History of Environmental Planning and Management Since Mid 20th

Century

What is Environmental planning-Environmental planning is an act of formulating a program

with goals/aims to be achieved through a particular course of action to induce change to our
surrounding/environment for better living today and in the future.

Environmental management is the way we control and take care of the surrounding to achieve a
set of goals

An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) can be defined as an environmental management

tool used to ensure that undue or reasonably avoidable adverse impacts of the construction,
operation and decommissioning of a project are prevented; and that the positive benefits of the
projects are enhanced.( Lochner, P. 2005)

Environmental Planning is the process of facilitating decision making to carry out development
with due consideration given to the natural environmental, social, political, economic and
governance factors and provides a holistic frame work to achieve sustainable outcomes-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_planning (Wikipedia)

Intensive Environmental planning and management begun some centuries ago due to industrial
revolution there was need to talk of environmental issues due to deteriorating quality of life
because of high migration rates from rural to urban areas leading to congestion and poor living
conditions.

The need of environmental planning became a necessity owing to the fact that man was actuating
towards a complex lifestyle that damage the environment by a wider margin than in earlier days.
Population growth had increased and so man wanted more space to live in and farm on to
produce food for the growing population. The cutting down of trees became an issue and
prompted for the need of a proper plan to curb the environmental degradation due to depletion of
Forests especially in the developing nations

The 1980 Tropical Forest Resources Assessment by FAO and UNEP was the first
comprehensive assessment of tropical forests. The rate of tropical deforestation was
 calculated at 11.3 million ha a year (FAO and UNEP 1982), vindicating the fears of the
Stockholm Conference about the alarming rate of global forest loss. Since then, while
forest area in developed countries has stabilized and is slightly increasing overall,
deforestation has continued in
Developing countries (FAO-ECE 2000, FAO 2001b, FAO 2001a).

In 1948 there was Air pollution in Pennsylvania caused by smog. Smog is Air pollution by a
mixture of smoke and fog the smoke id derived from coal burning. The air pollution that killed
20 people sickened 7,000 and killed 800 animals. Those who were affected contracted different
respiratory diseases and asthma. The aftermath of the Donora Air Pollution triggered out the
clean-air movement in the United States, whose crowning achievement was the Clean Air Act of
1970

After World War II there was a concern over a new pollutant in the environment through deadly
radiation that is nuclear energy. In 1962 Rachel Louise Carson warned on the dangers of use of
agricultural synthetic chemical pesticides in Her publication Titled The Silent Spring.
..\..\..\..\Documents\Class Notes Year 1 SES\Silent Spring.docx Rachel pointed out that the use
of Synthetic Chemicals like DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) harms and even kills not
only animals and birds, but also humans. Its title was meant to evoke a spring season in which no
bird songs could be heard, because they had all vanished as a result of pesticide abuse.

In 1969 a major tragedy happened in the USA Ohio State River an oil slick and debris in the
Cuyahoga River caught fire in Cleveland, Ohio, drawing national attention to environmental
problems in Ohio and elsewhere in the United States. The CuyaHoga river fire brought attention
to other environmental problems that helped spur the Environmental Movement, and helped lead
to the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972.

On December 1984 we had the most deadly accident in India the Bhopal water inadvertently
entered the MIC storage tank, where over 40 metric tons of MIC (methylisocyanate) were being
stored.
 The official immediate death toll was 2,259 and the government of Madhya Pradesh has
confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. Others estimate 8,000 died
within two weeks and another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related diseases. A
government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478
temporary partial and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.

Other environmental problems that brought the world attention to the deteriorating and careless
use of the environment include the following

Seveso: Italian dioxin crisis-10th July 1976

The 1952 London smog disaster
Major oil spills of the 20th and 21st century
The Baia Mare cyanide spill-Rumania/Rumania
The European BSE crisis
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), is a fatal cow disease. The disease is
sometimes called mad cow disease because it causes cows to act strangely and
collapse on the spot It is concentrated mainly in the cow's brain, spinal cord and certain
organs such as the spleen.
Spanish waste water spill-Aznalcollar
The Three Mile Island near nuclear disaster-Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Some of the acts that have taken place since 1960s Include the following

Initial passage Act

1956 Clean Air Acts London
1969 The National Environmental policy Act
1970 Clean Air Act
1972 The Federal insecticide, Fungicide and
rodenticide act
1973 The Endangered species act
1974 The safe Drinking Act
1976 The Resource conservation and Recovery Act
The toxic substance control
1977 The clean water act
1980 Superfund
1986 The superfund amendment and reauthorization
act
The emergency planning and community right-
to-know Act
1990 The oil pollution prevention Act of 1990
The pollution prevention Act

Table 1.1 Adapted from (Steven L.E Brian J.K 1999)

With considerations to the above environmental hazards and accidents during the 20th Century
and early 21st Century it was a necessity that man had to plan on how to manage his environment
for a better today and tomorrow. This prompted the need to plan and mange the environment to
avoid or reduce environmentally related accidents in the future.
The United Nations saw the need to take environmental issues as a centre stage and in 1972 the
First Global environmental convention was organized by United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment (UNCHE) which met in Stockholm Sweden from 5 to 16 June 1972.

Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972)

This Conference was held in Stockholm Sweden in 1972 having considered the need for a
common outlook and for common principles to inspire and guide the people of the world in the
preservation and enhancement of the human environment. Thereafter a series of conventions
followed that insisted on the conservation of worlds Environment.

Proclaims that:

Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and
affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and
tortuous evolution of the human race on this planet a stage has been reached when, through the
rapid acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his
environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man's
environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment
of basic human rights the right to life itself.

The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the
well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of
the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all Governments.

Man has constantly to sum up experience and go on discovering, inventing, creating and
advancing. In our time, man's capability to transform his surroundings, if used wisely, can bring
to all peoples the benefits of development and the opportunity to enhance the quality of life.
Wrongly or heedlessly applied, the same power can do incalculable harm to human beings and
the human environment. We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many
regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and living beings; major
and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction and
depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and
social health of man, in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working
environment.

In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by under-
development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent
human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and
sanitation. Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing
in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same
purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap themselves and the
developing countries. In the industrialized countries, environmental problems are generally
related to industrialization and technological development.

The natural growth of population continuously presents problems for the preservation of the
environment, and adequate policies and measures should be adopted, as appropriate, to face these
problems. Of all things in the world, people are the most precious. It is the people that propel
social progress, create social wealth, develop science and technology and, through their hard
work, continuously transform the human environment. Along with social progress and the
advance of production, science and technology, the capability of man to improve the
environment increases with each passing day.

It was based on 26 Principles. Some of the principles included; Man has the fundamental right to
freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a
life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the
environment for present and future generations. In this respect, policies promoting or
perpetuating apartheid, racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other forms of oppression
and foreign domination stand condemned and must be eliminated.

The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially
representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and
future generations through careful planning or management, as
appropriate...\..\..\..\Dropbox\Documents Notes\STOCKHOLM 1972.docx

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 1975:

World Conservation Union (IUCN) meeting drafts CITES, the convention on international trade
in endangered species of flora and fauna was signed on 3rd March 1973 in Washington and came
into force on 1st July 1975. India became a signatory in October 1976. Its secretariat is at Geneva
and till 1998 it had 144 countries as its members. Its main aim is to ensure that the international
trade in wild animals and plants and their parts and products is not detrimental to the survival of
the species. Each country is responsible for the implementation of the convention within its
frontiers. The parties to CITES meet every 2 to 3 years to discuss and decided upon measures to
improve the implementation of the convention. NGOs are also permitted to participate. This led
to the Endangered Species Preservation Act.

1976: Habitat, the first global meeting to link human settlement and the environment was held
to highlight the problems being faced due to an increase in the population.

1979: Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution is adopted to develop the
best strategies and policies, including air quality management systems, in respect of operation of
old, new and rebuilt installations.

1982: The United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea is adopted. It led to the
establishment of rules concerning environmental standards as well as enforcement provisions
dealing with pollution of the marine environment.

1984: The International Conference on Environment and Economics (OECD) was held. It
concluded that environment and economics should be mutually reinforcing. This conference led
to the Brundtland Report (World Commission on Environment and Development) called "Our
Common Future". The findings of this report were compiled to be discussed in the UN
Conference on Environment and Development, the Earth Summit at Rio in June, 1992.

1985: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was attended by 21 countries
and the European Community. It was the same year that the hole in the ozone layer over the
Antarctica was first discovered. This convention created a general obligation for countries to take
appropriate measures to protect the ozone layer. In the same year the World Meteorological
Society met in Austria to discuss the problems of green house gases and global warming.
1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was finalizing and
approval and entered into force in 1989. 36 countries that together accounted for 80% of the CFC
consumption ratified it. It set the table for international action on an environment threat that lay
beyond the confines of any country or government. It resulted in a sharp decline in the
manufacture and use of CFC.

1992: Earth Summit the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), was held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. The gathering momentum on environmental
issues was given support and global focus and Agenda 21 was set out as a blueprint for action for
the 21st century. The Rio conference was significantly different from the Stockholm conference
it was not about the environment itself but about the world economy and its effects on the world
environment. The developed countries came to Rio to solve the issues of climate, forests and
endangered species but this did not happen. This time the south was in a position to demand that
if the north wanted them to check their consumption of oil and coal and stop deforestation then
the north would have to pay for it.

Agenda 21 went beyond these purely environmental issues to address patterns of development
which cause stress to the environment. These included: poverty and external debt in developing
countries; unsustainable patterns of production and consumption; demographic stress; and the
structure of the international economy. The action programme also recommended ways to
strengthen the part played by major groups women, trade unions, farmers, children and young
people, indigenous peoples, the scientific community, local authorities, business, industry and
NGOs in achieving sustainable development

1992: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - the

centerpiece of global efforts to combat global warming. It was adopted in May1992 at the Rio
Earth Summit, and entered into force on March 21st, 1994. The Convention's primary objective is
the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic (man-made) interference with the climate system. Such a level should
be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate
change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to
proceed in a sustainable manner.

1995: The First Conference of the Parties (COP-1) to the FCCC, the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change took place in Berlin from 28 March - 7 April 1995. It
comprised of 170+ nations that have ratified the Convention and is expected to continue meeting
on a yearly basis. In addition to addressing a number of important issues related to the future of
the FCCC, delegates reached agreement on what many believed to be the central issue before
COP-1 - adequacy of commitments, the "Berlin Mandate." Delegates agreed to establish an
open-ended Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate (AGBM) to begin a process toward
appropriate action for the period beyond 2000, including that of the commitments of Annex I
Parties through the adoption of a protocol or other legal instrument. COP-1 also requested the
Secretariat to make arrangements for sessions of the subsidiary bodies on scientific and
technological advice (SBSTA) and implementation (SBI). SBSTA serves as the link between the
information provided by competent international bodies, and the policy-oriented needs of the
COP. SBI was created to develop recommendations to assist the COP in the review and
assessment of the implementation of the FCCC and in the preparation and implementation of its
decisions.

1997: Kyoto Protocol, 159 nations attending the Third Conference of Parties (COP-3) to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (held in December 1997 in Kyoto,
Japan) agreed to reduce worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases. Delegates to COP-3 agreed to
the following specific provisions. Thirty-eight developed countries agreed to reduce their
emissions of six greenhouse gases. Collectively, developed countries agreed to cut back their
emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Developing Countries -
Countries which are in the process of becoming industrialized but have constrained resources
with which to combat their environmental problems, which include China and India, have no
formal binding targets, but have the option to set voluntary reduction targets. The Kyoto Protocol
also established emissions trading, joint implementations, and clean development mechanisms to
encourage cooperative emission reduction projects between developed and developing countries.
World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002) was held in Johannesburg, South Africa,
from 26 August to 4 September 2002, to take stock of achievements, challenges and new issues
arising since the 1992 Earth Summit. It was an implementation Summit, designed to turn the
goals, promises and commitments of Agenda 21 into concrete, tangible actions.

To help advance the cause of sustainable development in a continuous fashion, the General
Assembly also declared the period 2005-2014 as the United Nations Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development. The Decade, for which the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the lead agency, aims to help people to develop the
attitudes, skills and knowledge to make informed decisions for the benefit of themselves and
others, now and in the future, and to act upon those decisions.

Conclusion

Environmental planning and management is inevitable in this century to foster for sustainable
development and also to gather for the needs of our current population without harming the
environment.

In essence, sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of

resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development; and
institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet
human needs and aspirations. From the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future

So as human being we must have plans to guide us through safe exploitation of resources-
precisely the reason why weve had numerous world conventions to plan for and manage
environmental activities all over the world- since we men are rational and would tend to exploit
the common resources with less care leading to damaging them at the long run.

REFRENCES
1. Lochner, P. 2005. Guideline for Environmental Management Plans. CSIR Report No
ENV-S-C 2005-053 H. Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of the Western
Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Cape Town.
2. Steven L.E Brian J.K.1999 Fundamentals of Environmental Management, John Wiley &
Sons, INC.New York(USA)
3. http://sedac.ciesin.org/pidb/texts/oecd/OECD-4.02.html
4. www.unep.org/ozone/vienna.htm
5. Brundtland Report (1987) Article 42/187.General Assembly-Forty-second Session