ANEESH, S

PRESENTATION TOPICS

• Biological nitrogen fixation and bio-fertilizers.

• Farm yard manure and other organic fertilizers.

• Mycorrhizal associations and their significance.

• Economic implications of nutrient management.

• Importance of renewable waste and their recycling.

MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS
AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE.
 OVERVIEW

• Mycorrhiza -introduction

• Major benefits the seedlings derive from mycorrhizae

• Environmental factors and management practices that affect

mycorrhizal fungus populations and their subsequent
development

• Methods to foster mycorrhiza development in bareroot nurseries.

• Methods for artificially inoculating seedlings with selected,

highly beneficial mycorrhizal fungi.
 MYCORRHIZA

• Term mycorrhiza was coined by Frank

• Mycorrhiza is a Greek word meaning ‘fungus-root’
• Mycorrhiza involves the intimate association of plant roots with
specialised soil fungi.
• Mutualistic symbioses
• Considered as an extension root system

• Fine network of fungus threads (hyphae) explores and extracts

nutrients from a volume of soil far beyond the bounds of the roots'
capabilities.
• Many of these nutrients are translocated through the hyphal
network to the mycorrhizae, where they are released to the
roots for host utilization.

• In exchange, the host serves as primary energy source for the

fungus, providing simple sugars and possibly other
compounds derived from host photosynthates
.
 ECTOMYCORRHIZAE

• The fungi colonize the surfaces of the short feeder roots, often
forming a thick mantle around them.

• Ectomycorrhizae can be seen with the unaided eye or a hand lens

because many are white or brightly colored.

• A dense mold like fungal growth is visible in the soil when seedlings
are lifted if ectomycorrhizae are abundant

• Fungus enter the root, penetrating between the cortical cells to form
an interconnecting network called the Hartig net.

• It is within this extensive hypha-root cell contact zone that nutrient

exchange occurs.
• The fungi produce plant hormones that stimulate root
branching and elongation, thereby increasing the root's
absorptive surface.

• Branching patterns of ectomycorrhizae are often host

determined and are therefore characteristic of the host-
seedling species.
 ECTENDOMYCORRHIZAE

• A subtype of ectomycorrhizae

• Ectendomycorrhizae branch like ectomycorrhizae but lack

root hairs

• It forms Hartig net

• The fungi also penetrate scattered cortical cells

 VESICULAR-ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAE

• Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae cannot differentiate morphologically

from nonmycorrhizal roots

• Roots must be selectively stained to highlight the fungus within and

then examined microscopically to determine its presence and structure.

• They form the characteristic vesicles and arbuscules for which the
mycorrhiza is named.

• Vesicles are storage organs containing carbohydrates and also serve as

reproductive structures.

• Arbuscules are very finely branched, short-lived, intracellular structures

which partake in nutrient exchange.
• The main portion of the VA fungus lies outside the root,
exploring the surrounding soil for nutrients and translocating
them to the roots.

• Unlike ectomycorrhizal fungi, VA fungi do not produce large

mushroom-like reproductive structures.

• Instead, they produce large, mostly soil-borne, globose spores.

• VA fungus spores cannot be dispersed for long distances by air

movement

• Spore dispersal is limited primarily to mechanical movement of

soil.

• This has high relevance in the management of VAM fungi

 BENEFITS OF MYCORRHIZAE

• Enhanced uptake of nutrients, especially Phosphorus

• They take up water and increase drought resistance of young seedlings

• Some mycorrhizal fungi can also detoxify certain soil toxins

• It enable seedlings to withstand high soil temperatures or extreme acidity

• Some mycorrhizal fungi can protect roots against certain pathogens

Eg: mycorrhizal fungus Laccaria laccata. has been shown to protect feeder
roots from Fusarium infection
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MYCORRHIZA

• Mycorrhiza development in nurseries is affected by several

biologic and environmental factors

• Nurseries established in forest zones or surrounded by

ectomycorrhizal hosts usually produce seedlings with abundant
and diverse ectomycorrhizae.

• Nurseries developed away from native forests or on new ground

with no history of ectomycorrhizal hosts can experience
mycorrhiza deficiency, resulting in serious financial and
reforestation setbacks.

• Such seedlings are stunted, chlorotic, and severely nutrient

deficient
• Soil fumigation - fumigation with methyl bromide/chloropicrin
gases usually eliminates mycorrhizal fungus populations along
with targeted pests.

• Fumigation can cause a lengthy delay in mycorrhiza development,

resulting in substantial growth loss the first growing season.

• Soil fumigation is particularly devastating to VA mycorrhizal

Fungi

• Because VA fungus spores are not dispersed by air, once the

population is eliminated, such spores are returned to fumigated
beds only movement of spore-containing soil by machines and on
shoes.
• Different tree species vary in susceptibility to mycorrhiza
deficiency.

• Douglas-fir and true firs appear especially mycorrhiza dependent

and show symptoms of mycorrhiza deficiency more quickly than
pines.
 Nursery soil system

• Nursery soils that are good for tree seedling growth are also good
for mycorrhiza development on those seedlings.

• Good organic matter content, good tilth, good drainage, and

adequate but not excessive nutrient levels are all associated with
good mycorrhiza formation .

• Effects of fertilization on mycorrhiza formation- they become

suppessed with addition of high concentrations of inorganic
fertilizer
Selective biocides can be used instead of or in conjunction with
soil fumigation.

Herbicides do not generally appear to depress mycorrhiza

formation and in some cases even seem to increase it, possibly by
increasing exudation of sugars from roots

Weed control thus seems compatible with mycorrhiza

Management

Insecticides and nematicides at field-application levels generally

appear not to harm mycorrhizae or depress mycorrhiza formation.

Some fungicides, on the other hand, are inhibitory

• Crop rotation : Switching rotations from ectomycorrhizal to VA mycorrhizal
trees can produce mycorrhiza deficiency because the fungi of the two
mycorrhizal types are totally different.

• Because spores of VA mycorrhizal fungi do not disperse by air,

recolonization of beds can be slow and the tree crop accordingly poor.
 Seedling manipulations
• Procedures such as wrenching, undercutting, and mowing are not
known to inhibit mycorrhiza formation, but they cost seedling energy.

• Practices such as wrenching break up much of the nutrient-absorbing

network of fragile hyphae that grow from the mycorrhizae into
surrounding soil.

• These hyphae will regrow but at the cost of seedling-produced energy

that would otherwise have been available to increase seedling size.

• Procedures such as lifting, sorting, packing, storing, and transporting

seedlings should be performed with care to minimize damage to the
fine-root system.

• Mycorrhizae destroyed by rough handling, desiccation, or heating will

have to be replaced at the planting site at a cost of seedling energy and
nutrients.
 MYCORRHIZAL INOCULATIONS IN
BAREROOT NURSERIES

• To eliminate potential or current mycorrhiza deficiencies or

• To improve outplanting performance of seedlings.

• Several procedures are available for introducing mycorrhizal

fungi.

1. Ectomycorrhizal inoculation

2. VAM Inoculation
 ECTOMYCORRHIZAL INOCULATION

Four primary sources of ectomycorrhizal inoculum are

available

1. Soil inoculum,
2. Use of nurse seedlings
3. Spores and sporocarps
4. Pure fungus cultures

• Each has advantages and disadvantages

• Nursery managers should carefully weigh each option before

selecting which approach best suits their needs.
 SOIL INOCULUM

The most commonly used and the most reliable method of inoculation

• Forest soil taken from beneath ectomycorrhizal hosts.

• About 10% by volume of soil inoculum is incorporated into approximately

the top 10 cm of nursery-bed soil before sowing or transplanting

• Inoculation of new or fumigated beds by soil taken from established beds

is also feasible.

Drawback
• Collection and transportion the large quantities of soil needed for
inoculation
• Weed seeds, rhizomes, and potential pathogens maybe introduced along
with the beneficial fungi
 "NURSE" SEEDLINGS

• Planting mycorrhizal "nurse" seedlings from which the fungus

can spread and colonize new seedlings

• Chopped roots of ectomycorrhizal hosts into nursery beds can

also provide a source of ectomycorrhizal fungus inoculum.

Disadvantage
• Mycorrhizal colonization may spread slowly and unevenly

• The large "nurse" seedlings can interfere with cultural

practices

• The risk of introducing unwanted pests

 SPORES AND SPOROCARPS

• Spores and chopped sporocarps (mushrooms, puffballs, and

truffles) of some ectomycorrhizal fungi provide an excellent
source of natural inoculum.

• Large quantities of spores can be easily collected

• Variety of application methods are available including

dusting, spraying, coating seeds, and applying in a
hydromulch,
 PURE FUNGUS CULTURES

• Pure cultures of specially selected, beneficial

ectomycorrhizal fungi

• A pure culture of a specific fungus is first isolated, usually

from a sporocarp or, occasionally, directly from its
ectomycorrhiza
Selection criteria

• Good growth in culture: relatively fast-growing isolates

are preferred.

• Effectiveness in forming mycorrhizae

• Special ecological adaptations

• Competitive ability

• Host range

• Improved seedling performance in plantations

 VAM INOCULATION

• VA mycorrhizal fungi have not yet been isolated and grown

in pure culture

• They must be attached symbiotically to their hosts to grow

and reproduce.

• This presents a major obstacle to aseptic mass production of

VA mycorrhizal fungi for large -scale nursery inoculations.

1. Soil and root inoculum

2. Pot-cultured inoculum
 SOIL AND ROOT INOCULUM

• Incorporate soil (plus root fragments) taken from under VA

mycorrhizal hosts.

• VA mycorrhizal fungi show little or no host specificity - VAM

associated with grasses, legumes, and several herbs and shrubs can form
VA mycorrhizae with cedars, redwoods, sweetgums, and maples.

• Locating soil with VA mycorrhizal fungi is relatively easy.

Drawback
• The risk of introduction of pests
• Need to move large quantities of soil can be impractical.
 POT CULTURE INOCULUM

• Refined techniques to multiply and introduce selected VAM fungi

through pot culturing

• Soil-borne spores of VAM are collected

• Spores are then surface sterilized and mixed with sterilized soil
• A host plant is grown in this inoculated soil
• As host roots penetrate the inoculated substrate
• Spores germinate and colonize the roots to form mycorrhizae
• After about 4 to 6 months, the fungus will established its hyphae-soil
network and will produce more spores.

• Once such pot cultures are established, the soil containing spores,
mycelium, and colonized root fragments can be used to inoculate nursery
or field crops.
 Pot culturing also affords the opportunity to select species, strains, or
mixtures and thus offer the greatest benefit to the targeted host species.

Application of VA inoculum

• VA fungus inoculum can be broadcast into seedbeds

- large amounts of inoculum are needed to obtain rapid root colonization.

• Inoculum can be banded or side dressed next to seeds or seedlings

- Effective when inoculum quantities are limited
- For best results, bands should be placed in an area of root proliferation,
usually about 5 to 15 cm from seedlings or seeds.
- Placing inoculum in layers or pads directly beneath seeds where
developing roots will penetrate the inoculum is the most effective.

• Layering of inoculum has been successful for peach and citrus .

• Inoculum can be applied with commercial tractor-drawn seeders or

fertilizer banders

• Seed has been pelleted with VA fungus inoculum

 FERTILIZATION IN FOREST NURSERY
• Fertilization of nursery soils is necessary to replace
lost nutrients

• Fertilizers can be organic (such as compost or

manure) or inorganic

• The concentrations of nutrient elements in organic

fertilizers are usually low

• Inorganic fertilizers, contain high nutrient

concentrations.
 ORGANIC FERTILISERS
• Compared to agricultural crops, organic matter (OM) is depleted
much more rapidly in forest seedling nurseries as the entire plant
is removed at the end of the growing cycle.

• OM have favorable influences on soil chemical and physical

properties.

• Incorporation of OM, can increase pore space and counteract the

negative impacts of compaction.

• Organic fertilizers act as a slow-release fertilizer

• Provide plants with essential macro- and micro-nutrients.

• Incorporation of slow release fertilisers into the
nursery medium significantly improve the
growth trees in the plantation.

• This will optimise nutrient placement and

minimise nutrient-loss beyond the root zone of
establishing trees.
 GREEN MANURE CROPS

• Green manure crops are important in bare root nursery

• Enrich organic matter content of soils.
• Legumes - supply both OM and fix N
• Protect the soil from erosion
• Green manure crop can be incorporated into the soil at
optimum C:N ratio
• Important green manure crop : Crotolaria juncea, Sesbanea
aculeata, Indigifera tinctoria
• Non legume – Cannabis sativa
 COMPOST
• Compost produced from weed and coir pith used for root trainer seedling
production.

COMPOST PRODUCTION BY AEROBIC PROCESS USING WEED

• Weeds are harvested during June - September

• Harvested weeds are chopped into 1-1.5cm pieces

• Keep it for 1 or two days to reduce MC

• Spray with water and mix thoroughly by turning over

• Chopped weeds are arranged into heaps of ( 2m width x 1.25m) height in shed
with overhead protection from sun and rain
• Urea amendment is sprinkled uniformly in between 15cm thick
layers of weed during initial heaping. (1kg Urea per Tone of fresh
weed )
• Spray optimum quantity of water in each layer
Comopst processing
• Within 2 to 3 days temperature inside the heap will rise
• When temperature exceed 60 0c the compost heap should be turned
over (once in a day or two)
• Sprinkle the water while turning
• The number of turning required is 20 or more depending on plant sp
used and season of composting
• Curing for one month and air drying under shade for one day
• Sieving (16 -25 mesh per 2.5cm x2.5cm size )
• Store it in gunny bags
 BIOFERTILISERS
• Biofertilizers are fertilizers containing living microorganisms,
which increase microbial activity in the soil.

• Biofertilizers encompass the formulation of nitrogen fixing

microorganisms, phosphate solubilizing microorganisms and
cellulolytic microorganisms.

• Enviornment friendly
• Low cost
• Non bulky
 RENEWABLE WASTE AND THEIR RECYCLING

• Rapid urbanization, industrialization, and changes in the pattern of

civic life have resulted in the generation of enormous quantities of
wastes in the urban and industrial areas of the country.

• Urban population increasing between 3 – 3.5% per annum

• Per capita waste generation in India is 5 kg per day

• Yearly increase in waste generation is around 5% annually

• Each year, about 30 million tonnes of municipal solid waste

(MSW) are generated in India
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

• Compostable / Bio-degradable = 30% - 55%

matter
(can be converted into manure)

• Inert material = 40% - 45%

( go to landfill )

• Recyclable materials = 5% - 10%

(Recycling)

• These percentages vary from city to city depending on

food habits
 PRESENT STATUS OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT
• Storage of waste at source is lacking

• Domestic waste thrown on streets

• Construction debris left unattended

• Bio-medical waste disposed in municipal waste stream

• Industrial waste disposed of in open areas

• Segregation of recyclable waste at source not done

• Primary collection of waste not done at place of

generation
 RECOMMENDED APPROACHES TO WASTE
PROCESSING & DISPOSAL

• WASTE TO COMPOST

(i) AEROBIC / ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING

(ii) VERMI-COMPOSTING

• Seedling could not establish when fresh garbage is used

• Favorable effect on germination and growth in Dalbergia

latifolia when 4 weeks decomposed municipal waste is used
as potting media (Sreelekha, 2004).
 References
• Dureya, L.M and Landis, D.T. 1984. Forest Nursery Manual. Dr. W. Junk
Publishers, Netherlands. 211- 223 pp.

• Dwivedi, A.P.2004. Text book of silviculture. International book

distributors, Dehradun . 82 -88 pp.

• Sreelekha, P.T. 2004. Effect of municipal garbage on the growth and vigour
of Rosewood(Dalbergia latifolia) seedling in nursery. MSc Thesis. College
of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural university.