney rupture was confirmed on
postmortem examination

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FARM animal practice
A B
Fig 20: (a) Ultrasound image of the uterus of a pregnant Texel ewe reported to be two weeks overdue. The image shows poorly defined caruncles
and uterine fluid that was more heterogeneous than normal. (b) Postmortem examination findings after an attempted caesarean section revealed
a devitalised uterus and an emphysematous full-term fetus, and confirmed a 720 uterine torsion (c)
Fig 21: Ultrasound image
showing closed pyometra in a
sheep. The uterine horns are
distended with pus appearing
as large anechoic 6 to 8 cm
diameter circles containing
multiple hyperechoic dots
Uterus
Pregnancy
Real-time transrectal ultrasound scanning of sheep as
early as 24 to 34 days gestation offers a safe, accurate
and practical means of pregnancy diagnosis (Garcia
and others 1993). Diagnostic accuracies of more than
99 per cent for pregnancy, 98 per cent for differentia-
tion of barren, single- and multiple-bearing ewes, and
A B
C D
Fig 22: (a) Ultrasound image of the caudal abdomen immediately cranial to the pubis in
an Anglo-Nubian doe. The bladder (seen as an anechoic area to the right of the image)
is distended measuring 6 cm with a well-circumscribed diameter mass 12 to 14 cm in
diameter attached dorsally. Additional ultrasound images showed (b) the maximum
bladder diameter measuring 12 cm across, with marked thickening of the wall, and
(c) the well-circumscribed mass. (d) Postmortem examination findings confirmed the
presence and position of a leiomyoma
20 In Practice January 2012 | Volume 34 | 1221
C
97 per cent for determination of actual fetal numbers
can be achieved in practice at scanning rates of at least
one ewe per minute between days 45 and 90 of gesta-
tion (White and others 1984).
Obstetrical problems
Ultrasound examination is useful in cases in which
transabdominal ballotement suggests the presence of a
fetus in utero after delivery of one or more lambs some
12 to 48 hours previously, but contraction of the cer-
vix prevents further examination of the uterus (Scott
and Gessert 2000). It can prove difficult to differentiate
between a contracted uterus and a uterine horn contain-
ing a single lamb by transabdominal ballotement alone,
but this problem can be easily identified by ultrasound
examination of the caudal abdomen (Fig 1).
Ultrasonography has also been used to monitor
uterine involution postpartum, which was delayed in
ewes after manual correction of dystocia and caesar-
ean section.
Uterine torsion
Uterine torsion is an uncommon but problematic diag-
nosis in sheep because vaginal examination is often
restricted by the narrow diameter of the reproductive
tract and will not identify a torsion involving the body
of the uterus cranial to the cervix. The behavioural
signs of first-stage labour may not be noted by the farm-
er. Wehrand and others (2002) described oedema of the
uterine wall following torsion, in which its thickness
doubled from 5 mm to more than 10 mm. In practice,
most cases of uterine torsion are confirmed during the
resultant caesarean section, but some cases survive for
several days despite fetal death. Ultrasound examin
ation of a pregnant Texel ewe reported to be two weeks
overdue according to its only synchronised insemina-
tion date (day 160) revealed poorly defined caruncles
and uterine fluid, which was more heterogeneous than
normal (Fig 20a). No fetal heart beat or movements were
observed. An attempted caesarean section revealed a
devitalised uterus and fibrinous peritonitis enveloped
by the greater omentum (Fig 20b). The ewe was euthan
ased for welfare reasons and a 720 uterine torsion was
identified on postmortem examination (Fig20c).
Pyometra
Closed pyometra is rare in sheep. Ultrasound examin
ation of affected cases will show distended uterine
horns with pus appearing as large anechoic circles con-
taining multiple hyperechoic dots (Fig 21).
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FARM animal practice

Tumours
Tumours of the reproductive tract are rare in sheep
but, in goats, leiomyomas involving the uterus are not
uncommon and cause tenesmus in the advanced stages.
Ultrasonography is particularly useful in the diagnosis
of this condition (Fig 22).
Summary
Ultrasound examination of the abdomen of small
ruminants is most useful in the diagnosis and progno-
sis of obstructive urolithiasis. This can be important as
such patients may often be very valuable breeding rams
and goat kids kept as pets. While many of the changes
discussed in this article are of several days to weeks
duration, and have not been reported in the literature
before, this does not detract from its practical applica-
tion. Ultimately, more widespread use of ultrasonog-
raphy by practitioners, and much quicker presentation
of sick animals by farmers, will determine whether
ultrasonograpy has true practical application.
References
GARCA, A., NEARY, M. K., KELLY, G. R. & PIERSON, R. A. (1993)
Accuracy of ultrasonography in early pregnancy diagnosis in the ewe.
Theriogenology 39, 847-861
Lahmara, S., Ben Chhidab, F., Ptavyc, A. F., Hammoud,
A., Lahmare, J., Ghannayf, A., Gharbib, H. A. &
Sarcironc, M. E. (2007) Ultrasonographic screening for cystic
echinococcosis in sheep in Tunisia. Veterinary Parasitology 143, 42-49
Scott, P. R. & Gessert, M. E. (2000) Application of
ultrasonographic examination of the ovine foetus in normal sheep
and those presenting with obstetrical problems. Veterinary Journal
159, 291-292
Scott, P. R., Gessert, M. E. & Marsh, D. (1997) Ultrasonographic
measurement of the abomasum of neonatal lambs. Veterinary Record 141,
524-525
Scott, P. R., Sargison, N. D., Macrae, A. I. & Rhind,
S. R. (2005) An outbreak of subacute fasciolosis in Soay sheep:
ultrasonographic, biochemical and histological studies. Veterinary
Journal 170, 325-331
Wehrend, A., Bostedt, H. & Burkhardt, E. (2002) The use
of trans-abdominal B mode ultrasonography to diagnose intra-partum
uterine torsion in the ewe. Veterinary Journal 176, 69-70
White, I. R., Russel, A. J. & Fowler, D. G. (1984) Real-time
ultrasonic scanning in the diagnosis of pregnancy and the determination
of fetal numbers in sheep. Veterinary Record 115, 140-143

Self-assessment test: Abdominal ultrasonography as an adjunct to clinical examination

1. Small ruminants
1.When investigating the potential consequences of obstructive c. Anechoic area displaced dorsally by the abdominal viscera
urolithiasis of several days duration, which of the following d. Anechoic area with abdominal viscera displaced dorsally
statements is true:
a. The right kidney can be imaged from the right sublumbar fossa 4.In cases of obstructive urolithiasis, uroperitoneum is usually
immediately caudal to the last rib accompanied by:
b. The left kidney can be imaged from the left sublumbar fossa a. Bladder rupture with urine accumulation in the abdominal cavity
immediately caudal to the last rib b. Bladder distension with urine leaking across the compromised
c. The right kidney can be imaged immediately caudal to the costal bladder wall
arch at the level of a line joining the right wing of the ilium to the c. Kidney rupture
elbow d. Rupture of the ureter(s)
d. Ultrasound examination of the right kidney is undertaken from the
right inguinal region 5.Peritoneal exudate and fibrin deposition on the liver capsule found on
ultrasound examination of sheep during September is suggestive of
2.The wall of which vessel within the liver is characterised by an
which of the following diseases?
echogenic border?
a. Acute fasciolosis
a. Aorta
b. Black disease
b. Caudal vena cava
c. Hydatid cysts
c. Bile ducts
d. Chronic fasciolosis
d. Portal veins
3.In standing sheep, ascitic fluid appears as an:
a. Hyperechoic area displaced dorsally by the abdominal viscera Answers
1. a, 2. d, 3. d, 4. b, 5. a
b. Hyperechoic area with abdominal viscera displaced dorsally

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Abdominal ultrasonography as an adjunct

to clinical examination 1. Small ruminants
Phil Scott

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