AD-761 644

STRUCTURA L AND FORCE DIAGRAMS OF THE

LANDING GEAR

V. L. Belskii, et al

Foreign Technology Division

Wright-Pat terson Air Force Base, Ohio

16 May 1973

DISTRIBUTED BY:

National Technical Information Service

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
 FTD~MT-2U-~-72

/~4

FOREIGN TECHNOLOGY DIVISION

STRUCTURAL AND FORCE DIAGRAMS OF THE

LANDING GEAR
by
v. L. Bel'skiy , I. P. Vlasov, et al.

NA~lONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
U S Department of Commerce
Springfield VA 22151

Approved for public release;

distribut ion unlimite d.
,- li'Jr.T
I f1 ~"T"PTF.n
h.\ ~
Security Claallificatlon
DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA R & 0
(SecurUy t:IJihtlon ol fill~ body ol abtract nd lndln4 annotatJon.muat be entered when tho overJI report I clllledJ
~RIGINATING ACTIVITY (Corporate .. ulllot) ae. REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

Foreif:l:n Technology Division UrJCI.ASSIE_Iii:D

all.
Air Force Sys terns Command GROUP

r u. s. Air Force
~;:~";~~~;URAL AND FOHCE DIJI.GRA!.JJS OF THE LANDING GEAR

. OKSCRIPTIVE NO TitS (Type of FepMI end lnc/uelve do toe)

Translation
a. AU THOR II) (l"ltt neme, middle Initial, lal nelltO)

v. L. Bel'skiy, I. P. Vlasov, et al.

e. REPORT OA TE Te, TOTAL NO. OF PAGEl 1711. NO. O" REFS
~ 196 3 35
~ le. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO. De. ORIGINATOR'I REPORT NUMBERCil

b. PROJitCT NO. WTD-MT-24-IR26-72

.. lb. OTHER REPORT NOCSl (Any olht n .....bete lllat IIIAY be a .. tgned
1111 tepotl) . .

i d.
, 10. OISTRIIIUTION ITATIEioii!:NT

~
~ Appr:wed for pub lie release; distribution unlimited.
~
I"' SUPPLEMENTARY NOTIEI 12. SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY

~ Foreir:n Technology Division

~ Hrir;ht-Patters on AFB, Ohio
,; U. AQSTIII,ACT f
.. f'\1 -
r

I
I
I

UNCLASSIFIED
Security Classification
/tL
 FTD-MT _24-1862-72

EDITED MACHINE TRANSLATION

FTD-MT-24-1862-72
STRUCTURAL AND FORCE DIAGRAMS OF THE LANDING GEAR
By: V. L. Bel'skiy~ I. P. Vlasov, et al.
English pages: 35
Source: Konstruktsiya Letatel'nykh Apparatov,
Moscow, 1963, pp. 507-532.
Requester: FTD/PDYA
This document is a SYSTRAN machine aided
translation, post-edited for technical
accuracy by: Robert Allen Potts

Approved for public release;

distribution unlimited.

THIS TRANSLATION IS A RENDITION OF THE ORIGI

NAL FOREIGN TEXT WITHOUT ANY ANALYTICAL OR
EDITORIAL COMMENT. STATEMENTS OR THEORIES PREPARED BY1
ADVOCATED OR IMPLIED ARE THOSE OF THE SOURCE
AND DO NOT HECESSARIL Y REFLECT THE POSITION TRANSLATION DIVISION
OR OPINION OF THE FOREIGN TECHNOLOGY Dl FOREIGN TECHNOLOGY DIVISION
VISION. WP-AFB, OHIO.

f11).14l- 24-1862-72 Date 16 May 19 73

-
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

U. S. Board on Geograp hic Names Transl iteratio n System ...... ii

Designa tions of the Trigono metric Funct ions.. ........ ....... iii

Chapter XXI. Structu ral and Force Diagram s or Landing

Gear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
l. Externa l Landing -Gear Load s....... ........ ...... l
2. The Structu ral and Force Diagram s of
Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . 4
3. Landing -Gear Comput ation ror Streng th...... ..... 20
4. Diagram or Landing -Gear Retract ing Mechan ism.... 32

FTD-MT -24-1826 -72

 u. s. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES TRANSLITERATION SYSTEM

Block Italic Trans litera tion Block Italic Trans litera tion
A a A a A, a p p p p R, r
6 6 E 6 B, b c c c c S, s
B v, v T T T m T, t
B B
r r r ' G, g y y y y U, u
Jl Jl II 'a D, d <%> cp r/)
x
F, f
Kh, kh
E e E Ye, ye; E, e* X X X
JK Zh, zh u u lJ 'I Ts, ts
)l(
s
:lK
"' Z, z 'i Lf Ch, ch
"w
I{
I 3 J
H H H u I, i w Ill UJ Sh, sh
A A R i1 Y, y lll Ill D.{ II/ Shch, shch
'b II
K K K IC K, k b 'l> 1o

n .n n If L, 1 bi hi l::J bl Y, y
M M M M M, m b
3
b h
3
b
J
' e
E,
H H H H N, n 3

0 0 0 0 o, 0 10 10 10 10 Yu, yu
n n n n P, p ~ ,SI R R Ya, ya

* ye initia lly, after vowel s, and after 'b, b; e els~wOI'

hPre.
te as y~ E:.
When writt en as ~ in Russi an, trans litera such marks
The use of diacr itica l marks is prefe rred, but
may be omitt ed when exped iency dicta tes.

FTD-M T-24-1 862-72 ii

 FOLLCWING ARE THE CORRESPONDING RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH
DESIGNATIONS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Russian English
sin sin
cos cos
tg tan
ctg cot
sec sec
cosec esc
sh sinh
ch cosh
th tanh
cth coth
sch sech
each each
arc sin l!in-1
arc cos cos-1
arc tg tan-1
arc ctg cot-1
arc sec sec-1
arc cosec csc-1
are !Jh aof ... J..-1
arc ch ~o~h-1
arc th tanh-1
arc cth coth-1
arc sch sech-1
arc each csch-1

rot curl
lg log

FTD-MT-24-1862-72 iii
CHAPTER XXI

STRUCTURAL AND FORCE DIAGRAMS OF

LANDING GEAR

1. EXTERNAL LANDING-GEAR LOADS

During landing and motion along the airfield the landing

gear of an aircraft can be affected by consider able external
loads, which are basicall y the reaction forces of the ground.
Their magnitud e and directio n of action depend on the characte r
of landing, the rigidity of shock absorpti on, the quality of the
landing strip and the degree of braking of wheels. The most
severe and characte ristic cases of ln~ding are assigned by
strength standard s in the form of calculat ed cases. In the
strength standard s for differen t calculat ed case: of landing
gear there are given the values of the safe accelera tion factor
n3 ,
1
safety factor f and lir.e of force.

Dependin g on the characte r of landing and motion along the

airfield the reaction forces of the ground can be distribu ted
between all the struts cf ~he landing gear or be applied only
to separate struts.

3
For some calculat ed cases n
1 is taken from the calculat ion
of shock absorpti on.

FTD-MT- 24-1826-7 2 1
 At the initial moment of landing the reaction forces of
the ground can be directed vertically (Fig. 21.1). They are
delermined from equilibrium conditions of applied forces (weight
G, lift Y) and force of inertia N, which should be applied
according to d'Alembert principle for reducing the dynamic
problem to static. Usually when determining the loads there is
considered landing only on the rear struts. Furthermore, in
the strength standards there is a calculated case of landing on
all struts. Landing on one rear strut for three-strut landing
gear is the case of off-center impact analogous to that discussed
for the nose strut (see Chapter XVIII, 4). Since the ra~~us
of inertia of the aircraft ix relative to its longitudinal axis,
as a rule, is less than the distance from the strut to the plane
of symmetry of the aircraft, it is easy to establish by the
formula, similar to (18.4), that herem p8,ll < ~2 Consequ_ently,
the energy of landing shock, which is taken for one strut, will
be greater when landing is accomplished on both rear struts.

Fig. 21.1. Diagram of the forces

acting on the landing gear at the
moment of landing. (Reaction forces
of the ground on the struts are
determined from equilibrium conditions
of applied forces and forces of inertia).
Designation: Hoc = nose; 3a,llH = rear.

During motion along an uneven airfield there appear hori-

zont:tl force components from shocks against hil1~~ks. Therefore
the lOtal reaction forces act on the struts at a certain angle
(Fig. 21.2).

Considerable horizontal force F can act also during motion

along an even airfield in the case of braking or acceleration
of wheels (Fig. 21.3).

2
FTD-MT-24-182 6-72
 Fig. 21.2. Fig. 21.3.
Fig. 21.2. Diagram of the loading of landing gear during aircraft
motion along an uneven airfield. (Reaction forces are directed
at an angle to the horizon).

Fig. 21.3. Diagram of the loading of landing gear with braking

or acceleration of the wheels. (Horizontal force components
appear due to braking or acceleration of wheels).
Designation: TopM = braking.

The lateral loading of struts, which appears during the

lar.ding with drift or with sharp turn of the aircraft du.ring
taxiing, is also characteristic (Fig. 21.4). One should consider
that in this case the struts are loaded dissimilarly. The strut,
toward which lateral motion occurs1 is more loaded, since here
friction forces F increase because of increase in force P in
2
comparison with P as a result of the balancing of moment
1
M = NFh. Unorienting struts during the turn can also be affected
by torsional moments relative to the vertical axis.

Fig. 21.4. Diagram of the lateral

loading of landing gear. (Lateral
loads appear because of friction
forces during motion with drift, in
this case F? > F~).
.... J.

It is necessary to note some features of the loading of

landing skis. The reaction forces of the ground (vertical,
lateral and longitudinal) are distributed over their surface.

FTD-MT-24-1826-72 3
The character of load change (Fig. 21.5a) is determined by the
shape of the ski, by deformatio ns of the structure and soil.
-
In calculation s there is taken a simplified law of load distri-
bution, being recommende d by the strength standards '(Fig. 21.5b)._
Another feature of loading of the skis is the fact that in all
cases of calculation it is necessary to consider the friction
forces, since here they play an essential role.

Fig. 21.5. Diagram of the loading of

landing skis. a) diagram of vertical
load, b) diagram of vertical load ac-
cording to the simplified distributio n
law.

2. THE STRUCTURAL AND FORCE DIAGRAMS

OF LANDING GEAR

Classifica tion of Diagrams of Landing Gear

There is a large diversity of force and, consequent ly,

structural diagrams of landing gear. Actually for every aircraft
there is created their structural and force diagrams of landing
gear, which depend on the arrangemen t of the landing gear on
the aircraft, the method of its retraction , the magnitude of
loads, etc. On modern aircraft the most widespread force diagram
of landing gear is the single-str ut design~ which according to the
method of attachment of the landing gear to the aircraft is sub-
di.vided into aantiZever and support.

4
Canti lever Diagra m

The canti lever diagra m of landin g gear (Fig. 21.6) is

const ructiv ely the most simpl e and does not requi re compl
ex
kinem atics for landin g gear retrac ting. The l~nding gear
strut
in this diagra m under the actio n of loads applie d on the
side of
the wheel works as a canti lever beam, suppo rted with its
upper
end into point s of its suspe nsion and attach ment of the retrac
ting
gear. The defici ency of such landin g gear is the compl ex
loadin g
condi tions of the strut , which can be seen from the diagra
m of
bendi ng momen ts from force P, given in Fig. 21.6. Becau se
of
this it has great er weigh t than the landin g gear of other
diagra ms.
Canti lever landin g gear, as a rule is applie d only on light
1
aircr aft.

__ ]

Fig. 21.6. fingl e-stru t canti -

lever landin g gear. (The landin g
gear strut under the action of
loads applie d on the side uf the
wheel is bent as a canti lever
beam) .

5
Support Diagram

The support diagram of the landing gear differs from the

cantilev er by the fact that the strut is reinforce d by one
(Fig. 21.7) or several supports (Fig. 21.8). The supports unload
the top of the strut from bending. For example, in the diagram
of the landing gear shown in Fig. 21.7, the bending moment in
plane zoy is decrease d. In the other plane the strut is loaded
as a cantilev er beam (see diagrams M). In the diagram of Fig.
21.8 the strut is unloaded by supports in two planes. With
the arrangem ent of two supports in one plane the strut is usually
fastened to a crossarm , which can be fulfilled by the two schemes
presente d in Fig. 21.9. In spite of the structur al distinct ion,
the characte r of loading of the crossarm in both diagrams is
approxim ately identica l. In diagram 21.9a the problem of deter-
rnlrlir1g the forces 1.ra r;npports and tl1e c1ossarm iz static-al ly
indeterm inable. Howeve~, with the existing relation ships of
rigiditie s of the crossarm for bending and the supports for
compress ion it ~s possible to consider that vertical force P
is transfer red to the struts only by supports . The crossarm
works on tension under the action of forces P If the ~xes
r.r
of supports pass through the attachme nt points of the crossarm
to the aircraft , then P
r.r is determin ed with the aid of a
triangle of forces. The crossarm can also be made of two hinged
parts attached to the strut (see Fig. 21.9b). In this diagram
the forces in the supports and crossarm are determin ed from
condition s of statics and then when the axes of supports do not
pass through the support points. In the latter case in the
attachme nt points of the crossarm to the strut there appear
reaction s P
r.s , because of which the crossarm undergoe s bending
strains. The forces in the supports and crossarm will be

p .. }!__ ! __I_.
II ~ /I l'O~ 2 '

!~.
:.!
(L- ').
{I

6
 The diagrams of the bending moments for elements of the crossarm
are shown in Fig. 21.9c.

L.::::-
f.:
~

bJ p

Fig. 21.7. Fig. 21.8.

Fig. 21.7. Singlc-struL landing gear with one support. (The
support unloads the top of the strut from bending in one plane).

Fig. 21.8. Single-strut landing gear with several supports.

(With the arrangement of supports in different planes it is
possible to completely unload the top of the strut from bending).

/)
p

Fig. 21.9. The attachment of landing gear strut to crossarm.

a) one-piece crossarm, b) crossarm made of two parts hinged
articulated with the strut, c) diagrams of bending moment.of the
crossarm.

7
Diagram s of Landing Gear Accordi ng to the
Method of Attachm ent of Wheels

All diagram s of landing gear accordi ng to the method of

attachm ent of wheels, and conseq uently, accordi ng to the char-
acter of work of the shock absorbe r can be broken down into
two groups:

a) landing gear with fixed attachm ent of wheels to the

rod or cylinde r of the shock absorbe r (see Figs. 21.6 and 21.7);

b) landing gear with levered suspens ion of wheels.

In the first case the shock absorbe r is simulta neously a

strut and because of this is loaded not only by axial forces,
but :11 r.:o by bending . Sometime ::> this diagl'8.111 l::; t:alled telesco pic.
Axial forces here are transfe rred from the rod to the strut
attachm ent points through liquid and compres sed gas. The transfe r
of torsion al moments from the rod to the cylinde r is achieve d
with the aid of torque link (torque arms), whose compon ents in
this case undergo bending . Due to the loading of the shock
absorbe r by bending it works under severe conditi ons. An essen-
tial deficJe ncy of such diagram s of landing gear is the fact
that the horizon tal loads, which appear with shocks against the
roughne ss of the airfiel d, are virtual ly not absorbe d.

The levered -suspen sion landing gear (Figs. 21.10, 21.11)

have wheels fastene d to a lever, which because of hinge connec-
tion can be turned relativ e to the strut. The positio n of the
lever and, conseq uently, also the wheel, is determi ned by the
degree of stroke of the shock absorbe r.

Two types of lever landing gear obtaine d accepta nce. For

rear suppor ts there is usually applied landing gear with outrigg er

0
v
 ...,..

Fig. 21.10. Lever landing ~ear with

outrigg er shock absorbe r. (Shock
absorbe r receive s only axial forces.
bending is absent) .

Fig. 21.11. Lever landing gear with

interna l shock absorbe r.

9
shock absorbe r (see Fig. 21.10). Shock absorbe r 1-2 here is
fastene d to lever 3-4 and strut 4-6 with the aid of univers al
joints and is loaded only by axial forces. At the nose support s
it is necessa ry to provide the possib ility of turning of the
wheel for taxiing along the airfiel d. The orienti ng or steerab le
strut is more easily made if the shock absorbe r is include d in
its constru ction (see Fig. 21.11). In this case the rod, connec t-
ed with the lever control rod, which has univers al joints, does
not bend, but the cylinde r, which is simulta neously a strut,
undergo es bending . Because of this the shock absorbe r works
under more severe conditi ons than in the diagram shown in Fig.
21.10.

In the lever diagram s of landing gear for the lever there

are created two support s - one ls fixed (hinged joint 4), the
other is mobile (point 1 of attachm ent of the shock absorb er).
Loads here are transfe rred from the wheel to the strut and its
attachm ent points to the aircraf t not only through the working
medium of the shock absorb er, but also directl y through point 4.
The latter simulta neously serves for the transfe r of torsion al
moment from the wheel to the strut. Besiues those given in
Figs. 21.10 and 21.11, other diagram s of lever landing gear
are encoun tered. So, Fig. 21.12 shows landing gear in which there
is no strut and the lever is fastene d with a hinged joint
directl y to the aircraf t. The shock absorbe r here is combine d
with support 2-6 and the retract ing cylinde r of the landing
gear.

The lever attachm ent of wheels can also be applied for a

bogie. Figure 21.8 shows the diagram of lever landing gear
with interna l shock absorbe r for a bogie. Here the front and
rear pairs of wheels are fastene d to separat e levers 1-2, hinged
articul ated with the strut. As supplem entary support s for
levers there are rods 5-6, connect ed with the yoke fastene d on

10
 Fig. 21.12. Lever landing gear with-
out strut.

the rod of the shock ~bsorber. Unlike the usual diagrams in

the case in question the shock absorber is lengthened, but is
not shortened on the forward stroke. During the action of
loads on the wheels of the bogie they are turned together with
_evers and through control rods 5-6 transfer force3 to the rod
of the shock absorber. In other respects this landing gear with
respect to the principle of operation differs little from landing
gear with internal shock absorber (see Fig. 21.11). From the
lever landing gear with internal shock absorber shown in Fig.
21.8 it is easy to change to landing gear with outrigger shock
absorbers. For this it is necessary to remove the shock absorber
from the strut, and replace rods 5-6 with shock absorbers.

11
 The main advantages of the lever diagrams of landing gear
are good operating conditions of shock absorbers (low friction
and wear of bushes and ieals) and the possibilit y of shock
absorption of the horizontal components of the impact loads,
wh.i.ch act on the wheel. The last fact is "ery important for
aircraft which have high landing speeds and which make a landing
on field airdromes. A deficiency of these diagrams of landing
gear is the complexity of constructio n and higher weight in
comparison with nonlever diagrams.

Diagrams of Landing Gear According to

the Method of Connection of Wheels
with the Strut

I . . ... t -1- - _, - J... .I , ., '1 . ,.

uau ut: ' 1
.,

Lanulng g~ar U.l.b V.l.JJ~U..l..bilt:U ~ V-1.-L....L U!:J VI C. VJ

the connection of wheels with the strut. Besides the bogie,

the wheels can be installed on landing gear with the aid of
half-axles , fork and half-fork (Fig. 21. i3). The fork and
half-fork (see Fig. 2l.l3c and d) provide the symmetrica l
position of the wheel relative to the axis of the strut, thanks
to which the latter does not bend from the action of vertical
loads. Such connection , as depicted on Fig. 2l.l3b, is applied
for the orienting supports of.landing gear, since 1t eliminates
the appearance of torsional moments relative to the axjs of the
strut due to friction forces during rolling of the wheel. At
the same time the fork and half-fork unlike the half-axle (Fig.
21.13a) require an increase in the height of support, :tnce in
this case the wheel axle is located lower than the rod by an
amount greater than the radius of the wheel.

Design Features of Front Supports

The design features of front supports are connected with

the fact that they are made orienting and in a number of cases

12
 a) b) c) d)
Fig. 21.13. Typical attachment s of wheel to the strut. a) attach-
ment with the aid of half-axle, b) paired with two half-axles ,
c) attachment with the aid of a fork, d) attachment with the aid
of half-fork.

a) b)
Fig. 21.14. Diagram which illustrate s the stability of the
position of the wheel of the nose support depending on the
inclinatio n of the strut. a) unstable position, b) stable position.

Fig. 21.15. Diagram which

illustrate s the stability of
the position of the wheel of
the nose support during air-
craft motion. a) motion along
solid ground, b) motion along
soft ground.

a) b)

13
steerable. The stability of the wheel in this case relative
to the axis of the reference point depends on its stagger with
respect to the axis of the strut and the inclination of the
latter. If the strut is tilted back with respect to vertical
line, then the position of the wheel, shown in Fig. 21.14a by
solid lines, is unstable. The wheel tries to turn so that the
distance from the center of gravity of the aircraft to the
ground would be minimum (see Fig. 21.14a, dotted line). This
turn is impeded by friction forces. The stable position of the
wheel takes place if the axis of the strut is deflected forward
(see Fig. 21.14b).

A necessary condition of the stability of the position of

wheel during motion is the provision of forward stagger (sta-
bility arm) L uf Lhe point of application of the resultant of
.
reactions of the ground with respect to the axis of the landing
gear strut (Fig. 21.15a). When this stagger is present the
forces of friction try to match the plane of the wheel with the
direction of motion. Thus, a condition of the stability of
motion of the wheel is

t=f+R sin n>0.

where f is the stagger of the wheel axis with respect to the

axis of the strat; e is the angle of inclination of the strut.

By selecting arm t, it is necessary to consider that with

rolling of the wheel on soft ground (see Fig. 21.15b) the point
of application of the reaction of the ground is shifted forward.

On aircraft which have tandem landing gear and also on

heavy vehicles there is applied a steerable front strut, which
provides their maneuverability on the ground. Control of the
turning of wheels or the bogie of the front strut is achieved

14
-...
w~th the aid of special servo systems, including turning mechanism s,
actuating cylinders and 1 hydraulic or pneumatic system. Control
of the turning of struts is connected with the pilot's pedals.
CompleLely detennineJ turning of the wheels correspond s to move-
ment of the pedal during motion along the ground. In flight
this control is disconnect ed from the pedals. Fo~ control of
the turning of the bogie it is necessary to expend much energy.
In connection with this the control system of the bogie, presented
in Fig. 21.16, deserves attenticn. Here the front pair of
wheels can be turned in a small range of angles relative to cross-
arm 1, to which are fastened axles 2 and 3 of ~he wheels. First
with the aid of actuating cylinder 4 by means of shaft 5 the
front pair of wheels is turned to a small angle relative to the
plane of symmetry of the bogie. Subsequen tly the turning of the
bogie occurs not only because of the forces being created by the
actuating cylinder, buL alBu owing to the fvictiun forces, which
act on the front pair of wheels. Such a device considerab ly
reduces the amount of required power for turning the bogie.

Fig. 21.16. Structural diagram of control of the bogie of the

front support of the landing gear. 1 - crGssarm of bogie, 2 -
front axle, 3 - rear axle, 4 - actuating cylinder for turning
the bogie, 5 - shaft, 6 - damper, 7 - shock absorber of bogie,
8 - strut.

15
The Con stru ctio n of Land ing Gear
with Bog ie

of sing le-s trut

Figu re 21.1 7 show s one of the diag rams
It incl udes stru t l-10 ,
supp ort type land ing gear with bog ie.
ort 9-12 , retr acti ng
susp ensi on poin ts 10-1 1 and 10' -ll' , supp
ilizi ng shoc k abso rber
gear 10-1 3 and 10'- 13', bogi e and stab
of the bogi e
7-9. The last prov ides the nece ssar y posi tion
serv es as an elem ent of
befo re the land ing and simu ltan eous ly
the land ing- gear retr acti ng mech anism .

u..
lJ 11 11' TJ'

\~/

of
Fig. 21.1 7. Sing le-s trut land ing gear
supp ort type with bog ie.

the aid of join t 1,

The bogi e is hing ed to the stru t with
ing with pass age over
whic h prov ides it the pos sibi lity of turn
the r8ug hnes s of the airf ield . It con sists of cros sarm 2-3,
ecte d. On the axle s
with whic h the whe el axle s are hing e conn
inte nded for the tran sfer
are rigi dly atta ched leve rs 11-6 and 3-5,
stru t. This purp ose is
of brak ing mom ents of the whe els to the
serv ed by rods 6-8 and 4-5. Beca use of the hing e attac hme nt of
bogi e (poi nts 2 and 3)
the whe el axl~s with the cros sarm of the
not impe de the turn ing
leve rs :'1-6, 3-5 and rods 6-8 and 4-5 do

l6
of the bogie. During braking the braking moments of the wheels,
being traDsferred on their axles, are balanced by forces in rod
6-8 and at point 1. The inclination of rod 6-8 and the relative
position of points 1 and 2 are selected in order during braking
tc insure identical normal forces P of pressing of the front and
rear pair of wheels to the ground. The condition of the identical
loading of wheels can be obtained from the equations of equi-
librium of the bogie (moments of forces relative to point 1)
and lever 4-G (moments of forces relative to point 2):

~ FH = P,, __ ,f1.
~ FR06 =P6-sl.

From these equations follows

H h
Uu,; a

The last condition graphically expresses the fact that the line
passing through points 1 and 2 should intersect the axis of rod
7-8 and the line of action of friction force at one point.

The balancing of the braking moment on the strut in the

lever diagram of landing gear with bogie occurs somewhat differently
(see Fig. 21.8). Here because of the hinge attachment of levers
1-2 to the strut and the yoke to the rod of the shock absorber
the turning of the bogie is possible during passage over rough-
nesses. The transfer of braking moments from the wheels to the
strut is achieved by means of levers 2-3 and rods 3-4. Rods 3-4
here are parallel to levers 1-2. For the identical pressing
of the front and rear pair of wheels it is necessary that these
rods and levers also be parallel to the ground. 1 In this case
the point of intersection of the axes of rods 3-4, levers 1-2 and
the line of action of friction force goes off into infinity.

1
This can take place with extension of the shock absorber.

17
 The Desig n Featu res of Ski Landi ng Gear

The ski is usua lly hinge faste ned to the strut

simi lar to
the bogie of a multi whee l landi ng gear (Fig.
21.18 ), which
gives it the poss ibili ty to swive l durin g passa
ge over the rough -
nesse s of the airfi eld. The frict ion force s appe aring durin g
motio n along the airfi eld try to turn the ski
relat ive to the
hinge . The stab ilizi ng shock abso rber, which provi des
more
even distr ibuti on of spec ific press ure on the
ski, imped es turni ng.
Besid es this, it main tains the initi al posi tion
of the ski until
touch 1own .

The dime nsion s of the ski are selec ted proce eding
from the
perm issib le press ure on the soils where the opera
tion of the
aircr aft 18 a~sumed to be. In this case there
is also cons idere d
the poss ibili ty of its retra ction into the free
volum es alloc ated
for this. The shape s of the ski - leadi ng edge
bent back upwa rds
and round ing on the sides - shoul d provi de its
good slide along
the groun d and as smal l trans verse loads as poss
ible durin g
motio n with drift .

The cons truct ion of meta l skis can be rivet ed,

or be a
one-p iece forgi ng or casti ng. In the first versi
on (see Fig.
2l.l8 a) the ski has long itudi nal and trans verse
beams and skin.
In the secon d versi on (see Fig. 2l.l8 b) the long
itudi nal and
trans verse load- beari ng elem ents are made as one
whole with the
surfa ce of the skl. In both cases to the botto m surfa ce of the
ski there are faste ned spec ial (usua lly steel )
plate s, which are
chang ed as they wear out. Throu gh these plate s the exter nal
loads are ~rnnsferred to tl1e long itudi nal and
trans verse load-
beari ng struc ture.

18
 Stabili zing
shock absorbe r

a)

lffiiiliiJ2222!21&f:J.
Intercha ngeable plate
b)

Fig. 21.18 . Ski landin g gear. a) ski of

rivete d const ructio n, b) ski made of one-
piece forgin g or castin g.

by
Under the action of exter nal loads the ski is loade d
of the
bendi ng, as a beam on elast ic suppo rts. The loadin g
cter is
separ ate load-b earing eleme ntsof the ski by its chora
simil ar to loadin g of the eleme nts of the wing.

For the landin g of light aircr aft only one landin g ski,
locate d under the fusela ge, can be applie d. The selec tion of
the aircr aft
the length of such a ski shoul d provid e stabi lity of
relati ve to the transv erse axis.

19
 3. LANDING-GEAR COMPUTATION FOR STRENGTH

In the process of operation of aircraft the landing gear

are affe~tP.d by repeated static and dynamic loads. Therefore
the complete calculation of the strength of landing gear includes:
the check of from the action of static loads, the
~t~2ngth

calculation for endurance taking into account the available stress

concentrators and evaluation of the life of the construction.
Below is given a simplified scheme of calculation of the strength
of landing gear from the action of static loads.

The Ib.ndlng-gear
.,.t'
computation for strength is an ordinary
... , ~

problem'of structural mechanics in the section of girder or

truss-girder systems.

The landing gear is considered as a geometrically invarlable

system. Since it includes mobile elements (shock absorber a~d
vertical hinge in the joint of the wheel with the strut fo~
front supports), the calculation scheme is taken for the case
of the operational stroke of the shock absorber and pneumatics.
Furthermore, for supports to the wheel there is applied a moment
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the moment of
applied forces relative to the turning axis of the strut.

The determining of support reactions and basic force factors

in the sections is sometimes sim~lified if we use the super-
position principle of fo~ces and examine the loading of the supper~
individually by the components directed along the axis of the
strut and perpe!1dicuJ.al' to it. Total reactions, forces and
moments in the sections are found by the geometric summation of
the corresponding ~omponents.

For the support reactions in joints and in

determini~g

supports the-re are utilized equations of statics (equilibrium

20
conditi ons). This part of the calcula tion can be simplif ied with
the success ful selecti on of moment axes. So, for the diagram
present ed in Figs. 21.6 and 21.7 the force in the aupport is
easily determi ned from the conditi on of equilib rium of the moments
of forces relativ e to the hinge line of the strut (axis x-x).
The determi ning of forces in the support becomes somewha t com-
plicate d in the case when the axis of rotatio n of the strut is
three-d imensio nal, i.e., turned relativ e to coordin ate system
xyz, connect ed with the axis of the strut (see Fig. 21.10).
This problem can be solved in the followi ng manner. First
there are compose d equatio ns of moments of all forces (extern al
and forces in the support ) relativ e to coordin ate axes x, y, z.
Further the equilib rium conditi on is written in the form of the
equalit y of the sum of their compon ents along the axis of rota-
tion to zero. These compon ents are obtaine d by multip lication
of the found moments with respect to the coordin ate axes by
the cosines of angles formed by the coordin ate axes and the
axis of rotatio n of the strut.

Let us illustr ate the order of calcula tion of the strengt h

of landing g~a~ for two a1agram s: single- strut lever landing
gear with outrigg er shock absorbe r and single- strut landing
gear with bogie.

Single- Strut Lever Landing Gear with

Outrigg er Shock Absorbe r

Let us assume that the first stage of calcula tion is fulfill ed,
i.e., the calcula ted loads of the landing gear are determi ned.
Subsequ ently we will present separat ely the methods of calcula -
tion of landing gear under the action of vertica l force Py
(Fig. 21.19) and lateral force Pz (Fig. 21.20).

21
 ..... ,
,.,\

-..,c --
Pm~'tI--!
2, p
2 I I z
p...,. II'
"; r.t
a'=d!Py
M~Pyc

a)

Fig. 21.19. Loading diagram of the structural elements of lever

landing gear during the action of force PY. a) diagrams _of forces
and moments for half-axle, b) the same for the lever, c and d)
the same in planes xOy and yOz respectivel~ for the strut.

Fig. 21.20. Loading diagram of the structural elements of lever

landing gear during the action of lateral force Pz. a) diagram
of forces and moments for the lever, b and c) the same in planes
yOz and xOy respectively for the strut; d) diagrams M and N.
K

22
Landing-Gear Calculation Under the
Action of Vertical Force Fy

Half-axle. The calculation scheme of the half-axle is a

cantilever beam, restrained at the place of attachment to lever
3-4. Force PY loads the half-axle through roller bearings. The
diagrams of lateral forces and bending moments for the half-
axle are shown in Fig. 21.19a.

Lever 3-4 is simple beam with cantilever. The supports for

it are the attachment points to the strut and to the shock
absorber. The lever is loaded at the place of attachment of
the half-axle by force PY and moment M
3
= PYC. The support
reactions for the lever at points 1 and 4 can be determined
analytically with the aid of equations of statics, or geometrically
with the aid of triangle of forces, as shown in Fig. 21.19.
Fur the convenience of calculation force P can be broken down
' y
into two components: Pyl' directed perpendicular to the axis
of the lever, and Pv , parallel to the axis of lever. Under
v 2
the action of force Pyl the lever is loaded by bending. The
corresponding diagrams M and Q for it are shown in Fig. 2J.l9b.
The maximum bending moment acts in the section under support 1.
Because of the fact that point 1 does not coincide with the
axis of lever 3-4, in diagram M there is a jump, equal to
6M = P h sin a. Force P compresses the lever. The diagram
aN y2
of axial forces for the lever is represented in Fig. 21.19b.
Under the action of moment M
3
= Pyc the lever is loaded b~

torsion and bending. Torsion is caused by moment M K = PY c.

3 1
In this case one should consider the lever as a beam restrained
at one end (at point 4). Another component M - moment M =
3 . 3H
= PY c - bends the lever in the plane of axes of the lever and
2
wheel. The bending and torsional moments along the length of
the lever are constant (see Fig. 21.19b).

23
 Strut 4-6 undergo es axial deform ations, torsion and bending .
By conside ring the bending of the strut in plane xoy, as the
calcula tion scheme it is possibl e to take the cantili ver beam,
restrai ned at the point of suspens ion 6 and loaded by forces
and moments being transfe rred from the lever at point 4, shock
absorbe r at point 2 and support at point 7. Except force in
the suppor t, all loads are determi ned during the calcula tion of
the lever. Force in the support Sn can be found from the condi-
tions of equilib rium of moments relativ e to axis x-x:

w.tence
Pyc
- --------- --
k cos (1 7 _ 8 , z)

where cos ( t _ , z) - the cosine of the angle between the support

7 8
and axis z.

Thus, the strut in plane xoy is loaded by forces R , RaM

4
and sn.

The charac ter of diagram~ Q, N, M and MK is shown in Fig.

21.19c.

The jumps in the diagram of bending moments are explain ed

by the eccent ricity of the applica tion of force at the places
of attachm ent of the support and shock absorbe r. If the support
would lie in plane yoz, then the force compon ent of the support
in plane xoy would be equal to zero. Then the bending moment
in section 2-6 of the strut would r.emain constan t and equal
to M = P Z-. In genera l the bending moment in section 2-6 continu es
y
to rise because of the effect of force in the suppor t. In the
rigid fixing it will be greater in value than PYZ-. The torsion al

24
strains can appear because of the eccentr ic applica tion of force
in the support with respect to the axis of the st~ut. Jumps in
the diagram of axial forces appear at places of applica tion of
forces from the support and shock absorbe r.

In plane yoz the strut should be conside red as a simple beam

(suppo rts: axis of suspens ion 6 and support 7-8) with cantile ver,
loaded by moment M = Pyc: The diagram s for this case are
present ed in Fig. 21.19d.

Landing -Gear Calcula tion Under the

Action of Lateral Force Pz

Half-ax le under the action of force P (Fig. 21.20) at the

2
point of contact of the pressed wheel with the ground is bent
by constan t moment

where R
06 is the distanc e from the wheel axle to the ground.

3-4 from the transve rse loads of the wheel and moment
Lever
M is loaded as a cantile ver beam, restrai ned at point 4 (shock
3
absorbe r is not loaded) . Under the action of applied forces it
undergo es bending and torsion al strains . Diagram s Q, M and M
K
for the lever are present ed in Fig. 21.20a.

Strut 4-6 is a simple beam (suppo rts:

axis of suspens ion
of the strut and suppor t), loaded at point 4 by forces and moments
which are transfe rred from the lever. Under the action of these
loads the strut undergo es bending (in planes xoy and yoz), axial
deform ations and torsion . For the constru ction of diagram s
Q, M, MK and N it is necessa ry to determi ne the force in the
suppor t. From equilib rium conditi ons of the strut

25
 s '-
n

Diagrams Q and M for bending in plane xoy are presented in Fig.

21.20c, and in plane yoz - in Fig. 21.2Gb. Bending in plane
xoy occurs because of force in the support.

Figure 21.20d depicts the diagrams of axial forces and

torsional moments M . Torsion of the strut occurs under the
K
action of moment MK = PzZ and the moment created by force in
the support relative to the axis of the strut.

Check Calculation of the Strength

of Landing Gear

After donstructing the diagrams of main force factors - M,

Q, Nand MK, it is possible to go to the determining of 'stresses.
The experience of calculation shows that a decisive role of the
strength of the separate elements of the construction of the
landing gear is played by the magnitilde of normal stresses.
Therefore frequently in engineering precomputatio ns we are
limited to checking the strength only with respect to normal
stresses. This does not eliminate the need sometimes of the
account of shear (i.e., tangential stresses) and the subsequent
check by one of the theories of strength.

The normal stresses are determined for the section where

their maximum is expected

a=-
I\'
-1-
M
f' -- U''

where F is the cross-section al area; W is the moment of resistance

to bending.

26
 The obtained stresses Are compared with breaking (critica l)
for a thin-wal led cylindri cal shell. 1

By selectin g the sections , it is possible to achieve a

reductio n in the construc tion weight, taking into account the
plastici ty of material .

In practice this can be done during the calculat ion of the

breaking moment for the s~ction in question by formula

where M is the breaking bending moment of the section taking

pa3nn
into account plastici ty; M is the breaking bending moment of
pa3
the section not allowing for plastici ty; x ~ 1 - the coeffici ent
which consider s the plastici ty of material ; for differen t secti?ns
and cases of loading its value is given in referenc e literatu re. 2

In conclusio n let us pause on the features of calculat ion

of the shock absorber . The shock absorber in the diagram of
landing gear in question is loaded only by axial forces. Under
their ac~ion the rod undergoe s compress ive strains. The cylinder
is loaded basicall y by the internal pressure of the working medium
(gas, liquid), which increase s in proporti on to the stroke. The
strength of the cylinder wall is tensile checked along the genera-
trix from internal pressure during operatio nal stroke. Suf-
ficient strength is expresse d by conditio n

f 'D
<:~=-P-~a ,
. :.!&u a

1
See Chapter VII.

2
See, for example, M. F. Astakhov , et al., Referenc e book
on the calculat ion of aircraft for strength . Oborongi z, 1954.

27
where f is the D is the diamete r U.L
-r>
the cylinde r
of the shock absorbe r; oL\ is the wa~l thickne ss of the cylinde r;

p=O-k) o. is the air pressur e in the shock absorbe r during the

F

operati onal stroke; k is the coeffic ient which conside rs the

3
frictio n of collars and bushes; Q is force in the shock absorbe r
during operati onal loading ; F is the area of the piston.

Single- Strut Landing Gear with Bogie

The order of calcula tion of the strengt h of landing gear

with bogie (Fig. 21.21) differs little from the previou sly
examine d case. Therefo re let us pause only on examin ation of
the calcula tion schemes and diagram s of tbe b~nding moments for
separat e structu ral element s during the action of forces in the
plane of the wheels.

~. . ni:fh... 10'
70
w-

I
I
I

Fig. 21.21. Diagram of the loading of the structu ral element s

of single- strut landing gear with bogie. a) diagram s of bending
moments for half-ax les from forces P; b) the same for the cross-
arm from forces P; c and d) the same for the strut from forces
P and F respect ively.
 The half-axles of wheels are loaded by bending, as cantilever
beams with rigid fixing at points 2 and 3 of the bogie. Diagram
M for them is represented in Fig. 21.2la. During the action of
friction forces F the half-axles additionally undergo torsion.

The crossarm of bogie 2-3 is loaded by bGnding. The diagram

for it is shown in Fig. 21.2lb.

Rod 4-5 undergoes tension. The force in it is determined

by the ratio of the braking moment of the rear pair of wheels
to arm m.

Rod 6-8 undergoes tension. The force in it is determined

as the rat~o of the braking moment of all wheels of the bogie
to arm b.

The strut is a simple beam with cantilever ~supports:

supports 9-12 and suspension point 10-10). Duri~g the action
of vertical forces it ~s bent because of the eccentric position
of point 1 relative to the axis of the strut. For construction
of the diagrams it is necessary first from the equation of moments
of forces relative to axis 10-10' to determine the force in
support 9-12. Diagram M for this case is represented in Fig.
21.2lc. Diagram M is analogously constructed for ti1e case of
the action of forces F (see Fig. 21.2ld). On these diagrams
lines DC separate the moments which pertain to the rod and
cylinder. In this case the rod is considered as a simple beam.
With the aid of bushes it rests on the cylinder at points D
and C.

It is possible to similarly consider the loading of elements

of landing gear with bogie during the action of lateral forces.

One of the characteristic cases of the calculation of landing

gear with bogie is loading by torsional moment MH relative to

29
the vertical axis. In the diagrarr of the landing gear in question
(see Fig. 21.21) this moment is transferred from the bogie to
the cylinder of the strut by means of the torque link.

The loading of the torque link is easy to establish, if it

is mentally disconnected at hinge k (Fig. 21.22a). In this
case the strut will be converted into a mechanism where the rod
with the bogie under the action of moment M will be turned
K
relative to the axis of the cy~inder. In actuality rotation is
absent because of the appearance at hinge connection k of forces
of ir,teraction

Under their action each half of the torque link is bent, as a

cantilever beam, restrained at the rod or cylinder (see.Fig.
21.22b). In the sections of the torque link in this case there
appear normal stresses

where W - the moment of resistance of the section.

The maximum bending moment of the torque link

is transferred to the rod or cylinder in the form of force couple

shearing the bolt.

Because of the link the cylinder and rod are loaded

torqu~

by transverse forces and bending moments. Their magnitude can

be found mentally, by cutting the rod (see Fig. 21.22c) with a

30
plane, perpendicular to its axis and passing through the hinge
of the torque link k. From equilibrium conditions of the cut
off part in the sections there will act transverse forces T,
which cause, in turn, the appearance of bending moments, the
character of change in which is shown in Fig. 21.2?d. Line CD
on the diagram and in this case separates the moments which relate
to the rod and cylinder.

a)

Diagram M of
the cylinder

Diagram M ot'
the rod

Fig. 21.22. Diagram of loading of the structural elements of

torque link. a) forces with loading of the strut by torsional
moment; b) forces which cause bending of the torque link; c)
forces which appear on the strut during the transfer of torsional
moment; d) diagram of bending moments for the strut.

31
 DIAGRAM OF LANDING-GEAR
4.
RETRACTING MECHANISM

On all modern high-speed aircraft the landing gear is

retracted in flight, since in the flow it creates high drag and
substantia lly lowers the flight character istics of the aircraft.
For landing gear retracting there are created special compart-
ments in the wing, fuselage or engine nacelles. While selecting
these sections, the designer proceeds from the free volurrtes
available on the aircraft being designed and the degree of
increase in weight of the constructi on. The constructi on of
landing gear, and sometimes other parts of the aircraft, is
selected taking into account the scheme of landing gear retracting .

Depending on the place being allocated for the landing gear

retraction can be accomplish ed without the rotation of wheels
and with rotation. Figure 21.23 shows the diagrams of landing-
gear retracting mechanism without rotation of the wheel. They
can be applied with retraction into the wing (a, b, c, d) along
the span into the fuselage or the engine nacelles (e, f, g).
The landing gear retracting in these cases is accomplish ed by
means of the rotation of the strut around one axis. The direction
of the axis depends on the initial and final positions of the
strut. In the diagrams of Fi~. 21.23a, b and f the retracting
jack plays the role of the support. Contractio n or elongation
of the cylinder leads to rotation of the strut. In the diagrams
of landing gear c, d, e ~nd g there is applied a separate breaking
support. The retraction jack during retraction can transfer
forces only to the breaking support (diagrams c, e) or simultaneo usly
to the support and strut (diagrams d, g). Figure 21.23h shows
a typical diagram of retraction of the underwing strut of tandem
landing gear.

32
 F'ig. 21.23. The kinem atic scheme s of landin g
gear retraa ting withou t rotati on of the wheel.
a, b, c, d) into the wing; e, f, g) into the
engine nacell es, -h) retrac tion of the under-
wing strut of tandem landin g gear.

The forces in the retrac tion jack in the proces s of retrac -

tion and loweri ng sub~tantially depend on the diagra m of landin g
gear retrac ting. From the differ ent ~~rsions of the diagram~
there is select ed the one which, on one hand, I-;rovid es landin g
gear retrac ting into the assign ed volume , and, Jn the other hand,
a minimum of forces in the operat ion of the retrac tion jack.

The limite d v0lume s for landin g gear retrac ting (in partic ular
on modern aircra ft with a thin wing and a large supply of fuel
in the fusela ge) do not always permit applyi ng the simple st
diagra ms shown in Fig. 21.23. In these cases it is freque ntly
necess ary to turn the wheels or bogie. Figure 21.24 shows the
diagra m of retrac tion of strut into the engine nacell e, where
the wheel togeth er with the strut rotate s relati ve to two axes:
the axis of suspen sion and axis of the strut. For rotati on of
strut 1 around its own axis it is fasten ed to crossa rm 2 with the
aid of coupli ng 4, which has the slide bearin gs. Furthe rmore,

FTD-MT=24-1826-7?. 33
at the end of the strut there is lever 6, connected with rod 7.
The latter ls connected by a hinged joint with the nacelle;
during the rotation of the strut relative to axis 3 it force3
it to simultaneously be turned relative-to its own axis.

'~@a) b)

Fig. 21.24. The kinematic scheme of landing gear retracting into

the engine nacelle with rotation of the wheel 90. a) lowered
position, b) retracted position. 1 - strut, 2 - crossarm, 3 -
axis of turning, 4 - coupling, 5 - actuating cylinder, 6 - turn
lever, 7 - rod.

Figure 21.25 depicts the diagram of retracting of landi~~

gear with a bogie. The bogie during retraction is turned and
its crossa~m moves together with the strut.

With landing gear retracting into a thin wtng it is frequently

difficult to accommodate thewheel in it. In this case sometimes
'
in the wing there is created a section for the strut, and the
wheel is retracted into the fuselage (Fig. 21.26). The wheel in
such a scheme is turned relative to the strut so that in the
retracted position it would effectively fill the free volume of
the fuselage.

FTD-~T-24-1826-72 34
Fig. 21.25. Fig. 21.26.

Fig. 21.25. The kinematic scheme of landing gear retracting

into the fuselage (nacelles) of a flight vehicle with rotation
of bogie 180.
Positions are the same as in Fig. 21.17.
r~ig. 21.26. (lihc H:inemG.tic scheme cf r~~Ll'act1c~l1 ~~~r the l;:tn("1tne;
gear strut into the wing and wheels into the fuselage of the
flight vehicle. (Heavy lines show the mechanism which turns
the wheel 90).

The landing-ge ar retracting mechanisms , besides retraction

jack, include the locks of the retracted and lowered positions
and the signaling of the position of struts. Flight safety
depends on the reliability of operation of the elements of the
system of retraction and lowering of landing gear. Therefore
in the process of operation of aircraft they will be subject
to conGtant check.

FTD-MT-24 -1826-72 35