Module 6

Materials and Hardware

CONTENTS

Page

Definitions
Ferrous metals
Allay steels
Non ferrous metals
Aluminium alloys
Chemical abbreviations
Identification of metals
Practical tests
Heat treatments - plain carbon steels
Case hardening
Heat treatments - alloy steels
Heat treatment - aluminium alloys
Destructive testing of metals
Corrosion
Non metallic materials
Plastics
Fibre reinforced plastics
Resins
Cores
Manufacture of composite components
Adhesives - general
Destructive testing of composites
Degradation of composites
Sealants and bonding agents
 MATERIALS - GENERAL

You should have a good knowledge of the following terms which are used
throughout this book, so, using a piece of paper define each of their meanings.
Take no more than about 30 minutes. The answers are given below.

* Stress
* Density
* Fatigue
* Toughness
* Brittleness
* Hardness
* Softness
* Ductility
* Malleability
* Resistivity (p)

Stress. Defined as force per unit area. In the SP system it is the Pascal (Pa) and
is defined as a Newton per square meter N/m2. In the imperial system it is
pounds per square inch (psi).The higher the stress levels a material can take
the better. Note that stress units are the same a s pressure units,

Density. This is the amount of "substance" in a material. It is defined as "mass

per unit volume" ie, Density = kgs/m3. Dense material such as lead is said
(incorrectly) to be heavy. A kg of lead is no heavier than a kg of feathers. As an
example aluminium h a s a density of 2700 kg/m3 and steel is 7900 kg/m3. For
aircraft the less dense a material is the better - provided is retains those
desired properties such as high strength etc.

Fatigue. Fatigue is associated with cyclic stress. All materials should be

resistant to fatigue. Fatigue is serious and has been the cause of many aircraft
accidents. Normally the stress level that causes fatigue failure is well below
that required to cause the part to fail under normal tensile stress.

Toughness. This is the ability of a material to absorb an impact load. Rubber is

tough - ordinary glass is not. Toughness is a good quality, without it metals
would fracture at the slightest knock.

Brittleness. The opposite to toughness.

Hardness. The ability to resist scratching and indentation. Glass is hard, wood
is not. Bearings and piston rings for example should be hard so as to resist
wear.

Softness. The opposite to hardness. When two surfaces are in rubbing contact
with each other, such as some bearings then one is usually made softer than
the other so it will wear first - usually the easier one to replace.
Ductility. The ability of a material to be permanently deformed by the
application of a tensile load. Wire is drawn into shape by being pulled through
a series of dies and is said to be ductile (Drawn - Dies - Quctile).

Malleability, The ability of a metal to be permanently deformed by the action of

a compressive load - hammering for example. Rivets are malleable as they are
formed by compression.

Resistivity. This gives the resistance of a body in terms of its dimensions. It is

called (p) rho. The resistance of a n object can be found from the equation

Where p is in ohm metres, L is length in metres and A is cross sectional area in

m2. Copper has a resistivity of 1.7 ohm metres whereas steel has a resistivity of
15 ohm metres. Copper is a better conductor than steel.

METALS

Metals can be divided into two main groups - ferrous and non ferrous.

FERROUS NONFERROUS

Fig. 1 METALS

Ferrous (Fe) Metals

These metals have an iron base and include all the plain carbon steels, allc
steels, cast irons and wrought iron. A plain carbon steel is a steel which
contains only iron (Fe) and carbon (C) between about 0.15% and 1.4% C.

WROUGHT LOW CARBON HIGH CARBON CAST IRON

IRON STEEL STEEL
.--
I I I I I
0 0.02 0.1 5 1.4 4.5
% CARBON

Fig. 2 PERCENTAGE CARBON IN STEELS & IRONS

Fe metals can be divided into 3 main groups - irons, plain carbon steels and
alloy steels.

Fe METALS

IRONS PLAIN CARBON ALLOY STEELS

STEELS

Fig. 3 Fe METALS

The following pages contain tables relating to properties and uses of metals
used on aircraft. Some metals are almost never found on aircraft - such a s cast
iron - but they have been included because they are found in aircraft related
engineering.

TABLE 1 - FERROUS METALS

MATERIAL PROPERTIES USES

Cast iron Brittle, weak, casts well, resists Machine beds, frames
u p to 4.5% C crushing. Good anti-friction and details. General
properties, self lubricating. castings, bearings.
Good vibration damping Pistons, Piston rings.
qualities. Density 7700kglm3.

Wrought iron Ductile, malleable, soft, easily Cores of dynamos,

0.02% C magnetised, easily welded. lifting chains, crane
Density 7800kg/m3. hooks.
.................................................................................................
Mild steel Ductile, less malleable. Bolts and nuts.
(low carbon) Stronger and harder than General workshop
0.15 to 0.3% C wrought iron. Easily forged, machined components.
welded, machined or stamped Girders, forgings, car
to shape. Density 7800kg/m3. body panels.
p = 15ohmm.

Medium Higher strength than mild steel Leaf springs, wire ropes
carbon steel and responds readily to heat general tools, axles,
0.3 to 0.5% C treatments to increase its crankshafts. Used in
toughness and hardness. high strength areas -
fuselage joints, bolts,
hinge pins etc.
TABLE I CONTINUED

High carbon More expensive than medium Cutting tools. Coil

steel. carbon steel. Tougher and springs.
0.5% to 1.4% C harder.

Alloy steels By adding other elements the Chromium increases

(See table properties of plain carbon steel hardness - ball bearings
"Alloy Steels") can be altered. Nickel increases
strength and toughness
also resistance to
fatigue. Tungsten helps
the steel to retain its
hardness at high
temperatures.

Alloy Steels

The main difficulty when studying alloy steels is that there is such a wide
range of alloys that, trying to commit the details to memory, or even a small
part of them, would be difficult. For this reason the included table is of the
more commonly used elements used in steels to produce particular properties.

TABLE 2 - ALLOY STEELS

ELEMENT Yo QUALITIES USES

.................................................................................................
NICKEL (Ni) 3-5 Increased hardness Case hardened parts.
without loss of ductility. Easily worked.
27 Non-magnetic almost
non-corrodible.
36 Non-magnetic. Has a Precision instruments.
low co-efficient of "Invar" steel.
linear expansion.
.................................................................................................
CHROMIUM (Cr) 3 Great hardness. Ball and roller bearings.
12- 17 Nearly non-corrodible.

MANGANESE (Mn) 1.5 Greater strength than Welds easily - acts a s

5% nickel and harder a purifier.
than 3% chromium.
12 Very tough. Parts exposed to "wear
and tear".
TABLE 2 CONTINUED
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - .-- - - - - - - - -
TUNGSTEN (W) U p to Very hard up to 600C. 14% tungsten is used
20 in high speed steel
drills. Work a t higher
speeds and
temperatures.

COBALT (Co) 12 With tungsten. Used in drills etc

working at
temperatures higher
than 600C.
35 Easily magnetised. Permanent magnets.

VANADIUM (V) 20 Increase strength Chrome-vanadium

without loss of ductility. steels for valves and
other springs.

MOLYBDENUM (Mo) 2-4 Similar effect to tungsten.

.................................................................................................
NICKEL & 1-2 Stainless steel Magnetic.
CHROMIUM 18-8 Stainless steel None magnetic.
3-5 Great strength toughness Gears, crankshafts
engine and airframe
parts.
-

INVAR Contains 36% Ni, and Precision instruments

64 Fe. Has a low and gauging systems.
co-efficient of linear
expansion (0.9). (Mild
steel has a co-efficient
of 15.0).

STAINLESS STEEL Almost zero rate of Structures - where heat

corrosion. Typically resistance is required.
contains 18% Cr & 8% Ni, Pipelines.
though other grades of
"non corrodible steel"
are available.

AUSTENITIC STEELS & There are several Same uses as above.

IRONS austenitic steels but
most are based on 18:8
stainless steel. Besides
the qualities of stainless
steel they are non magnetic.
TABLE 2 CONTINUED

VALVE STEELS For aero engines, usually Valves.

contain 13%Ni, 13%
chromium and 3%
tungsten. Good
resistance to scaling at
dull red heat
temperatures.

HIGH SPEED STEELS Typically contain 18% Drills.

tungsten, 4% chromium Hacksaw blades.
and 1% vanadium. Will
work at higher temps.
than high carbon steel
without affecting the
temper.

PERMANENT MAGNET May contain u p to 35% Permanent magnets.

STEELS Cobalt. Various trade
names are available eg
Columax contains
8%Al, 14% Ni, 23% Co
and 3% Cu.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HIGH PERMEABILITY Soft iron was used Transformer cores.
STEELS but metals such as
(Those that can be Permalloy (78% Ni) and
magnetised and Mumetal (75% Ni) are
de-magnetised easily) now more common.

TABLE 3 - NON-FERROUS METALS

MATERIAL PROPERTIES USES

................................................................
TITANIUM ALLOYS High strengthlweight ratio.
Good physical properties
and corrosion resistance.
Density 4500kg/m3.
p = 2.6 ohm m.
Tensile strength u p to
1300MPa. Works at temp.
u p to 480C.
Used to replace steel
with a saving in weight.
Used for compressor
and fan blades in
turbine engines. Fire
proof bulkheads. Heat
shields.
TABLE 3 CONTINUED

NICKEL Hard, ductile, Anti corrosive.

Corrosion resistant.
Withstands high temps.

NICKEL ALLOYS Good strengthlweight ratio. Turbine blades and hot

Corrosion resistant at high end fittings.
temperatures. Monel
tensile strength u p to
1170MPa. Some alloys
contain 80% Ni 20%Cr.

MAGNESIUM Soft. Poor corrosion Bombs and flares.

resistant. Light alloys.

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS Cast well. Prone to Aircraft wheels, and

corrosion. Alloyed to give airframe structures.
it strength as pure
magnesium is weak and
soft. Density 1800kg/m3.
Will burn in under some
conditions, particularly
when in powder or swarfe
form.

COPPER Tough, ductile, malleable. Tubing. Electrical

High thermal and conductors. Used as
electrical conductivity. a base for brass and
resistant to corrosion bronze.
Solders well.
Density 8900kg/m3.
p = 1.7ohmm
Weak - about 200 to
400MPa. Different coppers
classified by CDA (Copper
Development Association).

BRASS Contains copper, zinc, tin, Lightly stressed

manganese, lead, nickel, castings, pipe fittings,
aluminium, and silicon. tubing, filter elements,
Good wearing, anti-friction bushes, electrical
and corrosion resistant. contacts.
Density 8500kgIm3.
Some brasses have a tensile
strength u p to lOOOMPa
TABLE 3 CONTINUED

BRONZE Copper, tin, nickel and Bearing bushes

Lead dloy. Similar
properties to brass.

PHOSPHOR Copper, tin and Bearing bushes.

BRONZE phosphorous. Stronger
and good in compression.
.................................................................................................
TUNGUM Contains copper, zinc, Pipe lines.
aluminium, nickel, silicon. Radiator matrix.
Resistance to fatigue and Not in common use.
corrosion. Strong and
ductile.
---

LEAD Soft, weak, ductile. Counter balance a n ~

Density 11300kg/m3. mass balance weigh. , .
Alloyed to make solder.

TIN Soft, ductile corrosion Used for tin plating.

resistant. Alloyed to lead to make
solder.

SOLDER Tin and lead. Low melting Soft soldering.

point. Density 9000kg/m3.

ZINC Soft. Good corrosion Protection of steel

resistance. Density parts.
7 1OOkg/m3.
.................................................................................................
ZINC ALLOYS Low cost low melting Inexpensive comme* :a1
point castings. small parts.

DEPLETED Hard. M a s s balance weights,

URANIUM Density 19,00Okg/m3. now removed for safety
reasons.

GOLD Soft. Used for plating some

Density 19,300 kg/m3. electrical contactors.
p = 2.4 o h m m Gold film windscreens.
Good corrosion resistance.

MONEL METAL Contains 70% Ni, and 30% Some structural uses
Cu. Resistant to corrosion. and tucker pop rivets.
TABLE 3 CONTINUED

CADMIUM Corrosion resistant. Anti corrosive plating.

- -- - -- - -- - ---- - - - - - - -, -.
. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.- -. - - - - .-- - - - - - - - -. - - - - - -. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.
-,

ELEKTRON Magnesium, Aluminium Wheels, crankcases

1 I.%, Zinc 3.5%,
Manganese 2.5%. Requires
heat treatment. May be
cast or wrought.
------------------------------------------------------ ---------- ..

ALUMINIUM See table 4 Wheels, castings,

and its alloys. aircraft structure

Super Alloys - also non-ferrous

This class of metals is mainly based on nickel and cobalt (Inconal for example)
with strengths u p to 1450MPa. They are expensive, difficult to form and
machine but meet the needs for strength and operating conditions

Aluminium Alloys - non-ferrous

These are supplied in the wrought or cast form and may be heat treatable or
non heat treatable. The British Standards cover:

BS 1470 to 75 - Wrought
BS 1490 - Cast
BSL Series - Aircraft
DTD Specifications. - Aircraft

(DTD = Directorate of Technical Development).

An American coding system for wrought alloys is based on the main alloying
element a s follows:

CODE MAIN ALLOYING ELEMENT

None - 99% pure aluminium

Copper
Manganese
Silicone
Magnesium
Magnesium 8r, silicon
Zinc
Other
The first digit indicates the main group, the second digit indicates any
modification to the original alloy and the last two digits indicates the actual
alloy in the group or the impurity level.

Example 1. Duralumin and any suffix after the forth digit would indicate, for
example:

20 17.- 0 = Annealed wrought Duralumin.

- T2 = Annealed cast Duralumin.
- T6 = Solution treated and artificially aged Duralumin.

Example 2. 2025-H4 indicates aluminium copper alloy (2xxx),

original alloy
(xOxx),with 4.5% copper, 0.6% manganese and 1.5% magnesium (xx24) and
strain hardened (xxxx-H4).

Strain hardening is not used much on A1 alloys used on aircraft. To modify +lie
properties of A1 alloys heat treatments are used.

7 series alloys have a strength approaching that of steel and are widely used on
aircraft. Aluminium-lithium alloys are now being developed that have a 10%
lower density (lighter) and are u p to 20% stronger than existing A1 alloys. (this
would make a weight saving on the construction of a Boeing 747 for example of
about 14,000 Ibs (6400kg).

The codings are specified on the metal specification (packets for rivets),
drawings etc and details of what they mean found in tables.

Some A1 alloys will increase their strength with time after heat treatment (age
hardening), others require precipitation heat treatment to bring on the process
and some alloys will not age harden at all. (Refer to the section on Heat
Treatments in this book).

A1 alloys generally have the following properties:

* Good strengthlweight ratio.
-k
Fatigue limited (see the section in this book "Testing of Metals").
* Notch sensitive (a small scratch is liable to develop into a crack).
* Less corrosion resistant than aluminium.
* Less malleable and ductile than aluminium.
* Good thermal and electrical conductivity (p = 5).
* Up to 8 times stronger than aluminium with little or no increase in
weight. (Density = 2800 kg/m3, aluminium = 2700 kg/m3).
TABLE 4 ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOYS
-. - - - -. - - - .-- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .--- - - - .-- -- - - - - .-- - - - - -.- - - - - - - - - ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .- - - - - - - - - -. - -
MATERIAL PROPERTIES USES

ALUMINIUM Soft, malleable, corrosion resistant. Used in light alloys a s

High electrical and thermal a base material, and
conductivity. Little strength. used for cladding. Used
Density 2700kg/m3. (Compare as a conductor.
mild steel at 7800kgIm3).

DURALUMIN Nearly as strong as mild steel. Structural parts.

(Wrought) Density about 113 that of steel. Sheets, rivets, tubes.
Must be heat-treated. "Age
Hardens". Aluminium.
Copper 4.5% Magnesium 0.7%
Manganese 0.7% Silicon 0.7%

ALCLAD Dural sheet with coating of

(Wrought) aluminium. Corrosion resistant
Heat treatment as above.

ALPAX Aluminium. Silicon 13.0% Intricate castings.

(Cast) Iron 0.6% Manganese 0.5% aircraft and engine
Zinc 0.1% Good for casting. parts.
Strong. Low thermal expansion.
Fair corrosion resistance.

"Y" ALLOY Aluminium Copper 4.5% Pistons and cylinder

(Cast) Nickel 2.3% Magnesium 1.7% heads,
Resistant to corrosion and
fatigue. Must be heat treated.
"Age hardens". Withstands
relative high temperatures.

HIDUMINIUM Copper 2.5% Nickel 1.5% Aircraft structures.

Magnesium 1.2% Iron 1.5% Pistons and cylinder
Silicon 1.0% heads.
Strong as mild steel. Requires
heat treatment and low temp.
heat treatment to age harden.

2000 SERIES Damage tolerant. Used in critical

Al ALLOYS structural areas.

7000 SERIES Main alloying element - zinc. Used in strength

critical areas.
TABLE 4 CONTINUED
---- ----------------
LITHIUM Improved strengthlweight Several types being
BASED ratio. produced for newer
A1 ALLOYS aircraft to replace
both the 2000 and
7000 series.

Chemical Abbreviations

These are used extensively within the industry and while you need not
remember them specifically you should have some knowledge of the more
commonly used terms eg:

Aluminium
Carbon
Cadmium
Cobalt
Chromium
Copper
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Nickel
Oxygen
Lead
Tin
Titanium
Vanadium
Tungsten
Zinc

IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS ON METALS

The CAA specifies that materials used in the manufacture of aircraft parts shall
comply with a t least one of the following specifications:

* British Standard Aerospace Series (BSAS) Specifications.

* DTD Specifications.
* Specifications approved by the CAA.
* Specifications prepared by an organisation approved by the CAA.
BSAS and DTD specifications make provision for the material to be marked by
the inspector as well a s other markings to ensure full identification.

Marlung Methods

Materials during manufacture should be marked as soon as possible during

their production run with one or more of the following methods:

(a) Metal stamp marking (not usually on titanium).

(b) Markings produced by a die or mould used in the shaping
of the metal.
(c) Marking by rubber stamp, roller, or printing machine.
(d) Using a colour scheme.

The marking should not be easily removed and should not damage the metal.
Stamp marking should not be used on:
* Stressed parts where the stamp might cause stress concentration.
* Thin section metals.
* Metals of hard surface finishlspecial surface finish.
* Parts or materials machined to close tolerances.

Standard Colour Scheme

A widely used system for the identification of metals is the standard colour
scheme. The scheme is additional to any identification requirements laid down
in the various specifications. If the colour scheme has not been applied by the
manufacturer then it should be applied by the operator before the metal is
placed in bonded store.

An alternative method to colour coding is overall marking. The metal - usually

in sheet form - is printed all over with the material specification eg, BSL 72
(L72). The metal must, of course, be printable and the metal must not be
affected by the print.

The colours may be applied as a band or bands across the corner of sheet
metal bearing the identification stamp. On some sheet metals the bands may
be painted near one edge of the metal and at right angles to it.

Strip material will have the bands painted on one end, or in some cases on
both ends. Some sheet metals have a coloured disc 3" (76mm) diameter
painted on them with additional colours added a s concentric rings 1.5" (38nlm)
wide. For material in coil form the colours will be marked a t intervals.
Protective Film Treatments

All metals are required by regulation to be capable of storage without

deterioration. This means that if there is any chance of corrosion etc occurring
during storage then the metal must be given an anti-corrosive treatment
sufficient to protect it during the expected storage life.

This means that most metals are required to have an additional protective film
treatment applied a s soon a s possible after production. This may be a clear
film, but if it is coloured, such as red lanolin resin, then a n additional band of
black paint is added to the colour scheme and the protective film is added u p
to the black band.

Some metals which differ only in surface condition or intended usage but are
the same basic material are given the same colour code. Metals with the same
specification but with different heat treatment conditions or properties havc
different colour codes.

When the specification number of a material is changed eg, from a DTD

number to a BS number, then the colour code will not be changed unless there
is a significant change in the material itself.

Colours

Current colours used are: black, blue, brown, green, red, white, yellow (and
violet for aluminium rivets).

Heat Treated Material

Material that is released in a heat treated state other than that stated in th
specification must be marked in red with the appropriate term to denote thp
condition. (See Heat Treatment Symbols in the book entitled "Drawing" in ~ l l i s
series). The Approved Certificate must also be annotated.

Examples of the terms used.

(a) AS ROLLED
(b) ANNEALED - material in its softest condition.
(c) NOT AGED - material solution treated and requires precipitation
treatment. (See heat treatments).
The Identification Marking

The marking should contain the following information:

A The specification number.
A
The inspection stamp (where necessary).
* The manufacturer.
A
Batch number (and cast number where appropriate).
* Test report.

General

Always use material specification as laid down in the aircraft

maintenance/repair manual (SRM). If the correct material is not
available check the alternative spares list, and if that does not help
contact the aircraft manufacturer.

2. Always positively identify the material from the colour coding

/specification numbers. If in the stores also check specification
with the Approved Certificate/EASA Form 1 and/or other
documents from the manufacturers.

3. If the material has to be cut (sheet or strip) and used in smaller

piecesthen always cut from the sidelend furthest from the
identification. This does not apply to "all over marking" material.

4. If in doubt about the identification of a piece of metal then it is not

to be used on aircraft.

5. The following two tables are practical workshop tests for the
identification of metals and are not to be used for the identification
of metals to be used on aircraft.

blank
 PRACTICAL TESTS

TABLE 5 - PRACTlCAL TESTS FE METALS

NOTE WHEN BEHAVIOUR APPEARANCE TYPES OF

METAL DROPPED ON WHEN OF SPARK
ANVIL CHIPPED FMCTURE FROM A
GRINDlNG
WHEEL

Grey No ring Chips easily Dark grey Dull

Cast crystals of red
Iron uniform size non-
bursting.
............................................................................................ --
Wrought Low pitch Easily chipped. Course Bright
Iron ring. Chips bend. fibrous grain. yellow
non-
bursting.

Low Medium Bright silvery Bright

Carbon pitch ring. as above large crystals yellow few
Steel carbon
bursts.

High High pitch Harder to chip Pale grey, fine Bright

Carbon ring. than low carbon crystals. yellow, all
Steel steel, but chips bursting.
bend.

Tungsten Very high Will not chip. Silky blue grey Red no1
Steel pitch ring. fine crystals. burstin.
following
the wheel.

Austenitic
Steels Non magnetic
.-----

Stainless
Steel Copper is not deposited when copper sulphate solution is applied.
TABLE 6 - PRACTICAL TESTS NON FE METALS

METAL TEST

Aluminium White in colour, light and mon-magnetic. Soft and bends

easily. Caustic soda turns the surface white.

Alclad More springy than aluminium. Caustic soda turns the

surface white and the edge black.

Duralumin The same properties a s Alclad except that the application of

caustic soda turns the surface black.

Magnesium White in colour, lighter than aluminium and non magnetic.

Alloy Fillings ignite in a flame. Copper sulphate causes
effervescence and the surface to turn black.

Solder White, heavy and soft. Non-magnetic and melts with a

soldering iron. Will mark on paper and crackles when bent.

Titanium Lighter than steel. White sparks when held against a

grinding wheel.

HEAT TREATMENTS

Metals may have their properties changed by alloying. Alloying can give a
metal:
* Better anti-corrosive properties.
A
Better strength and fatigue resistant properties.
* Better macbineability, casting and heat treatable properties.

The heat treatment of a metal normally involves heating the metal to a specific
temperature and then cooling at a specific rate. Heat treatments can produce
the following properties:
* Increase strength.
* Increase hardness.
* Increase softness.
* Increase toughness.
JC Increase "springiness".

Some heat treatments can affect the anti-corrosive properties of a metal though
they are not normally heat treated for this reason.
HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEELS

QUESTION What does "plain carbon" mean? (2 mins)

ANSWER A steel containing Fe and C only

When steel is heated its temperature increases steadily until it is momentarily

checked a t the "critical" or "arrest" point. At this point the metal absorbs heat
and changes occur in the structure of the metal, without temperature rise.
After this period has passed the temperature continues to rise as before.

If steels having different carbon contents are heated in this way and the
"arrest" points plotted o n a graph, and if all these points are joined an Iron
Carbon Equilibrium Diagram is produced (figure 4).

Line AEB of figure 4 represents the lower arrest points and is called the Low.,r
Critical Point (LCP),and line DEC represents the higher arrest points and i,
called the Upper Critical Point (UCP). Most of the heat treatments that are
carried out on plain carbon steels relate to the LCP and UCP temperatures on
the iron carbon equilibrium diagram.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.O 1.2 1.4 1.6

% CARBON

Fig. 4 IRON CARBON EQUALIBRIUM DIAGRAM

Micro Structure of Steels. When viewed under the microscope the micro
structure of plain carbon steel looks similar to the views shown in figure 5.
The ferrite is pure iron and cementite is iron carbide, Pearlite gets its name
from its pearl-like appearance (under the microscope) and is made up of fine
plates of cementite and ferrite. When heated to just above the LCP (line AEB on
the graph) about 700C, the pearlite changes to austenite. The ferrite and
cementite does not change.
 AT 0.87% C ALL PEARLITE

CEMENTITE

ABOVE 0.87% C

Fig. 5 MICROSTRUCTURE OF STEELS

When heated to higher t h a n the UCP (line DEC on the graph) the metal goes
into what. i s called Solid Solution where the whole structure becomes austenite.

Hardening. Produces a hard brittle steel. Heat to just above the UCP for steel
u p to 0.87% C, and just above the LCP for steels with a higher carbon content.
Quench in water. Slower quenching produces a tougher (and not so hard) steel.

Tempering. Relieves the brittleness in a hardened steel. Reheat a hardened

steel to between 2 0 0 to 300C and cool or quench. (The cooling rate is not
critical). Some steels are heated to 600C which produces a high strength steel,
tough and with good ductility. In general the higher the temperature the less
the hardness and the greater the toughness.

Examples :

* Some structural steels 600C (Tough).

-k Springs 300C.
J; Drills, taps and dies 240C. (Hard)

Annealing. This will refine the structure of the steel and convert it to its softest
possible state. Heat to the same temperature as for hardening but cool a s
slowly as possible by leaving the part in the ashes or furnace and allowing the
furnace to cool naturally.

Normalising. This process allows the structure to be refined back to its normal
condition after working. When the metal is cold worked internal stresses are
set up which make it weak and brittle, to relieve this condition normalisirig is
carried out. The steel is heated to its annealing temperature and allowed to
cool naturally in still free air. On low carbon steel Low Temperature
Normalising may be carried out using a temperature about 500C.
Refining. Prolonged heating above the UGP can cause the grain structure to
coarsen (the grains to get bigger and the structure more brittle), so refining will
reduce the size of the crystalline structure, reduce the brittleness and increase
the toughness.

This process is usually carried out on steels that have been case hardened.

Heat to about 900C a n d quench. Repeat the process 2 or 3 times but with a
lower temperature each time.

CASE HARDENING

Applied to low carbon steels to produce a hard wearing "outer skin" whilst still
retaining a tough inner core. The process is normally carried out in the
following sequence:

1. Carburising (eg introducing extra carbon into the "outer skin" c-

the metal).
2. Annealing - slow cooling from the carburising temperature.
3. Refining (as described above).
4. Hardening.
5. Tempering - as necessary.

Methods of Carburising

Open Hearth. Hezt the part to a cherry red and dip in a box of carburising
compound (Kasenite). Repeated 3 or 4 times to give a "case" of about 0.005in
(0.13mm) thick.

Box Process. The parts are packed in Kasenite (a carbon rich compound) in
sealed metal box and heated u p to 900C. Four hours a t this temperature
produces a case thickness of 0.040in (1.02mm).

Cvanide Hardening. The part is placed in molten sodium cyanide at 920C to

produce a case of about 0.0 loin (0.25mm).

Nitriding. Used on certain alloy steels containing aluminium and chromium

called Nitriding Steels. The parts are heated to 500C in a box through which is
passed ammonia gas. Produces a case thickness of 0.030 in (0.76mm) after 90
hours. The low temperature and the fact that there is no quenching required
means that there is less likelihood of distortion.
HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS

There is such a wide range of alloy steels that it is difficult, if not impossible in
a single book, to describe all the heat treatments that may be carried out. The
following table attempts to give some idea a s to the range of alloy steels and the
Hardening and Tempering heat treatments,

TABLE 7 - HEAT TREATMENTS OF ALLOY STEELS

METAL APPROXIMATE HARDENING COOLING TEMPERING

COMPOSITION TEMP ("C) ("c)
Pearlitic 1.5% Mn 840 OIL 650
Manganese 0.4% C
Steel 0.5% Mo

Austenitic 14% Mn 1000 WATER

Manganese Steel 1% C

Pearlitic 5% Ni 860 OIL 600

Nickel Steel 0.4% C

Pearlitic 810 OIL 150

Chromium 1.4% Cr
Steel (En 3 1) 1% C

Low Alloy 5% Ni 850 OIL 600

Nickel 1.5% Cr
Chrome Steel 0.35% C

Stainless 13% Cr 950 OIL 600

Steel 0.4% C
.................................................................................................
Stainless 18% Cr 950 OIL 650
Steel (S80) 2% Ni
0.1% C

Stainless 18% Cr 950- 1075 OIL 100-750

Steel (1818) 8% Ni

High Speed 18% W 1320 OIL 550

Steel 4% Cr
1% V, 0.6% C

Again, the heat treatment is carried out using an Equilibrium Diagram which
is more complex than the Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram shown above.
Note. Nickel-chrome steels are prone to a defect known a s "temper brittleness"
when being tempered through the range 250C to 400C. The problem - which
is not fully understood - causes a marked reduction in the toughness of the
metal and, to make things more difficult, can only be revealed by destructive
testing of test pieces after the heat treatment process.

HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

The heat treatments that can be carried out to A1 alloys are as follows:

(a) Solution Treatment. Initially makes the metal soft but allows the
process of age hardening to occur.
(b) Precipitation Treatment. Only carried out after solution treatment
and accelerates the process of hardening.
(c) Annealing. Makes the metal soft for working.

The process of heat treatment requires the metal to be heated for a specifie~
time at a specified temperature then cooling or quenching in a specific way.

IMPORTANT NOT ALL ALUMINIUM ALLOYS CAN BE HEAT TREATED AND

THOSE THAT CAN MUST BE HEATED TO SPECIFIC TEMPERATURES WITHIN
SPECIFIC TOLERANCES. TO HEAT TREAT A PARTICULAR ALUMINIUM
ALLOY REFERENCE MUST ALWAYS BE MADE TO THE APPROPRIATE
SPECIFICATION/PROCESS DOCUMENTS.

Example: To heat treat L'72 refer to British Standards BSL72. It will specify
treatments, temperatures and cooling methods. For example, Solution Heat
+
Treat to 495C 5C. The soaking time will be specified a s well as the
quenching process. Note the temperatures here are quite specific, with most
ferrous metals, temperatures may be approximate to 30" or so.

Solution Treatment

NOTE. The term has n0thin.g to do with putting the metal into a salt bath or any
other type of solution - other than for cooling/quenching. The metal maq be heat
treated in a salt bath but it is more convenient to use an electric oven.

This will soften the metal for a short period only and will allow the metal to age
harden - with a n increase in strength. The metal is heated to a specific
temperature usually within the range 460C to 540C for a period of time then
quenched in cold or boiling water.

Rivets so treated must be formed (used) within 2 hours of treatment. They will
attain their design strength in 2 to 4 days (see graph). Metals can be lightly
fabricated/ bent within this period.
 PRECIPITATION
TREATED

STRENGTH

t
TIME --t

Fig. 6 GRAPH OF STRENGTH AGAINST TIME

Precipitation Treatment

This process, where specified, will greatly accelerate the rate of age hardening.
The metal may attain its design strength within 2 to 20 hours. After
precipitation the strength of the metal is greater than if it is allowed to age
harden naturally (see figure 6).

Precipitation heat treatment temperatures are low, usually within the range
100C to 200C and so&ng times may be u p to 20 hours. Cooling may be by
quenching in cold water or cooling in still air.

Annealing

This permanently softens the metal for working (unless heat treated further).
In many cases it also makes the metal more prone to corrosion.

In general the metal is heated to a specific temperature within the range

360C to 420C and after the soaking time, allowed to cool in still air.

Refrigeration

To slow down the process of age hardening the metal may be refrigerated
immediately after solution treatment. For example, rivets previously solution
treated can be kept in a cold storage cabinet next to where the work is being
carried out. Rivets removed from the cabinet must be used within 2 hours.
Storage time will depend on temperature eg, minus 20C, storage time up to
150 hours.

I t is common in the industry to use a domestic freezer

Doing it this way means that when doing a big repair a large quantity of rivets
can be heat treated in the heat treatment shop, which may be the other side of
the airfield. The rivets can then be put in the freezer close to where the work is
being carried out and used, 2 hours worth, at a time.

QUESTION If a rivet h a s to be heat treated, can you work out what sort of heat
treatment would be carried out? (10 mins).

ANSWER Lets analyse the wrong answers first. We cannot heat treat rivets
that have already been formed. Made u p parts, riveted plates etc,
must not be heat treated because they will warp due to
contraction/expansion. This means we cannot anneal the rivet so
as to make it soft for working as it would be required to solution
treat after forming - and that's not possible. If we precipitated the
rivet it would make it too hard to form.

So the only treatment we can carry out - if allowed by the

specification - is solution treatment. And the rivet must be used
within 2 hours - or put in a refrigerator straight away. It must be
used within 2 hours of removal from the refrigerator.

Soaking Times

This is the time the part is kept in the over/salt bath a t the specified
temperature. In general the larger the part the ionger the soaking time - but do
not over soak. Times, for exaxple are:

26 SWG sheet (0.18" 0.0457mm thick) 10 mins

rivets 15 mins
16 SWG sheet (0.64" 0.1163mm thick) 25 mins

Quenching

Always quench or cool in accordance with the specificatian. The quenching

methods listed below start with the fastest method first.

1. Brine (salt water)

2. Cold water (not warmer than 20C).
3. Hot water.
4. Oil.
5. Still air.
6. Warm oven.

Most cooling/quenching for aluminium alloys is 2 or 5 above.

Methods of Heating

1. Thermostatically controlled electrically heated ovens.

2. Air heated furnaces.
3. Salt baths, These use salts that melt at high temperatures and
have significant safety issues attached to their operation.

Limitations on Heat Treatments

Clad aluminium alloy sheet should not be heat treated more than 3 times.
Riveted up, bolted and joined sections should not be heat treated.
Only heat treat A1 alloys where it is laid down in the specification for that
metal.

Cleaning

[t is most important that parts treated in a salt bath should be thoroughly

cleaned after treatment (the salts are highly corrosive). The parts should also
be thoroughly cleaned prior to putting in a salt bath because a dirty part can
cause a violent reaction with the molten salts (effectively a small explosion). If
splashed with molten salts wash off immediately and seek medical advice.
Some salts can be u p to 600C and will cause severe burns.

Also parts quenched in brine must be thoroughly washed and dried as it is also
corrosive.

Rivets

These are usually placed in a wire basket for treatment. If any treatment is
dlowed for a specific rivet it will be solution treatment.

Identification Of Heat Treated Conditions

Immediately after the material h a s been heat-treated, it should be marked with

the appropriate symbol denoting the treatment to which it h a s been subjected.
Rivets should be put in a bag and labelled.

There are two identification systems in general use in the UK ie, that
recommended in British Standards 1470 to 1477 and that recommended by in
SP4089.
Identification System Recommended in British Standards 1470 - 1477

Material in the annealed condition.

Material in the "as-manufactured"condition, e.g. a s rolled, a s

extruded, straight and/or drawn to size, or a s forged, without
subsequent heat treatment of any kind.

Material which has been annealed and lightly drawn (at present
applicable only to rivet, bolt and screw stock).

Material which has been solution-treated and requires no

precipitation treatment.

Material which has been solution-treated and will respond

effectively to precipitation treatment.

Material which has been solution-treated and precipitation-

treated.

Material which has been drawn after solution treatment (at

present only applicable to wire).

Material which has been precipitation-treated only.

TESTING OF METALS

Various tests are carried out on metals (and other materials) to ascertain the
material's properties in terms of strength, toughness, hardness, etc. The te: -
are normally destructive in that they damage the metal in some way. Each
process normally tests for one property. The tests are carried out in a
laboratory with special test equipment and qualified personnel.

THE TENSILE TEST

An accurately machined test piece is placed in a machine and stretched under

a tensile load until it breaks. This test provides data on:
A Ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
J; Yield point.
x Elastic limit.
* Modulus of elasticity etc.
When the test piece is stretched, during the early stages it behaves elastically.
In other words if the load were removed the test piece would return to its
original length. In the later stages it behaves plastically - in other words it
takes on a permanent stretch (or permanent set) so that if the load were
removed the test piece would stay at its "new" length.

A graph is plotted of load (stress) against extension (strain),and from this

graph certain facts can be ascertained.

For mild steel the elastic limit is well defined, a s is the yield point where the
metal takes on a permanent set. Of course in normal use the part will not be
loaded past its elastic limit.

The ultimate tensile strength of the test piece is shown where the graph is at
its highest. This is the highest load the metal will take before it breaks.

I I-PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(PERMANENT DEFORMATION)
ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRENGTH

LOAD YIELD POINT

OR
STRESS

ELASTIC EXTENSION
The test piece will return to its original
length when the load is removed

EXTENSION OR
STRAIN

Fig. 7 GRAPH OF STRESS AGAINST

STRAIN FOR MILD STEEL

Proof Stress

Some metals, when tested, do not show a marked elastic limit and yield point,
therefore it is difficult to compare the test results of one specimen with
another. For this reason values are recorded of Proof Stress.

Proof stress is that stress that is required to produce an elongation of the test
piece by 0.1% of its original length (0.1% Proof Stress). For 0.2% Proof St-ress
the change in length is 0.2%.
 0.1% OF GAUGE
LENGTH

Fig. 8 METHOD OF DETERMINING

0.1%PROOF STRESS

HARDNESS TESTING

QUESTION Define Hardness (2 mins).

ANSWER Hardness is the ability to resist scratching and indentation.

There are several different test methods available, and they all rely on
indenting the surface of the metal with a n "indentor" and measuring the
indentation size or depth.

The Brinell Hardness Test

This uses a hard steel ball and is covered by British Standards 240.

A special machine presses a small steel ball into the surface of the test piece
for a period of 10 - 15 seconds with a certain force and the Brinell Hardness
Number (HB) is found from the formula (there is no need to remember it):

-
where F - the force in kg.
D -
-
diameter of the ball in mm.
-
-
d diameter of the indentation in mm. (measured
using a graduated microscope)
Because different values can be obtained by using different diameter balls on
the same test piece, it is usual when quoting the HB number to quote the ball
diameter as well as the force applied eg:

where HB = Brinell Hardness Number.

10 = 10mm ball.
3000 = force in kg.

For very hard materials, ball deformation becomes a problem, and it is better to
use another method such as the Vickers Hardness Test.

The Vickers Hardness Test

This is covered by British Standards 427 and uses a diamond head. This
shallow pyramid shaped head is pushed into the surface of the material for a
period of 1 5 seconds. A force is applied of between 5 to 120kg.

The diagonals of the indentation are measured and the Vickers Hardness
Number (HV) is either calculated or found from tables. When quoting the HV
number it is usual to specify the load used eg:

where HV = Vickers Hardness Number

30 = 30 kg force
650 = hardness value

The Rockwell Hardness Test

rhis is covered by British Standard 89 1 and unlike the others it measures the
depth of indentation of a standard indentor.

Nine scales of hardness are available and the amount that the indentor moves
into the metal is measured by a Dial Test Indicator (DTI)fiied to the test
equipment.

The test value would be found by calculation or from tables and quoted as:

HRB = 60
HR = Rockwell Test
B -
- Scale B
60 = Hardness number
The Shore Scheroscope Test

This involves the dropping of a small diamond pointed hammer onto the
surface to be tested and measuring the height of the re-bound.

The height of the rebolxnd is measured against a special graduated scale - the
higher the rebound the harder the metal.

This test leaves no visible impression.

TOUGHNESS TESTING

QUESTION Define toughness. (2 mins)

ANSWER This is the ability of a material to absorb an impact load. It is

opposite to brittleness.

Most tests involve hitting the test piece with a mass of known energy and
ascertaining how much energy is used to break the test piece.

A heavy pendulum is supported at a set height by a latch a n the impact testing

machine. The amount of energy in the pendulum is known a s a function of
Potential Energy (PE) in Joules.

where PE = Potential Energy (Joules).

m -
- the mass in kg.
- acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2).
g
h - datum height in metres.

When the pendulum is released it swings down and breaks the test piece
clamped in a special jaw a t the bottom of the swing arc. The test piece must
break for the test to be valid.

The pendulum will continue on its swing to reach a certain height on the other
side of the test machine.

The height that it would have reached had there not been a test piece in the
way is already known, so the height that it reaches after striking a test piece is
an indication of the amount of energy taken out of the swinging pendulum to
break the test piece.
 PENDULUM
RELEASE CATCH

SCALE 8 POINTER

BRAKE TO STOP

1;
PENDULUM AFTER
AFTER TEST

Fig. 9 IMPACT TESTING MACHINE

The lzod Test

This uses a notched test piece supported vertically in a vice like jaw. The end is
broken off in the test.

The Charpy Test

This uses a notched test piece laid across a gapped jaw. This test piece is
snapped in the middle by the swinging pendulum.

CREEP TESTING

Clreep is the slow plastic deformation of metal, subjected to prolonged loading

often a t high temperatures. It is a problem with:
* J e t engine turbine blades.
* Structures subject to aerodynamic heating during high speed
flight.

Creep is tested for by using several test pieces (of the same metal) and
subjecting each test piece to a particular load and temperature. Each test will
normally produce a graph of Creep Strain against Time (figure 10).
 CREEP
STRAIN

TIME

Fig. 10 GRAPH OF CREEP STRAIN AGAINST TIME

During primary creep the metal is "settling in" and hardening is occurring.
Secondary creep occurs over the life time of the component and is generally
very slow.

Tertiary creep is dangerous because it can lead rapidly to lose of appropriate

clearances and component failure.

FATIGUE TESTING

QUESTION What is fatigue? (5 mins)

ANSWER It is the cyclic stressing of a part. The stress level is normally well
within the elastic limit level and therefore it could be considered to
be harmless. IT IS NOT. Failure can occur due to fatigue at strt ,
levels well within the design maximum normal stress.

All fatigue testing involves the loading and unloading of a test piece a number
of times until it breaks. The test cycles (N) are then recorded against the load
(stress) on a graph.

The test machine can vary but a common method is to use a rotating test piece
loaded downwards so that one revolution of the test piece will produce one load
reversal.

A bar (test piece) of circular cross section is clamped in a chuck which is

rotated by an electric motor. A bearing is fitted at the free end of the test piece
with a mass carrier fitted to the bearing.
 REV COUNTER
BEARING TEST PIECE \
\

C
/ MOTOR
\
0

- -
MASS CARRIER

'CUT-OFF
SW'TCH
'I POWER
SUPPLY

Fig. 11 FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE

The mass carrier always hangs vertically downwards so that when the motor
rotates the test piece, the test piece is put through one complete cyclic loading
for each revolution. Effectively being bent u p and down once every revolution.

A heavy mass is placed on the mass carrier. The cage over the machine is put
in place and the motor switched on. The test piece rotates. When the test piece
fails, the mass carrier falls down, contacts the cut-off switch and stops the
motor. The rev counter on the motor shows the number of revs (and hence
cyclic loads) that has occurred to failure. This value (N) is plotted on a graph
against stress (o).

Another (identical) test piece is fitted, the mass is reduced slightly and the
whole process is repeated. The result is a n increased value for N. This is also
plotted on the same graph. After many tests, each with a slightly reduced load
on the mass carrier, all the points on the graph are joined up, and a graph, as
shown in figure 12 is produced.

Tested in a corrosive
atmosphere producing
corrosion fatigue

STRESS

IT

0
0
CYCLES (N)

Fig. 12 GRAPH OF STRESS AGAINST CYCLES

(PLAIN CARBON STEEL)
As you can see, for plain carbon steels, if the stress level is kept low enough
then failure will not occur under normal conditions.

If the stress is raised too high then failure will occur. - the higher the stress the
sooner the failure.

Fatigue Limit

Some metals do not exhibit a fatigue limit and no matter how low the stress
level fatigue failure will occur at some time.

With structures made of metals with no fatigue limit then special inspection/
tests are carried out on the structure at regular intervals whilst in service. The
structure might be "lifed" and after a certain life span withdrawn from service.

Figure 13 shows the graph produced by metals that do not have a fatigue 1jlB,it.

0 CYCLES (N)

Fig. 13 GRAPH OF STRESS AGAINST CYCLES

(Non Ferrous Metals & Austenitic S t e e l )

CORROSION

Corrosion results from the fact that most metals will try to revert to their
natural or more stable state. Generally metals are inherently unstable in their
commercial form and fairly readily combine with other elements to degrade the
metal. For example, metals react with oxygen to form oxides, acids and alkalis
combine with metals to form salts, hydroxides etc. Some metals, however, are
very stable and strongly resist corrosion eg, gold, platinum, titanium, silver
etc.
Although there are a large number of reactions that may occur between metals
and their environments, the reactions may be broadly divided into two:
* Oxidation or "dry" corrosion. The reaction between a metal and its
environment without the intervention of an electrolyte.
k Electrochemical or "wet" corrosion. Requires a n electrolyte such as
impure water, water vapour, or some other electrically conducting
liquid.

Oxidation

This term is applied to corrosion where no electrolyte is present. It can occur

where metals are in contact from combustion products from internal
combustion engines, gas turbine engines, etc.

OXIDE
THICKNESS
t

TIME --+-

Fig. 14 OXIDATION RATE COMPARED TO TIME WHEN

TEMPERATURE VARIES

The oxide film that forms on metals generally tends to protect them from
further corrosive attack.

Oxygen reacts instantly with bare metal to form a film that adheres to the
metal surface. This forms a barrier (for some metals) that prevents further
attack by the oxygen on the metal. The rate of oxidation depends on the
environment and the nature of the oxide film. Some films are more permt:able
than others and some adhere more strongly to the metal than others. It h a s
been noted that the rate of oxidation falls sharply with increase in film
thickness. A general curve of oxidation rate with time is shown in figure 14. Jt
can be seen that as temperature increases so does the oxidation rate.
Electrochemical Corrosion

This is the most commonly met with category of corrosion. It can take many
forms but usually always takes place in the presence of water or water vapour
with traces of other substances. A pd (potential difference measured as voltage)
exists between two surfaces, or two areas within the same surface. One of the
areas or surfaces becomes anodic (+) a n d the other becomes cathodic (-). The
anodic area usually corrodes while the cathodic area has material added to it.
The electrolyte provides the current path.

CURRENT FLOW

Fig. 15 SIMPLE CORROSION CELL

The corrosion cell, a s shown in figure 15, is minute in size but will join with
other cells to attack large areas, or form deep pits, or follow grain boundaries
inside the metal.

The main factor affecting the rate of corrosion attack is the pd between the two
joined metals or between two areas of the same metal. The pd between two
metals can be measured with a sensitive voltmeter and recorded and a list
drawn u p of all metals, known a s the galvanic series.

The Galvanic Series

The Galvanic Series lists metals in pd order with the least noble a t one end and
the most noble at the other. It is usual to specify the electrolyte used with the
table (the most common being seawater).

This means that, when joining any two metals together, the metal that is likely
to corrode out of the two can be found by reference to the Galvanic Series. For
example, joining copper t.o low carbon steel would result in the low carbon steel
corroding if corrosion started. (The table shows low carbon steel to be less
noble than copper).
The least noble end may be called the Active end and the most noble end may
be called the Passive end.

Those metals marked with a r ~asterisk (") may be found in more than one
position in the table depending on their actual composition.

TABLE (PART) OF THE GALVANIC SERIES

IN SEA WATER

MOST NOBLE END

(pd = +0.2V)
Graphite
Platinum
Ni-Cr-Mo Alloy
Titanium (pd = OV)
Stainless Steels*
Ni-Cu Alloys
Silver
Nickel
Ni-Cr Alloys
Lead
Bronzes
Brass*
Copper
Tin
Cast Iron
Low Carbon Steel
Cadmium
Al Alloys
Zinc
Magnesium
(pd = -1.6V)
LEAST NOBLE END

Types of Corrosion

Corrosion rarely occurs in one form only, since one type of corrosion invariably
leads to another, often more serious.

Surface Corrosion. Appears as a reddish brown rust on steels, a whitish grey

powder on aluminium and its alloys and magnesium alloys, and a s a green
discoloration on copper and its alloys. It occurs on the surface of metals but
can develop into pitting corrosion.

Pitting Corrosion. The pd locally in the metal causes the corrosion to develop
into the metal forming pits, sometimes very deep. Often starts with surface
corrosion, can be very serious and may develop into Stress Corrosion and
Fatigue Corrosion.
 PITTING CORROSION
SURFACE CORROSION CORROSION

STRESS /
CONCENTRATION

Fig. 16 STRESS CORROSION

Stress Corrosion. Metals under stress generally corrode more rapidly than
unstressed metals. Stress will be increased by cracks and Pitting Corrosion
because they reduce the amount of good metal left which is capable of taki- ,
the load. With the development s f a pit the stress level a t the end of the pit
increases. With a n increase in the depth of the pit the amount of remaining
metal is reduced so increasing the stress level which will open u p the pit more
to allow further corrosive attack. This is turn leads to a deepening pit and even
higher stress levels.

The process is a continuous cycle (a form of positive feedback) that will

eventually lead to the failure of the part.

Corrosion Fatigue. This is similar to stress corrosion but the loads are cyclic.
The definition of fatigue is "Cyclic stressing of a part - often a t stress levels well
below the ultimate stress level the part will fail at". For many metals fatigue
will eventually cause failure but with corrosion present in the pit failure occurs
significantly earlier.

Of course, it goes without saying that, if stress/fatigue corrosion is found iL, ~ t s

early stages then appropriate rectification (usually replacement of the part) will
prevent failure.

Identification of these types of corrosion is not easy so Non Destructive

Techniques (NDT) are used such a s X-rays etc.

Galvanic Corrosion. Can develop where metals are in contact. The main areas
of attack are the faying surfaces (contact surfaces), so the corrosion may not be
readily visible externally. Though it may be seen around the faying edges. Can
occur between two different metals in contact (see the Galvanic Series) or
between two identical metals having had different heat treatments.
 CORROSION
/

LESS NOBLE
NOBLE METAL

Fig. 17 GALVANIC CORROSION

Where metals have to be joined, always try to join metals that are the same
material, and, ideally having had the same heat treatment. But a t any rate
always u s e the correct jointing compound (check the Aircraft Maintenance
Manual -- AMM, or the Structure Repair Manual - SRM). Signs of the corrosion
should be looked for along the faying edges of skin panels, around bolt heads,
rivets, metal to metal joints etc.

Intercrystalline Corrosion. This is a most serious form of corrosion a s it is very

difficult to detect. It usually occurs between the grain boundaries of alloys and
is within the metal. It may develop close to the surface, in which case a crack
or small blisters may become visible. On the other hand it may not develop
near the surface and external indications may never appear - until it
is too late - when the part fails. Internally it can be detected by using X-rays or
ultrasonic testing - if it is suspected that it is there in the first place.

GRAINS ROSlON
OR
CRYSTAL

Fig. 18 HIGHLY MAGNIFIED SECTION SHOWING GRAIN

STRUCTURE AND INTERCRYSTALLINE CORROSION

Fretting Corrosion. Occurs in bolted joints, riveted joints and other assemblies
subject to fretting (slight rubbing movement between the joined parts). The
most usual cause of fretting is vibration and this can be induced into the
airframe or components by the engines, electric/hydraulic/pneumatic
motors/pumps and it can also be induced aerodynamically by propellers, rotor
blades a n d flutter. If assemblies are not attached securely enough to each
other and are subject to vibration then fretting corrosion can occur.

The heat a n d friction developed promotes oxidation which is rubbed into a

powder called "cocoa" powder. The combined action of the corrosion process
and the fretting will cause rapid deterioration/wear of the joined parts locally
Joints should be correctly and securely assembled with jointing compound a s
specified in the AMM (and correctly lubricated for splined shafts etc), and
assemblies should be checked for signs of cocoa staining.

Crevice Corrosion. Occurs in crevices and areas where a lack of ventilation

prevents the metal maintaining its natural protective oxide film. Also the areas
remain damp longer than open areas.

CORROSION

Fig. 19 CREVICE CORROSION

Filliform Corrosion. Corrosion penetrates the outer layer (cladding) of the metal
either via a damaged area, pitting or rivet holes, and spreads radially along the
boundary of the cladding and the parent metal. May be impossible to see
unless it becomes severe. Affects alclad Al alloys.

Exfoliation Corrosion. This corrosive attack occurs along the grain boundaries
within the metal. It is found in rolled A1 alloys and tends to follow the direction
of the rolling. The effect of severe exfoliation corrosion is to produce a quilt like
texture to the surface of the metal, hence the name for the condition (figure 20)
- Quilting or Pillowing.

Fig. 20 T H E RESULT O F EXFOLIATION CORROSION

a0 -
Microbiological Corrosion. Occurs in aircraft fuel tanks d u e to the growth of
micro-organisms which require the water content of kerosene fuels for their
development. They will give off corrosive substances such a s ammonia,
sulphides, a n d acids.

The growth collects as slime on the tank walls affecting the electrolyte
concentration locally. These areas become anodic and a corrosive attack
begins. The slime can also affect the operation of the fuel system comporlents
by clogging fuel filters etc.

AcidIAlkali Corrosion. Caused by spilt acids and alkalis and will cause
serious damage unless quickly neutralised. Mercury spillage also causes rapid
and serious chemical change in aluminium alloys which will normally require
replacement.

Erosion Corrosion When corrosion occurs in the presence of a fast moving fluid
the rate of corrosive attack may be much higher than would occur in a slow
moving or still environment. The fluid may be in the form of a powder, liquid
or gas.

Metal may be removed from the material surface either as dissolved ions or as
solid particles. Commonly found on propeller leading edges, rotor blade leading
edges, compressor and turbine blades and aerofoil leading edges. The initial
action on most of these components is the removal of the protective/outer layer
by the abrasive action of the air - compounded if the air contains particles
such as water droplets or dust particles - a s happens when a n aircraft flies
through a d u s t cloud - part of a sand storm or a cloud thrown u p by a volcano.

Prevention/darnage reduction on engine components is usually achieved by the

use of hard, erosion resistant coatings. On propellers a n erosion strip may be
fitted. The best preventative measures are the identification and frequent
inspections of suspect areas and prompt rectification of any damage found.

Cavitation Corrosion. In certain fluid systems cavitation can occur within the
fluid. This is caused by a sudden drop in pressure which allows gas bubbles to
form. My happen occasionally because of rapid fluid system pressure drop or
may be nearly continuous a t positions in the system such as spur gear pumps
where the teeth inter-mesh.

The result can be that material is worn away (of the gear teeth) and if the
atmosphere is corrosive then corrosion will occur. The combined effect of
cavitation erosion and corrosion can cause rapid metal removal with decreased
machine efficiency and eventual failure.
Anti-Corrosive Treatments

The following is a list of anti-corrosive treatments, most of which are applied

by the manufacturer/overhaul facility only.

For anti-corrosive treatments, repairs and anti-corrosive measures

applied/taken by the maintenance engineer you are referred to the appropriate
book on the subject in EASA module 7.

PROCESS APPLlCATION

Electro - PlatingThe surface of the part is covered with a thin layer of

metal by being exposed to a solution of a metallic salt
which is decomposed by electrolysis. The part is placed
in an electrolyte bath and a current is passed through.
Copper, nickel, chromium, lead, cadmium, tin, zinc, a n
precious metals are used for plating. Cadmium platin:
is used extensively for steel parts on aircraft.
Hot Dipping The part is immersed in a bath of molten metal thereby
acquiring a covering of that metal. Plating metals for this
process have relatively low melting points, eg tin (tinning)
and zinc (galvanising).
Cementation The part is coated with a plating metal by being heated
whilst in contact with a dust or powder of that metal, eg
aluminium (calorising) and zinc (sherardising).
Metal Spraying Heated particles of the plating metal are sprayed onto the
part (like paint spraying). The particles impinge upon the
work to form a n adherent coating. Aluminium, brass,
copper, nickel, and zinc are used as spraying metals.
Phosphating The part is immersed in a bath of boiling acid phosphate
solution. The solution reacts with the surface of the
metal to form a metallic phosphate which is highly anti-
corrosive. The process is applied to ferrous metals a n c
may be known by various names eg, parkerising,
walterising, etc. A surface conversion process.
Anodic Oxidation Usually called anodising but may be known by other
names. The part is placed on the anode bar of an
anodising bath and immersed in the electrolyte. With
current flowing the surface of the part is chemically
converted to a n oxide layer. This layer prevents corrosive
attack in service. Used extensively on aluminium and its
alloys. A surface conversion process.

continued
Alodising An anti-corrosive treatment for A1 alloys which also
increases the paint bonding qualities. The metal is
cleaned with a n acid, washed in clean water and then
given a coating of Alodine (a propriety chemical similar to
Alochrome). This turns the surface a greenish colour.
The metal is again washed in clean water and then given
a rinse in a Deoxylyte bath (also a propriety chemical
solution). Used a t user unit level.
Chromate The part is placed in a bath of chromating solution which
treatment produces a protective chromate film on its surface.
Applied to magnesium alloys and zinc exposed to humid
atmospheric conditions. A surface conversion process.
Cladding A mechanical process of rolling one metal onto another
eg, a thin layer of aluminium is rolled onto both sides of
duralumin sheet to produce alclad.
Paints, enamels, May consist of protective compounds held in suspension
etc in a suitable liquid (eg chromates in primers) which dries
out after application. Applied by brushing, spraying,
dipping or rolling and are often used as additional
protection to those listed above. Used a t user unit level.
Organic Oils, greases, lanolin, jellies etc are often used a s
treatments temporary, or semi permanent processes and sometimes
as a n additional process to those listed above. Used a t
user unit level.

NON METALLIC MATERIALS

In this book we deal with the following materials:

* Cloth
* Wood
* Plastics
* Rubber
* Fibre reinforced composites

Fibre reinforced composites are covered to a greater depth than the other
materials. Cloth, wood, plastics, and rubber are mentioned briefly because they
have their uses in the aircraft industry.
CLOTH

Used in aircraft construction for the covering of some light aircraft and for
furnishings. Fabric used for aircraft covering may be:

* IJnbleached Irish linen

* Madapollam. Madapollan.
* Polyester cloth.

Unbleached Irish linen and Madapollam/ Madapollan are tautened by doping

whilst polyester is tautened by the application of heat. Cloth used for the
covering of aircraft seats and berths is usually made from man made fibres and
must conform to current fire and smoke blocking regulations.

WOOD

Used extensively in older aircraft for all parts of the structure and in the
manufacture of propellers. Still used in some composite constructions. Used on
some comparatively modern aircraft eg, the fuselage of the de Havilland jet
fighter - the Vampire.

TABLE 8 - WOOD COMPARED TO AL ALLOY

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/rn3) LONGITUDINAL TENSILE

STRENGTH (GPa)

Wood (Spruce) 600 0.05

A1 Alloy 2700 70

Its strength and density can vary considerably depending on the type of woud
selected and, of course, it can rot and be attacked by insects, fungus etc. It is
easily worked and repaired. Wood is stronger in tension along the grain than
across it.

For more details on wood and wooden structures (for the mechanical person)
see the book in this series entitled "Wood and Fabric Structures".

PLASTICS

Strictly speaking plastics should be called polymers. Polymers can be man

made or natural. Natural polymers include rubber (from trees) and shellac (the
excrement from a South American ant).
Man made polymers can be divided into two main groups - Thermoplastics and
Thermosetting Plastics.

Thermoplastics. These soften on heating and harden on cooling, and the

process is capable of repetition. Examples include Perspex (polymethyl
methacrylate) and Nylon.

Fibre reinforced thermoplastics include PPS, PEEK etc.

Thermosetting Plastics. These become plastic on initial heating but become

permanently set on cooling. They can not be softened again by further heating.

A good example is Bakelite (phenol formaldehyde), Formica, Ebonite and Epoxy

resins. The term thermosetting also includes those polymers which set by the
addition of a curing agent and do not necessarily need heating eg, epoxides.

Fibre reinforced thermosetting plastics include polyesters, vinlyesters, epoxy

2tc.

Various fillers can be added during manufacture, for example:

* Asbestos - resistant to high temperatures.

* Carbon - improves conductivity.

Colour

Various pigments and dyes can be added to plastics in the production stage to
give a n "all through" colour.

Rubber

A naturally occurring thermosetting plastic obtained from the sap of trees.

Natural rubber is normally vulcanised with sulphur to produce a tough elastic
material. Used in anti vibration mountings; drive belts; shock absorbers
(simple bungee cord types) and of course tyres. It can be made electrically
conductive by adding carbon.

FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

These are increasingly being used in the aircraft industry for structures and
components because they exhibit a high Specific Strength (SS)
(strength/density). Example: the tensile SS of carbon fibre is 4 to 6 times the
tensile SS of A1 alloy or steel. (Airbus have already tested a complete airliner
size wing in carbon fibre).
Additional advantages include:

Does not corrode.

Easy to shape - double curves etc.
High level of integration possible with other structures, eg skin to
stiffeners, formers, frames etc.
High fatigue limits with load cycles much higher than with metals.
High resistance to chemical attack and weathering.
Can be made radar transparent.
High impact resistance.
Can be made a s a insulator; a conductor and a dielectric.
Good thermal properties and a fire retardant.

In this section we will deal with the materials and all general aspects of
composites and should more information be required, particularly on
structures, the reader is directed to the book in this series entitled "Aircraft
Structures".

GFRP k
AFRP = Aramid fibre reinforced FAIRING
plastic (Kevlar). CFRP \
CFRP = Carbon fibre reinforced
plastic.
GFRP = Glass fibre reinforced
plastic.

57 v-
7- CFRP
/A &

a SPOILERIAIRBRAKES

CFRP

GFRPRADOME 1 k TRACK FAIRINGS

Fig. 21 USE OF COMPOSITES ON THE A 3 1 0

Types of Composites

k
Fibre reinforced plastics - polyesters, PPS etc.
* Sandwich structures with the outer layers of metal or fibre, and
the core using honeycomb made of nomex, A1 alloy, carbon etc.
* Fibre metal laminates such as ARALL (Kevlar fibres) and GLARE
(Airbus A 3 8 0 ) .
k Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) using aluminium, titanium etc.
 * Glass Matrix Composites.
k Ceramic Matrix Composites.
* Ceramic Ceramic Composites.
* Carbon Carbon Composites.

A note on GLARE

This is a new material and is used in the construction of large parts of the
Airbus A380 fuselage.

GLARE is made u p of alternating layers of aluminium foil and glass fibre

polymer prepreg layers and, size for size, is 25% stronger than A1 alloy and
20% lighter. It can be made a s sheets or complete structures (with stringers,
frames bulkheads etc) in a n autoclave.

It is inspected in the normal way for external defects and requires a specialist
.qDT ultrasonic technique for the detection of internal defects.

Fibres

Various fibres are used as reinforcing elements within a resin for fibre
reinforced plastics. They include:

Glass. These are continuous glass filaments 6 to 15pm in diameter (0.000,006

to 0.000,O 15m) [This is called a micrometre or sometimes, incorrectly, mu--
metres. Mu is the Greek letter p].

The fibres are usually coated with a lubricant to improve handling and may
have other coatings to improve bonding etc. The fibres are supplied in different
forms: A glass; C glass; S glass etc, E glass is currently the most popular.

Aramid Fibre. This is a n organic fibre. Supplied a s Kevlar (Du Pont). Kevlar 29
used for cordage and ropes. Kevlar 49 is supplied for plastics reinforcement.

Carbon Fibre (HT and NM). There are some 12 manufacturers world-wide
making over 40 different carbon fibres. The fibre is manufactured as a tow and
the finer tows have up to 12,000 filaments in each tow.

Carbon fibres are strong in tension and are often coated to improve handling
and bond strength.
Hybrid Fibres. Hybrid fibres can be made u p in many different forms and can
include:

(a) Two or more different types of fibres layered together within a resin
matrix.
(b) A mixture of two or more different types of fibre weave within a
resin mix.

The following table shows the comparisons of density and strength of different
materials used on aircraft with properties of some fibres given in the next table,

TABLE 9 - COMPARISON TABLE, STRENGTH & DENSITY

MATERIAL DENSITY LONGlTUDINAL TENSILE

(kg/m3) STRENGTH (GPa)

Wood (example) 800

A1 Alloy 2700
Aramid Fibre 1380
Glass Fibre E 2000
VHM Carbon Fibre* 1690

* VVHM = Very High Modlllus

TABLE 10 - PROPERTIES OF FIBRES

MATERIAL SPECIFIC FATIGUE RELATIVE CHARPY

TENSlLE FAILURE COST IMPACT
STRENGTH STRESS @ (1 TEST
(GPa) 106 CYCLES (kg/ m2
(MPa)
E Glass 0.54 260 1
Carbon 1 .O 860 40
Aramid 0.83 980 20

Although aramid fibres have good fatigue strength, aramid reinforced

composites don't. This is because of bond fracture between the resin and the
fibre and is causing trouble in service because of the moisture absorption by
the microcracks.
Make u p of Fibre Cloth

Layers of fibre cloth are layered u p within a resin so that when cured the
resultant structure is solid with good strength properties. Fibre cloth may be
supplied untreated or pre-preg in a variety of grades and weaves to BS 3369 or
MIL-C-9084 standards. Glass cloth may be supplied in one of three basic
forms:
* Chopped strand mat. The yarns are in a random direction
and of comparatively short length. Not common.
* Weftless weave. Continuous yarns only going one way, with
a n occasional yarn going at right angles to keep all the
others together. May be called Unidirectional weave.
* Plain weave or weft and warp weave. With continuous yarns
going u p and down and, weaved in between, yarns going
from left to right.

Zarbon fibre is made u p into sheets of varying thicknesses either unidirectional

or plain, pre-preg or untreated.

Most cloths are made u p of yarns going u p and down (warp yarns) and weaved
between them yarns going from left to right (weft yarns) (weft to right).

With a weftless weave the fabric is stronger along the yarns than across them,
so if a composite is made u p using this type of fabric weave and if it was to fail
it would be more likely to fail along the fibres (ie cracks along the fibres) that
across them. Fabric with a weft and warp weave is likely to tear 'one yarn at a
time' so the tear will propagate usually in the form of a n L shape.

WARP YARNS SUPPORT YARNS

WEF
/ YAR

PLAIN WEAVE UNIDIRECTIONAL WEAVE

Fig. 22 WEAVES

Now try the following questions to see if you have understood the information
in the tables.
QUESTION What does GPa mean? (5 mins)

ANSWER Pa means Pascal and is the unit of stress and pressure. It is

small (nearly 7000 to lpsi). G means giga ie, lo9, or in other words
1,000,000,000. GPa is spoken a s Giga Pascal.

QUESTION What do you understand by the term "Fatigue failure stress @ 106
cycles"? (15 mins)

ANSWER Fatigue is the cyclic stressing of a part and if the stress level is low
enough (for some materials) the part will never fail. For most
materials if the stress level is raised then failure occurs sooner. In
the table above the part is put through 106 cycles (1,000,000).If
the applied stress is low enough failure does not occur.

If the stress level is raised so that the test specimen fails at exaptly
1 million cycles then we have a comparison of the materials
resistance to fatigue failure.

You can see from the table that while aramid fibre is not as
strong a s carbon fibre it is significantly better when it comes
to fatigue resistance (as a fibre only).

RESINS

The fibres (like string) are very good in tension but poor (very poor) in
compression. To make them more rigid and able to withstand bending and
compressive loads they are bonded together using resin. Various resins are
available for bonding laminates and as an adhesive for the adhesive bonding of
metal to metal, metal to wood, metal to polymer etc. A few are described below.

Unsaturated Polyester Resins. Used with glass reinforced plastics (GRP).Tb-y

have good strength and chemical resistance. They tend to shrink on curing and
do not like temperatures above 150C.

Vinyl Ester Resins. These are similar to the unsaturated polyester resins above.

Phenolic Resins. Used for aircraft interiors because of their low smoke emission
properties.

Epow Resins. These are a thermosetting resin. They are versatile, have a low
shrinkage rate with high strength and good chemical resistance. They are used
widely in engineering and are usually supplied as a two part mix.

Polyamide Resins.. These are suitable for use up to 300C and are available in
films, varnishes, powders, laminates etc.
General

Hardening occurs through the reaction of curing agents, hardeners, catalysts

or activators and some epoxylhardener combinations will cure a t ambient
temperatures - while others will require heat to cure (refer to the
manufacturers literature).

When dealing with the mixing of resins for composites or adhesives the
catalyst/accelerator is added and mixed into the resin to start the cherrlical
reaction process. Once mixed it will have a "pot life" which will be shortened if
the ambient temperature is high. Once the composite is "laid up" a curing time
is required which will be shorter if heat is applied. Some resins are cold cured
and do not require the application of heat whilst others must be heated to
allow the bonding process to reach its full strength.

Pot life is stated in the manufacturer's literature.

TABLE 11 - PROPERTIES OF SOME RESINS

RESIN TENSILE TEMP. WATER SOLVENT

STRENGTH LIMIT RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
(MPa) ("C)
Unsaturated Up to 9 0 180 GOOD FAIR
Polyester
EPOXY 105 220 GOOD GOOD
Vinyl Ester 85 180 GOOD FAIR
Polyarnide 120 400 LOW ------

The choice of resin is important as a n incorrect resin can have a n adverse

effect on the material it is being used with. It may not be strong enough or fail
due to heat or age.

When using resins it is important to maintain strict cleanliness during the

mixing and bonding process as any dirt, dust etc will seriously adversely affect
the joint strength.

Always follow the resin manufacturer's instructions.

CORES

With all structures subject to bending it is the outer layers (actually called
fibres) of the structure that take most of the stress (compressive and tensile).

Figure 2 3 shows a cantilever beam (cantilever = supported at one end only) but
the same principle applies to non-cantilever structures such a s floor panels,
skin panels etc.
The centre portion of the beam takes very little stress (except for shear) and in
a uniform monolithic structure this centre is almost so much "dead weight".
The drawing shows a beam and the principle applies to all structures whether
it is a main spar of an aircraft, the skin of the airframe, a helicopter rotor blade
etc.

I FORCE

LOW DENSITY CORE

OUTER FIBRES

Fig. 23 BENDING

In each case the outer fibres of the material take all the tensile and
compressive stress with the centre fibres taking very little. Many compositt
structures are therefore designed having a low strength, low density core to
reduce the weight of the overall structure, with most of the stress being taken
by the outer fibres.

The core may be made of honeycomb, foam, or some other low density material
while the outer fibres are made of metal, fibre composites etc. The core then is
of low density, designed mainly to resist shear and compressive loads and
include the following:

Balsa Wood Not used much these days but was used as a core on
several aircraft including the de Havilland Mosquito
(plywood/ balsa wood/plywood sandwich fuselage skin).

Honeycorrlb Used extensively a s core material in aircraft floors,

structures, control surfaces, helicopter blades etc. Can l--
made of aluminium, glass fibre or composite.

Foam (Polyvinyl chloride) PVC is used as the core of some

composite structures.

Micro balloons Within a resin mix.

TABLE 12 - COKE MATERIALS

MATERIAL DENSITY COMPRESSIVE SHEAR

k/m3 STRENGTH (MPa) STRENGTH (MPa)
Balsa Wood 96 5.2 1.3
Nomex
Honeycomb 64 2.9 1.7
Aluminium
Honeycomb 118 7.6 5.2
Foam (PVC) 100 1.4 1.1

Note. Nomex is made from aramid fibres bonded with phenolic resins.

MANUFACTURE OF COMPOSITES COMPONENTS

Several methods are used to manufacture composite components and this

section is included for interest only. There is no need to commit this to
memory, although some of the general principles are used when repairing
composite aircraft structures.

Compression Moulding

Usually uses pre-preg fibres (fibres impregnated with resin) in sheet, tape or
woven form.

Individual plies of pre-preg are laid one on top of the other to produce the
required thickness. This "preform" is then laid in the bottom half of a mould.
The top half is then closed and secured and heat applied.

The heat and pressure allows the resin in the pre-preg to flow and bonds the
?lies into a single structure to the shape of the mould. On cooling the mould is
opened and the item removed. Trimming and finishing is then carried out.

Vacuum Bag/Autoclave Moulding

The most common method is to use a pre-preg lay-up similar to that used for
compression moulding. Once the lay-up is completed a vacuum bag is placed
over the complete assembly and evacuated of air. Thus atmospheric pressure
produces the necessary force to push the plies together.

For components/structure repairs where a bag cannot be placed over the

complete assembly a plastic sheet is used - with a suitable valve attached -
which is sealed with special adhesive tape around the edges of the repair area.
Heat may be obtained by:

(a) Placing the assembly in a n oven (autoclave)at 30QC and 1.4MPa

pressure (about 200psi).
(b) Using a heater blanket.
(c) Using heaters within the mould.

To allow the resin to flow an absorbent membrane is placed between the

vacuum bag and the lay-up material. Temperature sensing bulbs are usually
placed inside the vacuum bag close to the laid-up material to automatically
control the temperature of the heater elements.

Mandrel Wrapping

Involves wrapping a mandrel with layers of pre-preg material. After heating ~d

curing the mandrel is removed. Used for tubes and hollow sections.

Pultrusion

This is a continuous process for the production of rod, tubes and long sections.
The fibre (glass, Kevlar or carbon) is drawn from a spool through:

FIRST a resin impregnation tank,

THEN through a pre forming die,
THEN through a curing die (heated),
TO emerge as a continuous section to be cut to length as
required.

Filament Winding

Separate filaments are accurately wound onto a mandrel of the appropriate

shape after first being impregnated with resin (or pre-preg is used). The
complete assembly is heated to cure the resin then the mandrel is
collapsed/dismantled and removed. In some cases the mandrel may be left in
place and form an integral part of the component. Used in the manufacture of
pressure vessels.

Adhesive Bonding

Used in the process of metal to metal joining; metal to composite joining;

composite to composite joining and honeycomb joining. To manufacture a
cored composite structure the two "skins" are manufactured either by
compression moulding or auto-clave moulding.
The two "skins"are then bonded either side of the core by using resin
adhesives. The structure is heated in a pressurised aut.0--clave.

The resins may be a two part mix resin (epoxy)or it may be supplied in film
form.

This process, in general, produces a strong structure, without any stress risers
(such a s rivets, bolts etc) with a good strength/weight ratio. However, i t is
difficult to know if the bond joint is satisfactory. With a riveted joint, for
example, the formed rivets can be inspected for shear, correct forming etc.

With a n adhesive bonded joint there is no sign that the joint is satisfactory .- it.
looks the same after the bonding process as before. This means that special
checks must be carried out. These include:
* Complete cleanliness and scrupulous attention to detail
when preparing the materials and carrying out the process.
* A thorough inspection of the joined parts to see if there has
been any relative movement and to check any visible bond
lines for signs of the bonding agent.
A
The destructive testing of test pieces manufactured at the
same time using the same materials and techniques a s
employed with the original work.

ADHESIVES - GENERAL

Many theories exist as to why adhesives work. Why does the adhesive "stick" to
the surface (the adherent)? Several theories have been suggested including
chemical reactions, intermolecular forces (absorption)and intermolecular
electrical forces. Text books differ on the subject.

The advantages of adhesive bonding include:

T! .
No holes to weaken the material,
J;
No high temperatures involved during the manufacturing process,
unlike welding.
* Smooth surfaces. Ideal for external aircraft skins.
* The adherends are sealed.

The disadvantages include:

* Long curing times.
* Careful joint preparation required.
* Some materials are dangerous to handle.
* Difficult to inspect the finished joint.
* Joints not suitable for high working temperatures.
 . [ ADHEREND I
ADHESIVE <
ADHEREND

Fig. 24 ADHERENDS

Classification of Adhesives

Adhesives can be classified as either organic or inorganic, with the organic

range split into two - synthetic and natural. Synthetic adhesives can be div;*bd
into thermoplastic, elastomeric and thermosetting.

s ADHESIVES

c
INORGANIC

SYNTHETIC
ORGANIC

NATURAL

L
'THERMQPLASTIC ELASTOMERIC THERMOSETTING

Fig. 25 ADHESIVE CLASSIFICATION

Adhesives

Inorganic. Such a s sodium silicate based. Not used for metal bonding.

Natural. Rubber (from trees), shellac (from an ant), cellulose etc. Used for
things like paper and wood.

Thermoplastic. Made from thermoplastic resins. Are softened by heating which

can be repeated. Used were great strength is not required though hot melt
thermoplastics can have a strength up to 18MPa.

Elastomeric. Rased on synthetic rubber they produce and instant stick when
the two adherends are brought together. They set by the evaporation of the
solvents. For structural work thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are
added.
U r m o s e t t i n g . Includes epoxide and urea resins. Provides a strong joint and
used in the manufact.ure of structural components. The process of making the
joint usually involves a curing agent. When the resin and agent are brought
together curing takes place which involves a chemical reaction.

Testing The Joint

After a joint is bonded and after the appropriate curing time the test specimen
should be tested. Depending on the materials and the type of joint made these
tests can include a Tensile Test, a Shear Test, a Peel Test and a Cleavage Test
(for thicker materials).

Special testing machines are provided that provide a calibrated load and this
can be plotted on a graph against extension/deformation/breaking of the test
piece.

i'he cleavage test would only be suitable for thicker non-flexible test pieces,
whilst the peel test would only be suitable for thinner flexible material.

FORCE TENSILE TEST

SHEAR TEST

' CLEAVAGE TEST PEEL TEST

Fig. 26 JOINT TESTING

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF COMPOSITES

This section deals with testing of composites. Many of the tests are similar to
those used on metals, but many composites can prove difficult to test and get
valid results. Remember, with destructive testing of metals the results are only
meaningful if the test piece is destroyed during the test.

For non destructive testing (NDT)refer to the book Non Destructive Testing in
module 7 in this series.
Testing of any material/joining process can be divided into:

1. Visual examination (a form of NDT).

2. Conventional NDT methods.
3, Destructive methods - workshop.
4. Destructive methods - laboratory or manufacturer

Items 1, 2, and 3 will be dealt with later and item 4 (for metals) has already
been covered, but the laboratory destructive testing of composites has
produced its own problems because their properties do not lend themselves
readily to the "standard" methods of testing used on metals.

Some of the tests are similar, though the results may not be as good or a s
definitive as one would like. Where the tests are similar reference will be made
to the section on The Testing of Metals.

When evaluating the results of tests of composites it is important that care

taken because the results can vary. This variation can be caused by:

* Minor variations in the batch being tested.

* Fine variations in the preparation of the test specimen.
* Small variations in the actual test method.

Testing is carried out to British Standards (BSI) and to standards set by the
American Society of Testing of Materials.

Safety

Considerable energy can be stored u p in a test piece during the test. This
energy can be released in explosive form and can be very dangerous. All testing
must be carried out behind safety screenslshatter proof guards, and by
qualified staff.

Flexural Test

This measures centre point deflection as a function of load. Tests may involve a
three point test or a four point test with the load increased in increments and
at each stage the amount of deflection measured. A graph is then plotted of
load against deflection.

Tensile Test

This is carried out in a similar way to tensile testing of metals ie, the test piece
is "stretched" in a tensile testing machine and its extensionlbreaking point is
measured against the load applied.
 FORCE

O-, TEST

SPAN
1
-----cFORCE

Pig. 27 THREE POINT FLEXURAL TEST

C FORCE

SPAN

Fig. 28 FOUR POINT FLEXUFWL TEST

The load is progressively increased and at intervals the value of the load is
recorded and the extension of the test piece measured. At the end of the test a
graph is drawn of load against extension.

'Test pieces have to be thin because of their high tensile strengths and it is
often very difficult to satisfactorily attach the test specimen to the machine due
to its plasticity - the test piece deforms and slips out of the chuck 01-jaws.

Compressive Test

'The test piece is placed in a similar machine to the tensile test machine but the
machine is selected to "squash" the test piece under a compressive force. Like
all compressive test pieces it has to be of a reasonable diameter to prevent
buckling. If it buckles the test is invalid.

Again, this test has its problems as failure often occurs due to "transverse
delamination" - not what is being testing for.

As with the tensile test measurements are taken regularly of load and size of
deformation and will all the readings obtained and a graph is plotted of load
against reduction in size.
Shear 'T'est (figure 29)

[Jsually applled to tubes and round sections and difficult to test for. In general
the test is as follows:
X
Clamp the test piece at one end to a torque measuring device.
i
Rotate the free end slowly (about half a radian per minute - about
I complete revolution in 12 minutes) and note the torque (Nm) a t
the fixed end at regular time intervals.
%
The relationship between the indicated torque a t the fixed end and
the rotated amount at the free end is a n indication of the amount
of s h e w stress in the test piece.

r\ FIXED END ROTATING END

1 TEST PIECE

Fig. 29 SHEAR OR TORSION TEST

Impact Testing

The following tests are used but none have proved totally satisfactory

(a) Izod pendulum test.

(b) Charpy pendulum test.
(c) Drop weight test.
(d) Ballistic impact test,
(e) Slow bend test.

For details of (a)a n d (b) refer to the section in book 1 on The Testing of Metals.
The other tests have been listed for reference only.

DEGRADATION OF COMPOSI'I'ES

LJnlike metals, composites do not corrode but they do have their problems.

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion can occur to A1 alloys a n d cadmiurn plated steel if attached

r o CFC (Carbon Fibre Caxnposite).
The pd (potential difference) can be as high as 1 volt. Special jointing
cornpounds are used a s is the use of epoxy paint treatment.

Surface 0xidat.ion

This is not an important factor with cornposjtes though surface changes can
occur when combined with uv light and rain.

Frost

Will damage any composites where water h a s ingressed into the material.
When water gets into a composite and then freezes it expands - this causes
delamination and de -bonding.

UV Radiation

This will degrade glass more than carbon - but at any rate - uv absorbing
additives should be used on the outer surfaces of all composites. Aramid fibres
are seriously affected and must be protected.

Erosion

This can come from many sources but with aircraft it is usually airstream
driven rain and debris (insects, dust etc). It affects wing leading edges, engine
compressor blades, engine intakes, rotor blades, etc.

Glass fibres are more resistant to this sort of damage than carbon and boron.

Lightening Strikes/ Static Electricity

Carbon epoxy resins are 3 times more insulative than A1 alloys - this leads to
very high field levels on the surface of the material. Various processes have
been tried to reduce the problems including metal meshing within the
composite. Aluminium surface foiling is used on carbon composites.

Fire

Inorganic resins will not withstand high temperatures and soon give off
inflammable gases and thick black smoke. To reduce this problern the o u t e r
lays of the composite should be glass fibre and the surface should be treated
with a fire retardant coating - particularly cabin furnishings.
 SEAIAN'I'S, BONDING AGENTS & COMPOUNDS

A wide range of non- metallic materials is used for the maintenance, repair and
overhaul of aircraft. 'They include: compounds, greases, oils, detergents, fillers,
jo~ntingcompounds, cleaning agents, pre-treatments, anti corrosive agents,
paints, paint strippers, fuels, fuel additives, hydraulic fluids, anti-ice fluids,
lacquers, adhesive tapes, bonding adhesives, disinfectants, storage
preservatives, powders, et c.

The AMM for each aircraft type will have a comprehensive list of these
"consumables". This is published in chapter 20-3 1-00. It is important that you
consult this chapter before using any compounds from oils to paints, to
greases and speed tapes.

'The AMM will list all the compounds that can be used on the aircraft, with
their specifications (eg, British, US, German, NATO code, etc) if applicable.
Some compounds may be listed as "local purchase" whilst others may be
supplied by specific manufacturers. Some may be listed under a trade narr,,,
eg Loctite.

Where fuel additives are listed the actual percentages may be quoted. In some
cases the ratios are stated a s "ppm" (parts per million).

For large aircraft the tables in chapter 20-3 I list literally hundreds of non-
metallic materials. Below, are tables of some of the materials that are available.
They are for reference only and not included are:

* Fuels.
* Fuel additives.
* Hydraulic fluids.
* De-icing fluids.
* Paints and paint strippers.
* Extinguishants.

These will be dealt with in the appropriate book in the LBP series covering that
particular topic.

The information under the SPEC column includes those countries that have
local specifications to meet that required by the equipment manufacturer,
and/or a brand name product.

There should be no need to corrirnit the details to memory but you should have
a some knowledge of the more c:ornmon sealants and bonding agents used.

blank

- 62 -
TABLE 13 - GREASES

/ DESIGNATION I SPEC 1 USES 1

Mineral based USA High temp Bushes, roller &
ball bearings
Graphited, mineral based IJK General purpose 5%
USA graphite
France
Graphited, thread compound UK Anti seize grease for
USA threads. 50% mineral jelly -
France 50% graphite
Synthetic, high pressure For certain applications.
Temp range - 54"C to 12 1'
- - -- --

Fuel & oil resistant Used in engine fuel and oil

USA systems
France
Silicon USA Lubrication for metal and
rubber in pneumatic
systems
-- -- ---- -- ---

Vaseline or petroleum jelly UK Synthetic rubber seals

USA Electrical bonding faying
France surfaces
Anti fretting UK Used as a n anti fretting
USA compound
/ Mineral UK General use at normal
USA temperatures
France
----- ---- -- - --
Corrosion preventative USA Used a s a corrosion
prevention layer
-- --- - -. - --. - -- -- - - -

Silicon, insulating &, sealing UK Metal to metal sealing

USA against moisture ingress

1----
.-

Lubricant O2 systems USA Thread lubricant for oxygen

systems
TABLE 14 - LUBRICANTS

DESIGNATION SPEC USES

Rust inhibitor Dinatrol

USA
Germany
Solid film Molycote Air drying solid film
USA lubricant
General Various Used as a n assembly aid
Grades during component overhaul
and a t lubrication points of
aircraft systems.
Anti seize USA Prevents locking of
screwthreads

TABLE 15 -. LACQUERS

DESIGNATION SPEC USES

- .- .-

Clear epoxy varnish with

catalyst
- .
. - -. .

1
---
Astral 1
- -

Electrical lacquer

Transparent lacquer Sikkens For covering metal labels

such as landing gear labels
Corrosion preventative Rustban395 Corrosion preventative
USA lacquer

TABLE I. 6 - BONDING AND AUF-IESIVES

SPEC USES

General purpose adhesive Araldite 106 Composite repairs I

honeycomb filler USA
Germany
-- .-

General purpose Loctite270 Permanent thread

dimethacrylate compound USA compound
. --- - .- - --

High temperature sealant Thread locking compound

(occasional removal)
TABLE 16 - BONDING AND ADHESIVES cont

IJSES
. -- -- -- .-- - -- --- - ---- - - -. --.---.
-. -- - - -. .--- . - --.

Sealant 1 ~ ~ ~ + 7 3 For
2 toilets and galleys

/ Solvent based nitril rubber

1Primer
USA
Con tact adhesive
/ adhesive
- -

I----
-- .--- - -- -- - -- ---

Two-part epoxy adhesive Araldjte Adhesive for PTFE cloth

1 Adhesive film I FM73-M-06 I Structural adhesive I

I-
bonding
-. . - -- - - - - ---

Self adhesive aluminium Scotch425 Temporary protective cover

tape Germany
USA - - -- - - - -- -

Glass fibre tape Scotch36 1 Temporary repair of cargo

hold fire proof panels
-.

Sound damping tape Permacel Aluminium backed cotton

Germany tape for sound & thermal
USA insulation
Polytetrafluoroethylene anti- 121 For use on liquid & gaseous
seize tape USA oxygen systems
-- -
High temperature adhesive AF 143 Metal to metal - honeycomb
to metal bonding

TABLE 17 - SEALANTS
---- -- -..

Polysulfide brush PR1422A2 Brush on, fuel tank and

consistency UK pressure cabin fuselage
USA sealant
-- -- --- - -- -

Polysulfide fillet consistency PR1422B2 Fuel tank and pressure

UK fuselage fillet sealer
USA -- - -- -

Polysulfide sealants - general Various Various different sealants

UK supplied for sealing (a)
USA along edges of joined
Germany structures (b) individual
I I nut and bolt assemblies, & I
( c )applying to faying
surfaces prior to assembly
TABLE 18 -- CLEANING AGENTS
-- --- - - .--- -
1 DESIGNATION SPEC
I-- -- - - - ----- ---- -.

Aircraft exterior General purpose aircraft

exterior cleaner
Liquid detergent concentrate Ardrox6025 Cleaner and stain remover
USA ----- -.
-. ----- . - ..--- -

Varsol/white spirit UK Cleaning solvent for

USA mechanical parts
Trichloroethane Genklene Cleaning solvent
(Methyl chloroform) USA
Trich lorotrifluoroethane Cleaning oxygen system
pipe lines
Isopropyl alcohol Air3660 / General cleaning
France

Safety solvent
--.

Rain repellent cleaner

-- - - -- - -
USA
---
Altupol

USA
. -
---.-

!Cleaning rain repellent off

windscreens
Odour free solvent cleaning
agent
Carpet & fabric cleaner
-
A USA ---

Cabin window cleaner

- - . ...
. --

I USA - -.

Plastic polishing compound PP-560 Paste for polishing Plexiglas

(fine grade) USA
--

VDU cleaner Alglas V Anti static flight-deck

Visual Display Unit (CRT)
screen cleaner

TABLE 19 - MISCELLANEOIJS

Hydraulic fluid removal

powder
--
1 ~ 7 0
-- - - -

1 -. -

Removal of Skydrol fluid

spillage
--

Microballoons Used as a filler when

carrying out composite
repairs
Aluminium metal polish Abrasjve polish for polishing
out scratches in aluminium
- - -- --- ---- - --- - -- -
TABLE 19

-. .--.
.
-
inhibitor

Toilet deodorant
-..--.
--

r g---e- n leak detector

. . .-
--.
....

Drinking water system

-

.- IEi1-2 I
MISCELLANEOUS cont.
--- - -

---
.--.-.
.
1 WD4Q
USA

- - .- . ..- . -. - ..

AMS 1476
.
Corrosion preventative
Moisture repellent

-
-
-.
--
a -- .. - .

Non formaldel~ydebased
toilet deodorant
.
- .
-.

Calcium hypochlorite
-.
. -~
..

-- --

- --.-- ---
..

disinfectant disinfectant for the potable

I i 1 water system
I

~tis not possible (within the confines of this publication) to specify the storage
conditions for all the materials listed above. But in general the following points
should be noted.

1. Keep all containerised materials in their original sealed containers.

2. Open slatted shelving is recommended.
3 . Follow the storage instructions on the container and/or in the
material manufact urers5literature.
4. Keep records of materials in store - batch numbers; date of receipt;
manufacturer etc. File all manufacturers' documentation, Release
Certificates1 EASA form 1s.
5. Rotate stock - first in - first out.
6. Note any storage life/use-by-date. Discard any out-of-date material
in accordance with manufactures' jnstructions/local regulations.
7. Store inflammable materials in non-combustible lockers/buildings
away from workshops, hangars and aircraft.
8 . In general storage areas should be clean, dry, secure, and frost free.
The materials should not be in direct sunlight. The area should be
well ventilated and the temperature should be kept a s even a s
possible.
9. Specific temperatures may be specified for certain materials
by the manufacturer, eg -20C for pre-preg carbon fibres; 7 to 23C
for paints and dopes, etc.
10. Specific (m,wimum) relative humidity levels may also be spec~liedfor
certain materials.

For storage details of specific materials (eg batteries, paints etc) refer to the
appropriate book in the LBP series.
CONTENTS

Page

Glass fibre repairs 1

Carbon fibre repairs 5
'rspection of composite structures 1'7
 COMPOSITE REPAIRS

Repairs to composite structures is generally considered to be more difficult

than repairs to metal structures. Of course, all repair information, cornposlte
and metal, is given in the repair manual (SRM) a n d most operators will use a
"composites" qualified person to carry out repairs, However, a s a licensed
engineer you are required to know how this is done as the composites person
will report to you on completion of the repair.

GLASS FIBRE

It is most important when carrying out a repair to follow the repair manual
instructions. This usually specifies that the same type of core is fitted to that
which has been removed during the repair process. Remember on
radomes/dielectric covers the repair should be 'radar transparent'. 'The repair
should also follow, as far as possible, the original contour and shape of the
rigirlal component.

Preparation and Mixing of Resins

In general always:

(a) Wear protective clothing, including goggles.

(b) Work in a well ventilated area.
(c) Mix the chemicals in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions.
(d) Wash the area thoroughly if chemicals come in contact with the
skin.
(e) Irrigate the eyes immediately with water if the chemicals come into
contact with the eyes - and seek medical advice.

Mixing

The ingredients should be stored (normal maximum time 12 months) at

temperatures less than 10C and be allowed to come to room temperature
before mixing and all materials, working areas, tools and utensils must be kept
thoroughly clean and dry.

The resin and additives should be carefully measured into a glass container in
the correct proportions a s specified in the manufacture's instructions. These
proportions may be specified a s percentages by weight.

The catalyst should be thoroughly mixed into the resin before adding the
accelerator and any additional material such a s fillers etc.
 GLASS CLOTH
PATCHES

CORE

Fig. 1 TYPICAL REPAIR TO CRACKED SKIN

Repatrs to be at feast 10" \ GLASS CLOTH

(25mm) apart with dimensions PATCHES
A and Bat a maximum of 2.5
to 7" (63.5mm to 117.8mm)
depending on type of repair GLASS CLOTH
(round or square).

Fig. 2 TYPICAL REPAIR TO DELAMINATED SKIN

Pot Life

Once mixed the resin begins to cure and may have a pot life of between a few
minutes and several hours before it begins to gel. Always ensure the resin is
used well within it's pot lifetjme. Djscard (in accordance with local regulations)
all time expired materials.
Curing

Most mixed resins will cure a t room temperature within a few hours, but may
take several days to cure completely It may be necessary to use heat to cure
the resin, sa check the Repair Manual (SRM) for details. Heating may be
carrled by the use of lamps, electric heaters, electric blankets or ovens.
Temperature control may be by a thermostat or by marking the part with a
special pencil that changes colour at a specific temperature.

Film Adhesives

Some adhesives are supplied in film form and the amount required is simply
cut from a large sheet. They are generally easier to apply than liquid or powder
adhesives, but once the protective backing is removed it is most important that
the adhesive film is not touched a s this will severely affect its adhesive
properties,

Each patch is 0.7"

GLASS CLOTH larger than the next one
PATCHES

OUTER SKIN

PATCH PLATE

thickness as inner Dimensions A 8 B

skin) are a max of 1 to
5" (25.4 to 127mm)

whether the repair

is round or sguare

INNER SKIN
t--"--i
SKIN SECTION I11 11 11 11 11 1 I

Fig. 3 TYPICAL REPAIR WHERE BOTH SKINS

& CORE ARE DAMAGED

Figure 1 shows an exarnple of a patch repair to a crack on the outer skin. The
ends of crack are stop drilled using a 31 1 6 t h (4.8mm) twist drill. Glass cloth
patches (3)are cut as per SRM and using the mixed resin bonding agent are
cemented into position. Pressure is applied and this can be done using a
vacuum sheet stuck with double sided sticky tape to the skin. A parting layer
is used between the patches and the vacuum sheet and vacuum is applied
from a vacuum pump via a valve in the vacuum sheet.
Figure 2 shows a typical repair where the outer skin is damaged and has to be
repaired by insertion. The skin is cut away without damaging the core using a
router (not easy a s the skin arld core are bonded together). Two glass cloth
inserts are cut'and (using the rnixed resin) placed into position. The glass cloth
patches are placed in the same way. Again, pressure is applied a s before.

Figures 3 , 4 and 5 shows repairs where the core has been damaged and
requires replacement. A s with the other repairs a router is used for material
removal, and sometimes wood chisels and the like are used to remove old resin
-- which is difficult to do.

Limits are specified in the SRM a s to the maximum length of crack/size of

damage, the minimum distance between repairs and the minimum distance
from the repair to the edge of the panel.

OUTER SKIN

MIN LAND 0.5" (13mrn)

Fig. 4 EXAMPLE OF CORE REPAIR 3" DIA MAX

General Repair Considerations

1. Ascertain the exact extent of the damage and classify the repai
using the repair manual (negligible- repairable - replacement .,,c).

2. Support or jury rig the structure if necessary.

3. Check the effect of the repair on radar transparency - if applicable.

4. Mix and use the resins in a warm dry atmosphere (min 20C).

5. Remove resins from store and allow to attain room temperature for
at least 24 hours.

6. Remove paint from the area by sanding, then clean with acetone or
MEK and allow to dry.

7. Cut out the damage to a regular shape, stepped or otherwise, a s

per the S R M dimensions.
 8. Sand area if specified in the SRM.

9. Lay u p the repair using cloth and resins in accordance with the
repair manual. Cloth plies normally in the same direction as the
original lay.

10. Apply pressure to the repair using weights, clamps ox vacu ~rxn
bags.

11. Use a mould, for more complex shapes, made fi-om wood or other
similar material.

12. Use a parting agent on the mould to prevent the resins from
adhering to the mould.

13. Remove all traces of parting agent from the repair.

14. Inspect the repair, repaint and carry out functional check to check
for radar transparency.

15. If a control surface check weight a n d mass balance and carry out
control system check plus an independent check.

16. Record all work done and clear Log Book.

All materials & dimensions similar

to the previous drawing

Fig. 5 EXAMPLE OF SMALL CORE REPAIR (1.5"BIA MAX)

CARBON FIBRE COMPOSITES (CFCs)

There is an increasing use of CFCs in the construction of aircraft. The

advantages of this material over conventional metals are many and include:
k Good strength/weight ratio.
.k
Resistance to impact damage - often difficult to detect if it has
sustained damage.
k
Non-corrodible.
A
Easily moulded to complex shapes.
 9,
1s not aff'ect.ed by hydraulic and other fluids.
* Does not suffer from cracking and has vexy good fatigue strength.

Like GRP it is made u p of layers of fibre but carbon and not glass. It may be
pre-preg (already pre-impregnated with resin) or may be carbon fibre material
requiring a bonding agent between the layers. Once the layers are made u p the
resin is allowed to cure - usually using heat and pressure (vacuum bags).

Materials

(a) Resins and other chemicals. Stored at -18C usually has a shelf
life of 12 months - refer to manufacturers literature.
(b) CFC and Kevlar material stored in a dark room in their original
plastic containers. Kevlar is affected by uv light.
(c) CFC pre-preg is stored at - 18C and again may have a shelf life nf
1 2 months. May have a life of one month out of cold store.

All materials should be allowed to reach room temperature before being worked
on. This usually means keeping at room temperature for a period of 24 hours.

Types of Structure

Sandw&Construction. Not unlike the sandwich construction of GRP. It is

designed to have a light, reasonably weak centre with strong outer fibres. The
outer fibres being in tension or compression with the centre being in shear.

Many combinations of composite (metal and non metal) can be used. Figure 6
is a typical example. The sandwich is usually made u p of a honeycomb centre
with multiple plies of composite pre-preg cloths laid at different angles to each
other and cured under pressure in an autoclave.

HONEYCOMB CORE

Fig. 6 TYPICAL SANDWICH STRUCTURE

jVJonolithic Structux. Structural components such as sheet skin, angles, ribs,

frames, top hat sections etc are made from monolithic material in a similar way
to the build up of the outer layers of the sandwich structure.
Figure 7 shows an A310 spoiler made from glass fibre reinforced plastlc (GFRP)
skln panels and ribs. With the fittings being made from metal.

Mixed Structure. Figure 17 shows the construct~onof a n A320 flap. It 1s a

mixed structure with some monolithic and some sandwich components

Fig. 7 MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE

SANDWICH STRUCTURE MONOLITHIC PANELS

Fig. 8 EXAMPLE OF MIXED STRUCTURE

Like GRP, damage that does occur may be difficult to detect. It is therefi~re
important that if damage is suspected then a thorough investigation is c arried
out aver the whole area.

The cfarrlage is usually associated with impact and the inspection procedure is
similar to that used with GRP.
 IMPACT
AREA OF I I SPREAD OF
DELAMINATION

-\ /-----
BROKEN INNER LAYERS

Fig. 9 IMPACT 'SPREAD' O N CFC SKIN

X--raysmay be used to check for internal darnage/delamination on sandwich

structures and ultra-sonics may be used on monolithic structures. When
using ultra-sonics a couplant must be used between the probe and the part
being tested (oil or grease on metals). For CFCs a rubber tyred wheel or wat
js used.

Thermal Pulse Thermography (TPT) may be used. This process involves the use
of a high intensity thermal pulse and the rate of diffusion is measured. An
image of the thermal pattern is then displayed on a screen and a change in the
pattern will indicate a defect,. Modern TPT systems will involve the use of
computers for storage and analysis of data.

Repair

The repair process is similar to that which is employed with GKP structures.

Equipment

The equipment will vary depending on the type and level of the repair bein-
carried out, but the following is a typical list of the equipment required:
* A CFC bay with everything kept scrupulously clean.
* Repair heaters - electrical heater mats thermostatically controlled.
* Vacuum pressure bags - to put the repair under pressure when
curing.
* Temperature probes - to monitor the temperature of the repair
when curing.
k Cold storage equipment.
A
Various tools including diamond coated saw blades and diamond
tipped drill bits.
* Breathing equipment and a dust extraction plant. CFC particles
and dust are dangerous if breathed in and fumes from the
chemicals are toxic.
Repair Methods

These will be laid down in Chapter 51 of the SRM and may involve the use of
infill, metal patching, GRP lay-up, CFC lay-up, core replacement etc,

Damage (and the repair) can be divided into three main groups:
* Negligible damage. May be repa~red/modifiedfor cosmetic reasons
or to stop the damage getting worse.
* Structural damage. Has to be repaired to maintain the integrity of
the structure. May be a standard repair in the manual, or may
require the approval of the aircraft manufacturer.
k
Replacement damage. Severe damage that requires the
replacement of the component.

When assessing the damage always inspect an area much larger than the
'obvious' damage a s the impact shock can travel through the material and
.how u p some distance away. For example - if it is damage to a panel, check
for security and damage a t the panel attachments and check for transmitted
shock into the surrounding structure.

Of course, all these types are damage are laid down in the SRM, a s are the
repair schemes.

In general the repair materials should be the same a s the original component
unless specified otherwise.

General Repair Procedure

Clean and dry the repair area.

Remove the paint (by sanding) in the area taking care not to
damage the fibres.
Remove all traces of dust.
Remove the damage. Check that all the damage h a s been removed.
Scarf the edges a s specified in the manual. The scarfed edge may
have a taper of 20: 1. The core is removed by the use of a router.
Check the repair limitations in the repair manual.
The fibre layers are laid u p by hand and usually involve the use of
pre-preg material. This may be laid up at 0, 45"and 90"
Use might be made of 'in-fill', an insert, blind rivets, bolts, metal
patches etc.
Allow to 'cold cure7- use a vacuum bag or heat in a n autoclave.
Inspect the repair and repaint if necessary.
Depending on what has been repaired check the system and sign
for all the work done.
 ,BLIND RIVETS, COMPOSITE DOUBLER

Fig. 10 SKIN REPAIR USING RIVETS ADHESIVE & DOUBLER

COVER PLY
PLY 6
PLY 5
PLY 4
PLY 3
PLY 2
PLY 1
ADHESIVE
FILM
Q 0 -C-)-
STEPPED CUT-BUTS

Completed lay-up before hot bonded cure

Fig.. 11 SKIN REPAIR HOT CURE USING PRE-PREG

Two basic methods of repair:

(a) 'Cold Cure'. Using room temperature (20C min) or heater

blankets. Curing can take up to 7 days but with heater blankets
using temperatures of about 80C the time can be reduced to less
than an hour - depending on materials, type of repair etc.

(b) 'Hot Cure'. This process uses an autoclave with temperatures u p to

180C and curing times as short as 45 minutes, again depending
on materials and type of repair.
Repairs to Sandwich Structure

The damaged core is usually removed and the void filled with a mixture (of
adhesive and thickening agent), or a core plug of honeycomb is bonded into
position. The skin is then repaired in the same manner as already described.

COVER PLY

PLY 6
PLY 5
-
PLY 4

FLY 2
PLY 1
-
PLY 3

Completed wet lay-up before cure

Fig. 12 SKIN REPAIR USING COLD CURE WET LAY-UP

COMPOSITE DOUBLER
ADHESIVE /

Fig. 13 COLD CURE REPAIR USING

DOUBLER AND VOID FILLER

Delamination and Debonding

Delamination occurs when two or more plies become separated frorn each other
- often due to impact. They may be repaired by layering or by injecting
adhesive through the rivet holes (drilled iaw the repair drawing) and riveted u p
using blind rivets.
 ADHESIVE, ,-------- COMPOSITE DOUBLER
--PLUG
HONEYCOMB

Fig. f 4 HOT BONDING USING A HONEYCOMB INSERT

Debonding occurs when the honeycomb core separates from the outer skin.
Repair can be carried out by injecting adhesive into the honeycomb through
holes drilled in the skin. Pressure should be applied to the skin to ensure a
good bond between the skin and the core material.

DELAMINATION BLIND RIVETS

ADHESIVE
INJECTED
THROUGH
RIVET
HOLES

Fig. 15 DELAMINATION REPAIR

Metal Patching

The metal patch may be bolted or bonded into position. Metal patching does
not attempt to restore the structure to its original strength or contour but is a
quick method af repairing small cracks or limited damage to non-primary
structures.

-,
*',
,
\
,
., ,'.,
*, b,

\
\,

*, ' *, ,.-*\
HYPODERMIC

\
...-...'
<,
a,\.':..*-'~,,

,.-2'i
'', .*' -*' AREA OF
. \ \
DEB0N Dl
\
ADHESIVE
'5
',,'',
\ \',\

Fig. 16 BEBONDING REPAIR

 POROUS PARTING FILM FIBRE GLASS SANDING PLY

BLEEDER CLOTH PLIES \ FIBREGLASS / GRAPHITE REPAIR PLIES

BREATHER PLIES ArER BLANKET

SILICON RUBBER SHEET
ELECTRICAL
VACUUM BAG

VAClJUM HOSE
TEMPEWTURE

/
GRAPHITE
FILLER
FIBRE GLASS
CORE REPAIR
\\ ~ ~ 9 5 6 1 ~ 3
ADHESIVE

PLIES CAP HONEYCOMB

PLUG

Fig. 17 TYPICAL REPAIR TAKEN OF A HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE USING

'COLD CURE' WITH A HEATER BLANKET, VACUUM BAG
& TEMPERATURE PROBES

Figure 17 shows an example taken from an SRM. Study the drawing and note
the following:
* The repair plies, insert core and adhesive.
* The vacuum bag - stuck down around the edges with bag seal
(double sided sticky tape),
J;
Parting films - to stop the bleeder cloth plieslrubber sheets from
adhering to the repair.
* Bleeder cloth layers - to allow all air to be evenly drawn away from
the repair.
* Silicon rubber sheet to allow a n even pressure over the whole area
of repair.
* The thermostatically controlled heater blanket with its electrical
supply.
* The temperature probes (thermostats).

Void Filler -- Honeycomb Section

W h e n repairing honeycomb section where the honeycomb is removed the void

must be filled with a core plug or filler compound. The type of filler will depend
on the size of the void. In general small diameter voids are filled using:
A A n adhesive and thickener.
 * A resin mixed with micro balloons. The micro balloons are small
phei~olicresin hollow spheres that help to produce a low-density
(light-weight) filler.
* Foam etc.

For larger holes a core plug is manufactured from the same material a s the
original honeycomb and cemented into position with a resin mix/resin micro
balloons mix. The minimum size of hole where a manufactured plug must be
fitted is stated in the repair manual eg:
* A32013 10 ...........................above 2" in diameter
* Boeing 737 .......................... above 0.5" in diameter
* DC9 ................................... above 2" in diameter

Electrical Bonding

Some composite structures are electrically bonded to allow for an electrica:

path. Aluminium foil may be used and external metal discharge strips. Ararnid
(Kevlar)h a s a n aluminium foil ply.

EXTERNAL DOUBLER
Same thickness as skin

/
ADHESIVE PLUS THICKENER

Fig. 18 EXAMPLE OF A REPAIR TO DAMAGE NOT MORE

THAN 2" DIAMETER ON THE A 3 2 0

blank
 EXTRA REPAIR PLY OR
After fitment and when dry
sand taper edges that are in "-.4,
the a ~ r f l o w

Determine number of pl~es,

orientation, and original material
Apply resin mlx 3 to upper face
from component structure
of core plug just prior to fitment
of repair plies

2 plies of BMS 9-3 type H-2 or H-3

(or 4 plies of BMS type 9-3 type
D) saturated with resin mix 2
- CORE PLUG
Same material as original

\ Apply resin mix 3 t o lower face & around

core plug just prior to fitrnent

Taper sand or step

Fig. 19 REPAIR TO DAMAGE ON A 737 GREATER THAN 0.5"

DIAMETER TO ONE SKIN & THE HONEYCOMB CORE

Apply XEA9390 &

phenolic microballoons
mixture to bottom &
sides o f both core plug
8 hole

TEFLON TAPE

Fig. 20 TYPICAL PLUG FIWING USED ON SOME A I R C M P T

FOR DAMAGE GREATER THAN 1" DIAMETER
 Cover plies are glass fibre if original

en use carbon

\
118" (3.2mrn) After damage cleaned out
UNDERCUT core hole filled flush with
resin mix 4 or 5

Fig. 21. REPAIR TO DAMAGE 0.5" OR LESS TO ONE SKIN

& HONEYCOMB CORE - 737

SPLICE STRIP

CLASS 350, GRADE 1

OR 2 ALUMINIUM
FOIL PLY
ADHESIVE FILM

EXTRA REPAIR PLY' O R PLIES

REPAIR PLIES

ADHESIVE FILM

Fig. 22 DETAILS OF A REPAIR TO MAINTAIN AN ELECTRICAL

PATH ACROSS A FOIL COVERED SURFACE - B739
INSPECTION OF COMPOSITE STRUCTIIRES

To some extent composites can be more difficult to inspect for flaws than metal
structures.

When subject to impact damage they can 'spring-back' and show little or no
sign of impact, Certain NDT techniques will not work with conlposites, eddy
current, magnetic particle etc, and whilst X-ray interpretation of negatives on
metals can be difficult the results of csrnposite X-rays can be more so.

Defects in composites include:

Cracks.
Bulges.
Splitting - particularly inside the panel.
Delamination.
Debonding.
Moisture/water ingress.
UV (ultra violet) degradation.
Erosion.
Lightning strike damage.
Fire damage.
Signs of bowing and signs of damage to systems/eq~zipmentinside
the panel.

Bulges may be a sign of delamination or debonding and may be accompanied

by water ingress.

Splitting is usually a sign of impact damage.

Debonding is the failure of the bond joint between 2 composite parts or

between a composite part and a metal part. May be the result of impact
damage or more likely, poor quality of the initial bonding process.

Delamination is similar to debonding but occurs between the layers of a built-

u p material .

Moisture ingress can result from impact damage or from a poorly made joint.
Once in, the water can increase the damage area particularly if subject to
freezing conditions. Can show u p a s stains on the surface.

Where cracks occur they are likely to run jnline with the weft or warp plies of
the material. The likelihood of a crack occurring is considerably reduced by
constructing composites of a weftlwarp material or laying consecutive weftless
plies at right angles to each other.

UV radiation will degrade some composite fibres more than others, but al any
rate UV absorbing additives should be used on all outer surfaces of composite
build-ups.
Erosion will occur on all leading edge surfaces (mainplanes, tail-planes, fins,
propellers, rotor-blades etc) irrespective of the material they are made of. It is
caused by small particles in the air such as rain, dust, insects, etc.

Lightning strikes show up as surface damage to the material, not too unIike
impact damage, usually with signs of burning. Check a n y lightning conductor
strips for security and damage. Carry out an electrical bonding check.

Electrical discharge damage to radomes may be difficult to detect. One method

is to pressurise the radome (off the aircraft and in a safety cage) to about 3psi
(20kPa) and check for leaks using uncured resin on the outside - which will
bubble if there is a leak.

Resins will not usually withstand high temperatures and when burning will
give off inflammable gases and thick smoke. When burned-off will leave the
fibre yarns behind.

Visual Inspection

The area should be inspected in a good light for those defects listed above. The
structure should be inspected both sides a s splitting may occur on the inside
of a panel where the only evidence of damage on the outside is a scuffmark.

Additionally if damage is suspected the edges of the panel/area should be

inspected for signs of transmitted shock, The transmitted shock may show u p
as damage to a n adjacent panel/area or to damage and looseness of attaching
bolts, screws etc. It is important to note that if the panellarea has suffered
impact damage it could have moved in sufficient to damage systems/services
within the aircraft, so check these a s well.

Coin Tapping

Where delamination is suspected a small metal object can be used to tap the
area and check for a change in the sound when tapping good structure to when
tapping un-sound structure. A coin about 1" (25mm) in diameter is ideal.

Tap lightly at the side of the area where delamination is suspected and
continue tapping while moving across the area. Any delamination will be
indicated by a change in the sound.

A tool called a Woodpecker can be used. This electronic tapping device has a
small tapping head than can be moved over the area and the sounds observed
as before. Two small feet allow the tool to be rested against the surface to be
tested giving the tapping head the correct distance from the surface for best
results. The tool can be connected to a CRT screen where the feedback signal
can be displayed.
Moisture Meter

A moisture meter ma.y be used for checking for slgxas of moisture ingress. The
pencil size probe is held against the suspected surface and moisture is
indicated either on a dial or an LED display,

Infra-Red Thermography

This has been developed by Airbus Industries for detecting water ingress in
composite-sandwich structures.

Infra-red thermography is based on the principle that an object emits

electromagnetic radiation, the intensity of which is related to its temperature.
When a structure is heated and allowed to cool, water contaminated areas cool
more slowly than 'dry' areas and these area can be detected using an infra-red
camera. (The specific heat of water is 5 times higher than composite materials).

The infra-red camera converts the thermal radiation into an electronic signal,
which is displayed in colour on a video screen.

WATER
INGRESS
AREAS
FASTENERS

Fig. 23 CRT SCREEN DISPLAY - INFRARED THEWOGRAPHY

Method

1. Clean and dry the area to be inspected (both sides).

2. Heat the area using a special electric blanket. The electric blanket is
temperature and time controlled so that it heats u p slowly, taking at
least 15 minutes to reach 60C. The temperature is held at this value for
a further 5 minutes.
3. The blanket is removed and the airframe allowed to cool. As it cools the
slower cooling 'wet areas' show u p on an infra-red scanning camera.
4. One engineer operates the scanning camera while another views the
output on a video monitor. Wet/damp areas are indicated in colour as
shown in figure 23.
5. When a wet area is shown the viewing operator tells the camera operator.
The camera is held still and the area on the panel is marked for further
investigatlor~/repair.

Note. A typical system is the Agema Infra-red Systems Thermovision 2 LO which

will detect a difference of O.lC at 30C to an area down to about lOmm
x 1Omm contaminated with 10% water - and located on the opposite side
of the skin.

Ultra-Sonic Testing

lJsed mainly for detecting below-surface voids but also for surface flaws at a
point some distance from the place of accessibility,

High frequency sound waves, when transmitted through solid material, are
reflected by any discontinuity such a s a void or a flaw. This reflection is
converted into a signal on a cathode ray tube (CRT),which can be interpre
by a trained operator.

These sound waves are above the audible frequency of the human ear and can
be transmitted in three different forms:

a) Longitudinal . in the same direction a s the motion of the sound.

b) Transverse - perpendicular to the motion of the sound.
c) Surface - transverse waves along the surface of the material.

The pitch of the sound is controlled by its frequency and its speed through the
material by the characteristics of the material.

Each probe comprises a quartz crystal and sound damping material. When the
crystal is fed with an ac supply, it vibrates at the frequency of the received
input. These vibrations are passed into the material in a direction related
the shape of the probe.

STRAIGHT TIR
ANGLED TIR

PLASTIC
WEDGE

SOUND
COMPONENT WAVES

FLAW

Fig. 24 ULTRA SQNIC PROBES

- 20 -
The receiver crystal is vibrated by the received sound waves a n d generates an
ac supply, which is fed into the vertical axis of the CRT. The result is a line on
the CRT with a number of vertical 'blips'.

To prevent any signal coming from the air gap between the probe and the
surface a couplant such a s oil is used.

QUALIFIED NDT INSPECTOR

CRT DISPLAY
SHOWING NO
FLAW

B O ~DARIES
J
FLAW
CRT DISPLAY
SHOWING
INTERNAL
DEFECT

Fig. 25 ULTRA SONIC TESTING

On material without any flaws there will be a vertical to represent the top
surface and another the bottom surface; the distance between them related to
thickness of material (distance travelled by the sound waves).

"oid within the material will reflect the sound waves earlier and erect a
,xnaller vertical on the CRT between the first and second verticals at a position
related to its distance from the surface.

Note that the screen displays shown in figure 2 5 show a clear indication of a
defect. In reality the indications may be difficult to see and interpret. Also
expertise is needed to operate the probe a s defect orientation may require
several passes using different sides of the material.

blank
 Fig. 26 USING AN X-RAYMACHINE

Radiography

A user-unfriendly system that produces X-ray pictures to be analysed. Using

either X or Garrlma rays which can pass through almost all materials and
which are extremely dangerous to humans (as well as animals). This system is
similar to photography.

X-RAY TUBE

Fig. 2'7 X-RAYEQUIPMENT

These are generated in an electron tube needing 250,000 Volts to gve a better
picture quality than gamma rays. The electron tube is relatively large gnving
lirriitetl access.

Ganima Hays

Self-generated by radioactive isotopes, each isotope being about the size of a

overcoat button. Access into small spaces is easier - into shafts, etc. Has a
poorer picture quality than X-rays.

In general the process is a s follows:

(a) Set u p equipment with X-ray tube on one side of the part to be
checked and the (light sealed) negative on the other side.
(b) Place test piece in front of negative (this provides a density
comparator on the negative so that comparisons can be made
between it and the rest of the image).
(c) Check exposure times and distance of tube from part (distance
measuring rod supplied).
Id) Clear hangar of personnel and place warning signs around aircraft.
(e) From remote control panel switch on tube and monitor the area.
(f) After the correct exposure time switch off tube and remove
equipment/ signs. Allow maintenance personnel back on aircraft,
(g) Develop negative and analyse results.

The process requires a high level of expertise both in setting u p the equiprnent,
calculating the exposure times and interpreting the X-ray results. The
equiprnent is also dangerous to use. Operators require a regula- medical
check-up and wear a personal radiation dosimeter. Always stay out of roped off
weas.

QIJESTION If a defect was found using any of the above methods, what action
would you take? (10 mins)

ANSWER If the crack or a void is in a component then it will normally

require replacement, but check the manual first - some cracks
might just be allowed if they run in a certain direction and/or are
in a certain area and/or are below a certain length, but will
normally need stop drilling. If a crack or void is in a structural
member it may be classed as negligible (check the repair manual--
the same parameters may apply as above) and stop drill the ends
of the crack. If the defect is outside the negligible limits then the
area must be repaired in accordance with the S R M , or the part
replaced.
 If porosity is found then check the repair manual, but in general
the component is replaced, or the area is repaired.

QUESTION What does 'stop drill' the end of the crack rnean and why is it
carried out? (5 mins)

ANSWER The exact. end of the crack is located (often very difficult) and a
drill is used to drill a hole right through the cracked material. This
has the effect of reducing the stress concentration at the crack end
to a lower concentration on the wall of the drilled hole, so
(hopefully) stopping the crack from propagating. Always inspect
the crack a t a later date to see that it has not developed further.

QUESTION If an NDT team was to carry out an inspection on your aircraft,

what would be their relationship to you as a licensed engineer?
(5 mins)

ANSWER They would be requested by you or the senior engineer of the

company to carry out the NDT test. Their findings would be
recorded and signed for using their own documentation and they
would report back to you (or the senior engineer). They would hand
over their recorded findings and you would clear the defect in the
log-book (if no defect was found or after rectification carried out)
making reference to the NDT report.

QUESTION What parts of the aircraft would you carry out a n NDT test. on and
when? (5 mins)

ANSWER Those parts/components that the ChA/aircraft manufacturer or

your company tells you to or a part that you are highly suspicious
of. Airworthiness Directives/Service Bulletins will be sent from the
CAA/manufacturer to all operators of your aircraft to carry out a
particular check. The instructions will normally indicate a tim
limit and if it says 'before next flight' it effectively grounds the
aircraft. In some cases a report has to be sent back to the
CAA/rnanufacturer of the findings.

Note. The student is advised to read Airworthiness Notice 94 - NDT Testing -

Qualifications
CONTENTS

Page

Wood 1
Timber 2
Seasoning 4
Diseases a n d defects 5
Aircraft woods 8
Adhesives 9
Aircraft wooden structures 16
Inspection of wooden structures 20
Repairs to wooden structures 29
Fabric covering 39
Mat erlals 40
Preparation prior to fabric covering 43
Covering methods 44
Joining fabric to fabric 45
Hand sewing 47
Repairs to fabric 54
Doping 61
Wood h a s beer1 the main constructioll material for man for thousands of years
a n d , hence when aircraft were invented (about 100 years ago), i t was used for
a ~ r f r a m econstruction

Compared with metal it h a s many advantages including:

* Light (density of spruce between 300 and 600kg/rrl" ((aumirlium
2800kg/m3). But wood densities vary - some car] be so dense that
they are over 1000kg/m"rid will not float on water.
* Readily available, inexpensive and a renewable resource.
k
Easily machined, drilled, filed, screwed, planed, sanded

Easily joined using wood-screws, n u t s and bolts, nails/panel pins,

adhesives, staples etc.
* Good thermal insulation.
* Nearly as strong a s alumirhiurn - but some aluminium alloys c a n
be over 10 times stronger than wood, a n d steel c a n be over 6 0
times stronger.

Ilisadvantages include:
* Quality not consistent. Ever1 taking a specific type of wood, say
sitka spruce. Depending on where the tree was grown and the rate
of growth in any one year the wood quality can vary.
* Quality within a single plank of wood c a n vary d u e to knots, grain
inclination, defects etc.
* The mechanical properties of wood are said to be anisotropic. In
other words the strength and elastic properties are different
whether they are measured along the grain or across the grain.
Wood is m u c h stronger in tension and compression along the grain
than across it and stronger across the grain in shear.
* Wood can shrink and warp, is liable to rot, can deteriorate with age
and is subject to insect attack.
 TIMBER

Timbers for commerce a r e obtained from exogenous trees (grow outwards in

plan view, by the addition of layers or rings) Timber is divided into softwoods
(coniferous or vvergreen trees) and hardwoods (deciduous). Trees are dormant
In winter and cornmenee their growth in sprlng. The s a p ascends the tree
causing the gro~utklof t h e 'springwood' and causing the tree to bud. The s a p
undergoes chenlical changes in the leaves due to the action of the sunlight and
the carbon dioxide In t h e air. The sap returns down the tree during summer
and wlnter and t h ~ cs a u s e s the growth of the 'autumn-wood'.

ANNUAL
GROWTH RINGS

HEARTWOOD
MEDULLARY RAYS

Fig. 1 CROSS SECTION OF A TREE TRUNK

The tree trunk is rnade u p from Sapwood - the unripe part of the woody layers,
porous and full of sap, h a s little strength, sugaraxy and invites decay and
insects. The Bark - which consists of two layers - the outer layer being the
protective cork-like covering and the inner layer termed the inner bark or
phloem which is soft. Between the phloem and the wood is a skin-like layer
termed the c a m b i u n ~The
. tissue of the cambiurn combines with the rising and
falling s a p to form new growth rings each year. It is most active during the
spring; the wood forming during that time i s light in colour and of open
texture. During the auturrin the cambium is less active a n d the wood formed is
darker and denser. The difference between the a u t u m n a n d springwood is
clearly visible in trees such as firs and pines but is hardly noticeable in tre
such a s teak a n d mahogany.

Medullary rays convey the moisture from the sapwood to the heartwood while
the tree is growing. These are thin sheets of cellular tissue that radiate from
the pith and extend lengthwise through the timber. The rays that extend right
across (from pith to the bark) are termed primary rays a n d those that extend
partially across are termed secondary rays. Medullary rays are more
pronounced in such woods a s oak and beech.

Felling

'I'rees sllould be felled at the beginning of wir~terin temperate climates and

during the t l r j season in tropical climates.
During these t i ~ n e sthe s a p is a t rest. At other times the wood contains too
much sap which is difficult to dry out wlthout damaging ihe propertics o f the
wood. When a tree is felled is governed by its state of maturity, which can be
found by the state of its foliage Oak matures a t 120 - 200 years Firs and
pines mature a t 70 - 100 years. Trees that are felled too young or too old have
timber of inferior quality.

A tree 1s felled a n d stripped of its branches. Some logs are squared for ease of
transportation. These are termed 'baulks'. Sawing logs a n d baulks into planks,
deals, battens etc is termed conversion. The timber is square sawn.

Maxinlum shrinkage occurs along the lines of the annual rings. Timber used
in aircraft is rift sawn to lesson the possibility of shrinkage.

MAXIMUM

G RAl N

indicated at ;ic l

Fig. 2 SHRINKAGE

YI
RIFT SAWN
SLASH SAWN

QUARTER SAWN

Fig. 3 TYPES OF CUT

SEASONING

On felling a tree may contain u p to 50% molsture Most of this must be

rerrioved to obtain erio~lghhardness, stiffness and resistance to decay, and to
reduce shrinkage to acceptable levels. The degree of seasoning is measured by
thc rnolsture content of the timber and is expressed as % moisture content of
the dry weight of the timber. The moisture content may be measured using the
Marconi Moisture Meter (or other commercially ava~lablemeters) or by the
following method:

1. A small sarrlple of the timber is removed, weighted arid dried in a n

oven a t 1 OOC (212F) until two successive weightings are the
same. Thc (YO moisture is then calculated as:

loss of weight x 100

<
,
= O/o moisture content
dry weight

'There are several ways of seasoning timber including the 3 listed below

Natural Seasoning - Slow b u t gives the best results. Planks are stacked
undercover in such a manner as to allow maximunl ventilation and shielded
from wind, s u n a n d rain. The wood is stacked in a Dutch barn (a roofed barn
without sides), the first planks laid on wooden skids (keeps planks away from
d a m p grass etc), a n d successive layers are interspaced by slats placed above
one another to prevent warping of the planks. To prevent the ends of the
planks splitting a s the timber dries, strips of hoop iron or wooden slats are
nailed on. 'This seasoning takes from 1 to 9 years depending on the size of the
planks and whether it is softwood or hardwood. I t is a n expensive process.

Water Seasoning -- This is applied to logs or baulks and although quick is liable
to diminish the strength a n d durability of the wood. The timber is put in a
strearn of fresh sunning water with one end of the log towards the flow. Thus
some of the s a p is washed o u t by the force of the water going through. This
takes about 10 days. After removing the log the internal water evaporates, '' :
timber is then c u t u p a n d seasoned the natural way for half the normal per-qd.

Artificial Seasoning - Kiln dried (hot air). Softwood boards can be seasoned in
10 to 14 days. The stacked planks are placed in a kiln in which the
temperature is raised to 80 - 220F (27 - 105C) according to the type of
timber. 'The steam h e a t (from pipes), warm air currents and the humidity is
controlled to prevent the timber from drying too quickly and developing shakes
(a type of split).

blank
DISEASES AND 1)EFECTS

Trees, subject a s they a r e to the hazards of nature, develop imperfect~ons

during growth. Defects which occur in sawn timer can rnostly be elirnlrlated by
usirig correct methods of conversion, seasoning, storage and preservation, but
d ~ s c a s e smay be present in the tree a n d remain active after the timber h a s
beer] converted anti seasoned. These diseases are caused by the action of fungi.
A fungus is a kind of plant which can only live by feeding on organic material.
These thread llke cells penetrate the wood, boring minute holes invisible to the
eye, a n d absorb the substance of the wood as food, wkieh disintegrates the
wood to a state called decay. Attack by fungi may be identified by discoloration
of the timber, by mildew, by the reduction of the wood to a powder or by the
wood turning into a soft spongy mass.

Dry Rot

This does not attack a living tree but attacks timber subjected to humid
conditions combined with poor ventilation. Sapwood and unseasoned timber
are most susceptible to this disease, which turns wood to a powder. This
disease spreads rapidly a n d may be identified by a fungoid growth on the
surface of the wood.

Wet Rot

This may occur in a living tree or sawn timber and is a decomposition of the
fibres. In a living tree this may occur by water finding its way through the bark
a n d in sawn timber by subjecting it to alternate wet and dry conditions. Wet
rot transforms the timber into a soft spongy mass. A similar disease to wet rot
is Druxiness, b u t in this instance the water does not enter into circulation with
the s a p b u t becomes stagnant, setting u p decomposition of the surrounding
wood.

Causcd by a fungus growth. May be present in unseasoned timber and

remains active after seasoning. It appears a s a stain or a group of speckled
patches a n d reduces the wood to a very soft state. It is contagious and spreads
through thc timber rapidly. When detected, the affected part most be rerrloved
a n d burnt. If found in spruce planks intended for aircraft construction, the
wood either side of the infection must be removed for a distance of a t least 8
inchcs (203mm) in a longitudinal direction either side of the dote area

This 1s thc decay of over-rnature trees. C)n converted t~rnberit appears ;is a
reddish brown stain.
Kind Galls

These are swellirlgs on the trunk and branches of a tree caused by the growth
of new layers over a wound made by the attack of lrlsects or by a branch
having been br-oketl off. Rind galls reduce strength because they cause
divergence of the grain.

Knots

These are the roots of the branches of the main tree trunk.

Live knots arp the roots of braches which were growing when the tree was felled
ancl although all knots are a source of weakness, wood containing live knots
can he accepted provided judgement is used to determine whether it is suitable
for the work in h a n d . In sawn timber a dead knot can be identified by a dark
ring of wood around its outer edge. If dead knots cannot be eliminated the
timber should not be used.

Other types of knots include bud knots, pin knots arid spike knots.

All knots should be no more than 0.25" in diameter and if clustered too close
together the wood should not be used.

Karnmy Grain

This is the narne given to wood w ~ t ha curly grain. S u c h wood is difficult to

work and unsuitable fro structural members.

Incorrect Grain Inclination

The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in 15 for grade A and 1 in 12 fr

grade B. Grade A is used for aircraft structural work a n d the inclination s h * \ u l d
be checked to ensure that the above limit is not exceeded. The most usual
method of determining the inclination of the grain is by examining the flower-
face of the timber to find the resin ducts. It will readily be seen whether they
are straight or inclined. If the inclination exceeds the limits specified, the
timber should be classified to a lower grade.

Cross and Spiral Grain

Cross grain is caused by a bcnd in the tree, a knot or incarrcct conversion. To

prevent this through the latter reason, timber should be sawn so that the grain
r u n s a s nearly a s possible parallel to the edge of the material. (Timber is
stronger along the grain than in any other direction). Spiral grain is caused by
high winds twisting the trunk.
Heart-Shake

Shakes are small splits In the tirriber a n d should not be present in sectlons of
timber intended for structural use on atrcraft

A heart shake usually follows the course of a sap duct long~tudinallyanti is

usually visible on the tangential surface 'The use of a small size feeler gauge
will assist in finding the depth of the shake The defect sho~lldhe cut out of the
timber.

Ring-Shake

This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular rings. Ring-shakes are

usually caused by frost, particularly after a heavy rainfall. The defect should
also be cut out of the timber.

Compression-Sha ke

This defect appears on a cross-section and usually takes the form of a thin
wavy line. Compression-shakes are most dangerous a s they are a partial
fracture of the timber a n d any future loads may cause the fracture line to
spread.

Pitch Holes

There are two kinds of pitch holes, one being the horizontal type which usually
appears a t the base of a knot, and the other the vertical type which is
sometimes referred to as a gum pocket. Gum pockets may either be 'alive' (the
gum-seam h a s not dried out) or 'dead', and in the case of the latter, the timber
should be rejected. 'rests on 'live' gum pockets have shown that the timber in
the region of the gum pocket usually gives a better result than the remainder of
the timber.

Blue Stain

This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not be used in aircraft parts.

Insect Attack

Shows u p as the timber having small holes in the surface. Such woods rrlust
not be used on aircraft.
AIK(:KAFVT WOODS

Sitka Spruce

A soft~roodfrorn Canada a n d U S A . Bright-brownlsh yellow with little or no

odour. Straight grained and easy to work. Its stiffness, bending strength,
hardness a n d its resistance tc) splitting are hlgh in relation to its weight.
Because of this it is used on aircraft (spares, struts, longerons, ribs etc). It is
seasoned to a rnoisture coritent of 15 to 17%.

Ash

Hardwood. Grown in the UK. Whitish-yellow, close and fairly straight grained.
Tough a n d strong and h a s good shock resistance qualities but is not a s light a s
Sitka Spruce. Used for longerons, trestle beams, bearing blocks etc. Moisture
content 15 - 16%.

Mahogany

A hardwood from Central America. Reddish-brown to dull red in colour.

Straight grained, strong and elastic with good bending strength, stiffness a n d
corripressive strength along the grain. Also resistant to shrinking, swelling a n d
lvarplng arid good glue retaining properties. Used for propellers, bearing
blocks, rigging boards etc. Moisture content 14%.

American Black Walnut

A hardwood from Canada a n d USA. The heartwood is a rich chocolate brown

colour a n d the sapwood is nearly white. It is a medium dense wood, hard a n d
mostly straight grained. Good weather resistant properties a n d retains its
shape well. Used for propellers and bearing blocks etc. Moisture content rr -st
not exceed 13%.

Douglas Fir

A softwood from Canada and USA. Colour from pale reddish-yellow to deep
orange-brown. Has prominent growth rings and mostly straight grained, is
somewhat resinous and h a s a distinctive odour when worked. It is strong and
tough and is used in aircraft coristruction that is highly stressed in bending
and compression. Moisture content 10 - 17%.
A hartJwood from Tropical America Soft mrit11 no strength I t js the lightest
tirnber in general u s e a n d is pinkish-white to pale brown in colour. Must be
stored carefully as moist conditions cause rapid deteriorat~on. Used sometimes
for the core of sandwiched ply. About a quarter of the weight of other woods.

Note The weight of the timber (density) is governed by rate of development,

moist~xrecontent and part of the tree from which it was cut

ADHESIVES

Adhesives a r e better for joining wood than, say, wood screws because its u s e
avoids the stress concentration that the screws would produce. Also the wood
is not damaged locally. The disadvantages of using adhesives are that
subsequent dismantling of the joint is not possible a n d stricter process control
is required to produce a satisfactory joint.

Glues fall into two main groups:

h Casein glues
* Resin glues

Any glue t h a t meets the requirements of the approved specification a s laid

down by the C M a n d other authorities s u c h as the FAA is satisfactory for u s e
in civil aircraft. Synthetic resin adhesives should comply with British Standard
1204 in the UK for Weather and Boil Proof (WBP) a n d Moisture Resistance
(MR). In all cases, glues are to be used strictly in accordance with the glue
manufacturer's recommendations.

Casein glues are water-based and made from milk; they were used widely in
wooden aircraft repair work. Modern casein glues for u s e in aircraft should
contain suitable preservatives, such as chlorinated phenols a n d their sodium
ialts, to increase their resistance to organic deterioration under high-humidity
conditions. Most casein glues are sold in powder form ready to be mixed with
water a t ordinary room temperatures, but some are supplied in liquid form.

Synthetic resin glues a r e more widely used now a n d usually consist of a two
part nlix - a resin a n d a hardener. Once rriixed there is a chemical reaction
that callses the adhesive to commence to harden. Synthetic resins are better in
that they retain their strength and durability under molst conditions and after
exposilre to water. The most comalonly used synthetic resin glues :ire the
phenol -formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde and urea- formaldehyde types.

'The rc.sorcino1-formaldehyde type glue is recommended for wood aircraft

applic a t lons.
'
Inert fillers are often added by the glue manufacturer to the resin, such a s
walnut shell flour, to give better working characteristics a n d joint-forxning
properties (increased viscosity and gap filling properties).

The most suitable curing temperatures for both urea-formaldehyde a n d

resorcinol glues are from 21C (90F) to 24C (75F) (room temperature).
Temperatures below 15C (60F) are not recommended a n d electric blankets
(80C - 176F) can be used to provide rnore rapid setting times. Gluing times
can take u p to 2 to 3 weeks

Some terms used are as follows:

Cold Setting Adhesive. An adhesive which sets and hardens a t room

temperature, ic 10C to 32C (50F to 86F) within a reasorlable period.

Close Contact Adhesive. A non gap-filling adhesive suitable for u s e only with
those joints where the surfaces to be joined can be fabricated accurately and
brought into close contact by means of adequate pressure a n d where glue 1 :s
exceeding 0.005in (0.125mm) can be avoided.

Closed Assembly Time. The time between the assembly of the joints and the
application of pressure.

Double Spread. The spread of adhesive equally divided between the two
s ~ ~ r f a c to
e s be joined.

Gap-filling Adhesive. An adhesive suitable for use in those joints where the
surfaces to be joined may or may not be in close or continuous contact, owing
either to the impossibility of applying adequate pressure or to slight
inaccuracies in machining. Unless otherwise stated by the manufacturer, gap-
filling adhesives are not suitable for glue lines exceeding 0.050in (1.25mm) in
thickness.

Glue Line. The resultant layer of adhesive joining any two adjacent wood
layers in the assembly.

Hardener. A material used to promote the setting of the glue. It may be

supplied separately in either liquid or powder form, or it may have been
incorporated with the resin by the manufacturer. It is a n essential part of the
adhesive, the properties of which depend on using the resin and hardener as
directed.

Open Assembly Time. The period of time between the application of the
adhesive and the assembly of the joint.

Single Spread. The spread o f adhesive to one surfa:ace only

Spread of Adhesive. Thc amount of adhesive applied per unit area. Expressrd
a s g / m l or lb/ lOOft? Can be asccrtained by weighing a piece of scrap plywootl
t~eforcapplication and n-cigh~ngafter application
Synthetic Resin. A synthetic resm (phenolic) is derlved from the reaction of a
phenol with a n aldehyde A synthetic resin (amino plastlc) is derived from the
reaction of urea, thiourea, melamine or allied compounds with formaldehyde.

Synthetic Resin Adhesive. A composition substantially consisting of a

synthetic resin, either the phenolic or amino type, but including any hardening
agent or modifier which may have been added by the manufacturer or which
must be added before use, according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Synthetic resins can be obtained either in liquid or powder form. In general,

powder resins have the longest storage life, since they are less susceptible to
de terloi-ation from high ambient temperatures.

Powder resins must be mixed with water in accordance with the

manufacturer's instructions before they can be used in conjunction with a
hardener. To obtain satisfactory results, it is essential that they be properly
mixed. Once mixed, the adhesive must not be diluted unless this is permitted
by the manufacturer's instructions. In many instances, manufacturers specify
3 definite period of time which must elapse between the mixing and the
application of the adhesive. During this period, the adhesive should be covered
to prevent contamination. When resins are supplied in liquid form, they are
ready for immediate use in conjunction with the hardener. Liquid resin must
not be diluted unless this is permitted by the manufacturer's instructions.

When mixing the hardener with the resin, the proportions must be in
accortlance with the manufacturer's instructions. Hardeners should riot be
permitted to come into contact with the resin except when the adhesive is
mixed prior to use.

Any utensils used in the hardener should not subsequently be used in the
resin and vice versa. After use utensils should be washed in water containing
5% sodium carbonate (washing powder). Typical synthetic resin adhesives
include:

4raldite. General glue and used for bonding timber to metal or fibreglass.
Supplied in two parts - a liquid resin and a liquid hardener. When mixed in the
correct proportions is applied to both surfaces, the surfaces are clamped
togethcr and setting time depends on temperature.

Aerodux. Also supplied in two parts, a liquid resin and a liquid or powder
hardener. The joint is made a s for Araldite but curing times can be long.

Aerolzte. The resin is supplied in powder form to be mixed with water or already
in liql~idform. The hardener is an acid and comes in three strengths. Medium
strcngth (coloured green) is usually used. The resin is applied to one surface,
the hardener to the other and the surfaces are brought together and clamped.
C ~ ~ r i rtjme
i g can be as short a s one hour when heating is applied.
GLUING

The surface to be p i n e d rnrlst be clean, dry and free from grease, oil, wax,
paint, etc. It is important that the parts to be joined have approximately the
same r n o i s t ~ ~ content,
re since variations will cause stresses to be set u p
because of swelling or shrinkage which rnay lead to the failure of the joint. A
safe range for moisture content js between 8 and 16%.

The wood to be glued should be at room temperature. The surfaces to be

joined should not be overheated since this affects the surface of the wood and
reduces the efficiency of most synthetic resin adhesives.

Synthetic resin adhesives are sensitive to variations in temperature. The

usable (pot) life of the adhesive, proportion of hardener to u s e and clamping
time all depend largely on the temperature of the room a t the time of gluing.

The Wood Surface

Plywood surfaces should be lightly sanded either in the direction of the gral,~or
diagonally across it.

Timber surfaces should be sanded using a medium grade glass paper or a

wood scraper. To ensure a good fit the parts can be assembled first, dry with a
layer of chalk on one surface. It the joint is a good fit the chalk will transfer
over the whole area to the other surfzce. The chalk must be completely
removed before the glue is applied.

Glue Application

It is generally desirable to apply adhesive to both surfaces of the material. This

applies particularly where the glue line is likely to be variable or when it is not
possible to apply uniform pressure.

Adhesive can be applied by a brush, glue spreaders or rubber rollers that b - e

slightly grooved. The amount of adhesive required depends largely on the type
of wood a n d the accuracy of machining. Dense wood requires less adhesive
than soft or porous types. Adhesive should be applied generously to any end
grain. Smooth, side-grained surfaces may be satisfactorily glued with a
thinner spread. The general rule is that the adhesive should completely cover
the surfaces to be glued and remain tacky until pressure is applied to the joint.

Difficult gluing conditioiis may occur when a soft wood is to be glued to a

much denser wood because the adhesive tends to flow into the more porous
wood. I n such instances, rxnless otherwise specified by the manufacturer of the
adhesive pre-coating and partial drying of the softer surface, before normal
spreading, is recomrnenclec-l.
It is advised that the joint is first assembled dry t o check for correct assembly,
glue line clearances, clamp positions etc - then disxnantled and assem bled
correctly using glue. The interval between the applicat~onof the adheslve to
thc surfaces and the assembly of the joint should be kept a s short as possible.
Sorne adhesives contain solvents which should be allowed to evaporate before
the joint is assembled If this is not done, bubbles may be created and result
in a weak joint. For adhesives of this type, the manufacturer will specify a time
interval which should elapse before the joint is closed.

To ensure that the two surfaces bind properly, pressure must be applied to the
joint. This pressure should be applled evenly over the complete joint using
clamps and blocks of wood to provide an even pressure and prevent local
compression damage to the joint itself.

The pressure is used to squeeze the glue out into a thin continuous film
between the wood layers, to force air from the joint, to bring the wood surfaces
into intimate contact with the glue and to hold them in this posation during the
setting of the glue.

Pressure should be applied to the joint before the glue becomes too thick to
flow and is accomplished by means of mechanical clamps, hydraulic clamps,
screw presses, electric power presses, brads (a sort of nail), nails and screws.

Non--uniformgluing pressure commonly results in weak and strong areas

within the same joint. The amount of pressure required to produce slrong
joints may vary from 125 to 150psi for softwoods and 150 to 200psi for
hardwoods. Insufficient pressure and/or poorly machined contact surfaces
results in thick glue lines, which are weak and should be avoided.

On small joints such a s those found in wood ribs, the pressure is usually
applied only by nailing the joint gussets in place after spreading the glue.
Since small nails must be used to avoid splitting, the gussets should be
comparatively large in area to compensate for the relative lack of pressure. At
least four nails (cement-coated or galvanised and barbed) per square inch are
"o be used and in no event must nails be more than 3hin (19mm) apart. Small
orass screws may also be used.

Use handspring clamps only when gluing softwood. Because of their llnlited
pressure area, they should be applied with a block of wood a t least twice a s
thick as the member to be clamped.

High clamping pressures are neither essential nor desirable, provided good
contact between the surfaces being joined is obtained. When pressurt. is
applied, a small quantity of glue should be squeezed from the joint. ' T h ~ s
should be wiped off before it dries. The pressure mrlst be mainta~neddur-ang
the full setting time. This is important since the adhesive will not reunite if
disturbed before it is fully set.

C l a m p tightness should be re-checked 10 minutes after the joint is assernblecl.

The s e t t ~ n gtime depends on the temperature a t which the operation is carried
out. An increase in temperature results in a decrease in tlic setting period.

Full jolnl strength a n d resistar.lce to moisture will develop only after

conditioning for at least 2' days In some cases a period m u s t elapse of u p to 3
weeks for the chemical reaction ta be fully completed. Again, this depends on
the a m b ~ e n temperature
t and tlre type of hardener used. Usually when repairs
are made, the joint will be of reasonable strength after 1 day.

When gluing large areas (areas of ply for example) the drawing may specify
drillings at intervals in one ply rriernber to allow any trapped air to escape.

Local warmth may be applied using electric blankets, electric fires, electric
lamps, kilns etc. Remember, DO NOT EVER HEAT the joint - this can scorch
the wood a n d / o r bubble the glue - in either case a weakened joint results.

Testing Glued Joints

Glued j o ~ n t sare impossible to examine properly. The only access to the joirlL,
once assembled, is along the glue line - a n d only then if it is visible. So, just
like the adhesive bonding of metal structures, strict control of the gluing
process is required a t all times with test pieces produced - to be tested to
destruction to ascertain the strength of the joint.

Ideally, the test piece should be cut from the actual cornponent being
assembled (make the part that much longer to allow for the removal of the test
piece).

The test sample should be 1 inch (25mm) wide and a t least 2 inches (50mm)
long. The test pieces should be joined with a n overlap of Y2 to 3/4 inch (13 to
19mm). The glued test sample should be placed in a vice a n d the joint broken
by exerting pressure on the overlapping member.

FORCE A WOOD FRACTURE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 4 TYPICAL SATISFACTORY BROKEN TEST PIECE
Ideally the wood should break and not the glue line, but a t any rate the
fractured glue face should show a t least '75% of the wood fibres broken evenly
disl ributed over the glue surfaces (figure 4).

Where repairs are to be made on old aircraft in which the wooden structure is
joined with a casein cement, all traces of the casein cement must be removed
from the joint, since this material is alkaline and is liable to affect the setting
of a synthetic resin adhesive. Local staining of the wood by the casein cement
c a n , however, be disregarded.

Wet Tests

When specified, wet tests should be rnade for testing the efficiency of the
adhesive after immersing the test samples in water a t different temperatures
and for different times. Such tests are prescribed in British Standard 1204,
but the results are only valid if BS 1204 test pieces are used. However, testing
joints, in a manner similar to that already outlined, after immersion in cold
water (15" to 25C [GO0 to 77"FI) for 24 hours, will give a good indication of
whether they are satisfactory. Such tests should only be carried out on joints
which have been conditioned for 2 to 3 weeks.

Failure of Glued Joints

Glued joints are designed to provide their maximum strength under shear
loading. If a glued joint is known to have failed in tension it is difficult to
assess the quality of the joint, as these joints may often show a n apparent lack
of adhesion. Tension failures often appear to strip the glue from one surface
leaving the bare wood; in such cases, the glue should be examined with a
magnifying glass, which should reveal a fine layer of wood fibres on the glued
surface, the presence of which will indicate that the joint itself was not a t fault.

If examination of the glue under magnification does not reveal any wood fibres
but shows a n imprint of the wood grain, this could be the result of either pre-
a r e of the glue prior to the application of pressure during the manufacture of
the joint, or the use of surface-hardened timber. This latter condition is
particularly common with plywood and with other timbers which have been
worked by high-speed machinery and have not been the surface correctly
prepared.

If the glue exhibits an irregular appearance with star-shaped patterns, this

m a y be an indication that the pot-life of the glue had expired before thc joint
was made or that pressure had been incorrectly applied or maintained. In all
such instances other jo~rltsin the aircraft knowri to have been made at the
sarne time should be considered a s suspect.
Old Aircraft Repajrs

Where repairs are to be carried out on old aircraft in which the structure is
joined with a casein glue, all traces of the casein should be removed from the
joint since this material is alkaline and is liable to affcct the setting of a
synthetic resin adhesive. Local staining of the wood by the casein can,
however, be disregarded Where urea formaldehyde (UF)glues are to be used,
the surface should be wlped wath a solution of 10940w / w acetic acid in water,
and allowed to dry before the glue 1s applied.

Note. This process must. only be used with urea formaldehyde (UF) glues. If
used prior to the application of, for example, resorcinol formaldehyde (RF)
glues, the joint strength could be seriously impaired.

Storage

Mixed adhesives have a very limited pot-life and any spare mixture left over
after the completion of a task should be discarded straight away.

Unmixed resins a n d hardeners have a shelf life and this should not be
exceeded. Resins in powder form which show signs of caking or corrosion of the
container and liquid resins which show signs of 'gelling' or have become
excessively viscous, should be rejected even if shelf life h a s not been exceeded.

Glues and resins should be stored in their original containers in clean dry
conditions out of direct sunlight. The temperature should not exceed 2 1"C
('70F).Glues and resins should be used on a "first in first out7'basis.

AIRCRAFT WOODEN STRUCTURES

The basic structure of a n aircraft made of wood is not too unlike a n aircraf
made from metal or composite - in principle.

The structure can either be:

* Non-monocoque
-k Monocoque
A Semi-monocoque

Non monococpe structures are those built on the beam principle. The
fuselage, for example, is made u p of longerons and struts made of wood. These
are compression members. Any tensile loads in the strrrct ure are normally
accommodated by tension wires. The whole structure is covered with fabric
(natural or synthetic) to provide a n aerodynamic shape. Secondary structure
may be added to improve the stxeamlining.
Figury 5 shows a typical wood structure rear fuselagt. whcre all the strength is
taken by the longerons and vertical and horizontal cross nlembers. Figure 6
shows a typical wing structure with a frorit and rear spare (with somctirnes a n
intermediate spar) to take the rnain bending loads and ribs to give strength and
shape to the aerofoil. The whole wmg is covered with f a b r ~ ca n d it is quite
common to cover the leading edge with plywood.

Figure 7 shows two examples of main spars. A s with all spar construction the
main principle is to get as much structure a t the top and bottorn of the spar,
To this end spars may be constructed using a web to support to support cap
strips or flanges a t the top and bottom - or the spar constructed as a box with
the main strength (spruce) members separated by ply webs.

Some spars may be made as a sirnple rectangular cross section - less

expensive but with a poorer strengthlweight ratio. Tailplanes and fins will
normally be constructed similar to the mainplanes.

FABRIC COVERING
PLYWOOD
COVERING\

HORIZONTAL.
SPACEHSISTRUTS

Fig. 5 NON-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE

FRONT SPAR MAIN SPAR

ATTACH M EN1 ATTACHMENT

WING - FABRI
COVERED

Fig. 6 WING CONSTRUCTION

Figure H shows two examples of the construction of ribs. These are both truss
type ribs made u p of square cross section spruce cap strips glued and p ~ n n e d
to each other using ply gussets. Some ribs may not be of open construction
(top rib ln figure 8) b u t m a y have a complete ply covering - in some cases with
lightening holes to reduce the overall weight.

EB

CAP STRIPS
OR FLANGES

pizmzq (IBEAiSPARl

Fig. 7 SPAR CONSTRUCTION

TRUSS TYPE RIB

PLY C O V E R I ~ GTO
BOTH SIDES OF RIB
STRUCTURE

Fig. 8 RIB CONSTRUCTION

Monocoque structures are rare but do exist - a t least for fuselages. Normally
made of plywood which is formed into a hoop to provide all the structural
reqrrire~nentsof the fuselage as well a s all the aerodynamic requirements. With
rnonococlue structure there is no internal bracing.

The de-Havilland Mosquito's rear fuselage is made of a plywood-balsawood -

plywood sandwich construct ion that forms a monocoque structure with no
internal support (the same principle a s a chicken's egg). The inside of the
fuselage is quite smooth except where brackets and 0thr.r fittings are attached
to take supports for flying control cables, electrical and radio cables,
ecluiprr~entetc.
 CROSS SECTION
OF FUSELAGE.

LOW DENSITY
BALSA WOOD
INFILL

Fig. 9 MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE

Semj monocoque structure (where the skin takes some of the load) is common
with metal aircraft. For wooden aircraft i t would involve the aircraft's skin
k i n g strong enough to take some of the load and this could only happen if the
skin was made of plywood with some internal support such a s frames a n d
stringers.

HORIZONTAL &
VERTICAL SPACERS
OR STRUTS

Fig. 10 SEMI-MONOCOQUE STRUCTURE

Figurc 10 shows the rear fuselage of the de-Havilland Rapide. It has four
longerons with vertical and horizontal spacers/strnts. I t is basically syllnre in
cross- section with a complete covering of plywood.
 Covering
tiat~r-~i:

'I'kte joining of wooden parts of the structure has already been dealt with but
little h a s been said of h o w the fabric is attached. It rnay be fitted to the
skeleton of the airframe by:

Tying o n WI th string.
* Fitting thr fabric covering a s a 'sock' over the wing/fuselage.
+
Clamplrlg on with special metal clamps.

Once the fabric is fitted on the airframe it is tautened by doping or the

application of heat a n d weatherproofed - using paints.

Fabric covering - and repairs -- will be dealt with in more detail later.

What follows is a general guide a s to the checks and inspections to be carried

out on wooden structures.

INSPECTION OF WOODEN STRUCTURES

When inspecting wooden structures it is most important that the relevant

aircraft maintenance manual be consulted.

'This part of the book gives guidance on the inspection of wooden aircraft
structures for evidence of deterioration of the timber a n d glued joints. I t should
be read in conjunction with the relevant aircraft manuals, approved
Maintenance Schedules and manufacturer's instructions.

Glued Structures

Provided that protective varnish was applied to all exposed wood surfaces after
gluing a n d the aircraft satisfactorily maintained, deterioration of the timber
and glued joints is unlikely. However, deterioration is possibly for many
reasons a n d the structure should be inspected regularly. Factors which m:Ad
cause deterioration include:

a) Chemical reactions of the glue itself due to ageing or moisture, or

to extremes of temperature or to a combination of these.
b) Stresses set u p due mainly to timber shrinkage.
c) Development of mycological growths (ie fungus).
(1) Oil corltamination from the engines, hydraulic systems etc.
c) Fuel coritamination due to fuel system leaks or spillage in the tank
bays.
f) Rain water jrigress and blockage of drainage holes.

Alr-craft which are exposed to large cyclic changes of temperature and humidity
arc. especially prone t o timber sl-~rinkagewhich in turn rnay lead to glue
dctc-rioration.
The amount of movement of timbers due to these changes varies with the
volume of each structure member, the rate of growth of the tree from wh1c.h the
timber was cut and the way in which the timber was converted. Thus, turo
large members secured to each other by glue, are unlikely to have identical
characteristics and differential loads will, therefore, be transmitted across the
glue joint due to humidity changes. This will impose stresses on the glued joint
which, in temperate zones, can normally be accommodated when the aircraft is
new and for some years afterwards. However, with age the glue tends to
deteriorate, even when the aircraft is maintained under ideal conditions a n d
these stresses may cause joint failure.

In most wooden aircraft of monoplane construction the main spars are of box
formation consisting of long top and bottom transverse members (ie spar
booms) joined by plywood webs. The spar booms may be built u p from
laminations glued together and a t intervals vertical wooden blocks are
positioned between the two booms to add support to the plywood sides.

The main spars carry most of the loads in flight and are, a t times, subject to
flexing. The glued joints should, therefore, be free from deterioration but,
unless the spar is dismantled or holes cut in the webs, internal inspection may
be virtually impossible.

Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to deteriorate

the weatherproofing qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes. If
fabric covered ply structures are neglected under these conditions the surface
finish will crack, allowing moisture to get to the wooden structure resulting in
deterioration through water soakage.

Aircraft General Structural Survey

Before commencing a detailed exarnination of the aircraft structure, the

structure should be inspected externally for signs of deformation, such a s
warped wing structures, tail surfaces out of alignment or evidence of obvious
structural failure. It may be prudent to carry out an airframe rigging check (see
the appropriate book in module 7).

The aircraft should be housed in a dry, well-ventilated hangar and all

inspect.ion panels, covers and hatches removed. It may be necessary to rernove
sections of fabric. (There is a CAA requirement [AN501 that all older wooden
aircraft are dismantled/opened-up from time to time to inspect a
representative sample of the wooden structure and any unserviceable wood
replaced.) The aircraft should be thoroughly dried out before examining glued
joints or carrying out repairs.

Should any defects be found in the opened-up section of the airframe t h Y n

further parts will have to be inspected by removing fabric covering fron~niore
parts of the airframe. It is possible that, if significant deterioration is fourrtl, the
aircraft will have to be completely uncovered and, after suitable rectificat Ion,
completely recovered.
Immediately on opening a n inspection panel, or any enclosed area a check
should be made for smell. Each component should be sniffed. A musty smell
indicates fungoid growth or dampness and, if present, necessitates a further
examination to establish which areas are affected.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 11 DOUBLE SKIN FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed a s integral stressed
structures, such as inner and outer ply skins glued and screwed to s t r u c t ~ .1
members (figure 11) no appreciable departure from the original contour or
shape is acceptable.

Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional
undulation or panting between panels may be permissible (check SRM)
provided the timber and glue Joints are sound. However, where such
conditions exist, a careful check must be made of the attachment of the ply to
its supporting structure. To check this, apply a moderate force by hand to
push the ply from the structure. A typical example of a single skin structure is
illustrated in figure 1 2.

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

SCREWS PLYWOOD
\

Fig. 12 SINGLE SKIN STRUCTURE

The contours and alignment of leading and trailing edges are susceptible to
deformation and should be checked carefully. Any distortion of these light ply
and spruce structures could indicate deterioration and a careful internal
inspection should be made. lf a general, check for security and any
deterioration - if found check the main wing structure also.
Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces o I
fuselages, wings or tailplane, check that water has not entered. If it has, heck
(

for internal deterioration and when refitting the inspection panels ensure that
they are waterproof.

Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be invest gated
by removing the defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply is
serviceable. It is common for a split in the ply skin to be the cause of a s~rnilar
defect in the fabric covering.

Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated dopings, may indicate that
the structure underneath h a s not been critically examined for some time.
Insertion patches in the fabric could also indicate that structural repairs liave
been made a t that point.

Whilst a preliminary external survey may be useful in obtaining a general

assessment of the condition of the aircraft, it should be remembered that
timber and glued joint deterioration often takes place inside a structure
without any external indications. Where moisture enters a structure, it will
cend to find the lowest point, where it could stagnate and promote rapid
deterjoration.

Inspection of Timber and Glued Joints

Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents

difficulties since there is no positive NDT method of examination which will give
a clear indication of the condition of the glue and timber inside a joint. The
position is made more difficult by the lack of accessibility for visual inspection.

The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will

necessitate checks on remote parts of the structure which may be known, or
suspected trouble spots and, in many instances, are boxed in or otherwise
inaccessible. In such instances, considerable dismantling is required and it
may be necessary to remove all the fabric and to cut access holes in ply
structures to facilitate the inspection. This must be done only in accordance
with approved drawings or the Structure Repair Manual (SRM) for the aircraft
concerned and, after the inspection has been completed, the structure must be
made good and re-protected.

All known or suspected trouble spots must be closely inspected regardless of

log book records indicating that the aircraft has been well maintained ancl
properly housed throughout its life.

Note. Where access is required and no approved scheme exists, approval

should be obtained from the aircraft manufacturer or a n organisation
approved by the C M for such work.
Ply Access Holes

In general, access holes are circular in shape and should be cut with a sharp
trepanning tool to avoid jagged edges. It is essential to avoid applying undue
pressure to the cutting tool, especially towards the end of the cut, otherwise
damage may be caused to the inner face of the panel by stripping off the edge
fibres or the ply laminations.

Where rectangular access holes are prescribed care is necessary to ensure that
they are correctly located and that corner radii are in accordance with drawing
requirements.

NUT & BOLT

PLYWOOD SKIN

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 13 GLUE LINE CHECKS

The edges of all access holes must be smoothed with fine glasspaper, prefc ,bly
before inspection is commenced, since contact with the rough edges may
damage fingers (cuts and splinters) and cause wood fibres to be pulled away.

It is important that the whole of the aircraft structure - front fuselage, rear
fuselage, tailplane, fin, elevators, rudder, ailerons, flaps, slats, struts, etc - is
inspected in detail before any decision is reached regarding its general
condition.

Remember, when cutting an access hole it is most important that damage is

not done to structure (or components) the other side of the hole.
Glue Line

When checking a glue line (at the edge of the glued joint), all protective paint
coating should be removed by careful scraping. It is important not to damage
the wood in any way nor to mark or damage the glue line.

A good source of light is needed together with a magnifying glass, feeler gauges
and remote viewing mirrors, intra-scopes etc,

Where the glue line appears to tend to part, or where the presence of an actual
glue line cannot be detected or it is suspect, then, providing the wood is d r y ,
the glue line should be probed with a thin feeler gauge and, if any penetration
is possible, the joint should be regarded a s defective.

Notes

1. It is important to ensure that the surrounding wood is dry,

otherwise a false impression of the glue line would be obtained due
to closure of the joint by the wood swelling.
2. Where pressure is exerted on the joint, either by the surrounding
structure or by bolts or screws, this pressure should be relieved so
a better assessment of the glue line may be made.

The choice of feeler gauge thickness will vary with the type of structure, Gut a
rough guide is that the thinnest possible gauge should be used. Figure 13
indicates the points where checks with a feeler gauge should be made.

Timber Condition

Dry rot and decay are usually easy to detect. Dry rot is indicated by small
patches of crumbling wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood surface or
grey streaks of stain running along the grain are indicative of water
penetration. Where such discolouration cannot be removed by light scraping
+he part should be rejected or repaired a s per the AMM. Staining of the wood
~y the dye from a synthetic adhesive hardener can be disregarded.

Water Penetration of Structure

If this js suspect in an area where there are some wood screws remove one or
two and check if they are corroded (figure 14).

Slight corrosion of the screw due to the adhesive may occur during original
construction, so the condition of the screw should be compared with that of a
similar screw, removed from another part of the structure known to be 11-ee
frorn water ingress.

Excess corrosion will warrant further investigation a s to the cause.

 BULKHEAD FRAME
SKIN SPACER

WOODSCREW

CORROSION caused by
moisture ingress and
possibly indicating glued
joint failure

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 14 CHECKING FOR WATER INGRESS

Note. Plain brass screws are normally used for reinforcing glued wooden
members, although zinc coated brass is sometimes used. Where hard woods
such a s mahogany or a s h are concerned, steel screws are sometimes used.
Unless otherwise specified by the aircraft manufacturer, it is usual to replace
screws with new screws of identical length but one size larger.

The removal of bolts, bushes, support brackets, metal fittings etc can also
provide a means whereby water ingress can be checked. Be careful to ensure
that any items attached to the airframe by these bolts etc are properly
supported before the bolt, bush etc is removed.

Main/rear spar bolts/ bushes may be removed (again ensuring adequate

support of fuselage/wing, tailplane etc). Primary joints may have bushed holes
and the bushes should also be withdrawn. Corrosion on the surface of these
bolts and bushes and timber discolouration, will provide a useful indicatiol ,f
any water penetration. Bolts and bushes should be smeared with an appr zd
protective treatment before being refitted through wooden members.

Note. When refitting bolts it is important to ensure that the same number of
shrinkage washers are fitted as were fitted originally.

Experience of a particular aircraft will indicate those parts of the structure

most prone to water penetration and entrapment (eg a t window rails or the
bottom lower structure of entry doors), but it must be remembered that this is
not necessarily indicative of the condition of the whole aircraft.

All drain holes should be kept clear of debris, paint, dope etc.
Water Penetration of Top Surfaces

The condition of the weather-proofed fabric covering must be checked (set. later
text). If in any doubt about its weather-proofing or if t.here are any signs of poor
adhesion, cracks or other damage, it should be peeled back to allow a more
thorough inspection.

Where the fabric covers a plywood layer the condition of the exposed ply
surface should be examined and if water penetration has occurred, this will be
shown by dark grey streaks along the grain and a dark discolouration at ply
joints or screw countersunk holes, together with patches of discolouratior~.If
these marks cannot be removed by light scraping, or in the case of advanced
deterioration, where there are small surface cracks or separation of the ply
laminations, then the ply should be replacedlrepaired iaw the SRM.

The fabric can be replaced/repaired after the ply repair.

Qther Defects

Of course, water/moisture penetration is not the only defect that can occur to
wooden structures. Below are listed others that should be examined for.

Shrinkage. This can induce stresses in glued joints and cause looseness of
metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are present, can result in
damage to the wood fibres a t the edges of the fittings or around the bolt holes.
Shrinkage can be detected by removing any paint or varnish as described
above and attempting to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber and the
fitting or bolt head.

Elongated Bolt Holes. All bolt holes should be examined for elongation or local
surface crushing of the wood fibres. The bolts should be removed to facilitate
the examination and, in some cases, the bolt itself may be found to be strained.
Rectification of elongated bolt holes is carried out in accordance with the SRM,
'-he usual method being to open out the holes and fit steel bushes.

Remember, when removing bolts to support the structure that the bolt is
holding.

Bruising and Crushing. Bruising or crushing of structural members can be

caused by over-tightening of bolts, excessive loads being placed on the
structure during maintenance etc. Repair schemes for such damage arc
governed by the extent and depth of the defect and given in the SRM.

Compression Failures. Sometimes referred to as compression shakes, art: due

to rupture across the wood fibres. This is a serious defect which at times is
difficult to detect and special care is necessary when inspecting any wood(:n
member which has been subjected to abnormal bending or compressive loads
which may occur during a heavy landing.
In the case of a member having been subjected to an excessive bending load,
the failure will appear on the surface which has been compressed, usually at a
position of concentrated stress such a s a t the end of a hardwood packing
block. The surface subject to tension will normally not show any defect. For a
member taking an excessive direct compressive load, the failure will usually
show on all surfaces.

Where a compression failure is suspected, a strong light source shone along

the member, in line with the grain, will assist in revealing the disruption of the
grain lines.

Previous Repairs. Not really a defect, but when carrying out a structural
examination always inspect repairs carefully for integrity.

,Joint Failure

A glued joint may fail in service a s a result of a n accident, poor workmanshi-,

or due to excessive loads being imposed. It is often difficult to decide the n? ire
of the load which caused the failure, but it should be borne in mind that g l ~ c d
joints are generally designed to take shear loads.

If a joint is designed to take a tension load, it will be secured by a number of

bolts or screws (or both) fairly closely pitched in the area of the loading. If a
failure occurs in this area, it is usually difficult to form an opinion of the actual
reasons for it, due to the break-up of the timber occurring close to the bolts.

In all cases of glued joint failure, whatever the direction of loading, there
should be a fine layer of wood fibres adhering to the glue, whether or not the
glue has come away completely from one section of the wood member. If there
is no evidence of fibre adhesion, this may indicate glue deterioration, but if the
imprint of wood gain is visible in the glue this is generally due to 'case
hardening' of the glue during construction of the joint and the joint has always
been below strength. If the glue exhibits a certain amount of crazing or sta-
shaped patterns, this indicates a too rapid setting time, or the pot life of th,
glue has been exceeded. In these cases, the other glued joints in the aircrh,,
should be considered suspect.

Damage caused by a heavy landing may be found some distance away from the
landing gear attachment points. Secondary damage can be introduced by
transmitted shock from one end of a strut or bracing to the other, causing
damage well away from the point of impact. A thorough inspection of the
existing paint or varnish a t suspected primary or secondary impact points may
reveal, by cracks or flaking, whether damage has actually occurred.

Note.

If the aircraft is stored outside or in hot dry conditions then special checks will
be required for deterioration of wood, joints, fabric and painting and doping
finishes.
 REPAIRS TO WOODEN STRUCTURES

Whenever wooden parts sustain damage, a detailed inspection must be carried

out - firstly around the primary damage area (where the initial impact
occurred) and then the surrounding area to check for secondary damage
Secondary damage in the form of cracks, bowing and splitting sometimes
occurs a distance away from the primary damage area caused by shock
transmission along members.

Repairs are carried out to damaged areas and to areas where deterioration has
occurred strictly iaw the repair manual (SRM).If a repair scheme is not
specified by the manufacture for a particular part of the structure/particular
type of damage then the manufacturer should be contacted for detail of how to
proceed.

The purpose of a repair is to obtain a structure a t least a s strong a s the

original. Severe damage may require replacement of the entire damaged
assembly, but minor damage can be repaired by cutting away the damaged
members and replacing them with new sections. This replacement is
accomplished by glue, or glue and nails, or glued and screw splicing.

Damage may be classed as:

* Negligible - small areas of wood damage that might just need
blending out and a varnish treatment.
* Damage repairable by patching. A plywood patch or length of
timber applied over the damaged area (after the damage has been
cut to a regular shape). Fitted using glue, nails and/or screws.
* Damage repairable by insertion. The damage is c u t to a regular
shape and a n insertion is spliced in.
* Damage repairable by replacement. The whole section is removed
and a new section fitted.

Tools

Standard wood working tools are required to include hammers, mallets, saws
(hand and powered), wood chisels, planes, spoke shaves (a sort of small hand
plane) drill bits, screwdrivers, sanding equipment, scrapers, rasps, glue pots,
glue mixing equipment, clamps etc.

Materials

These include various sizes of nails, panel pins, woodscrews and glue resins
and hardeners.
Safety equipment includes overalls, gloves, breathing equipment and goggles.

Several types of wood are commonly used. Solid wood such a s beams or planks
will be needed and also various thicknesses of plywood (sometimes just ply or
laminated wood) will be required.

Laminated wood is an assembly of two or more thin layers (veneers) of wood,

which have been glued together with the grain of all layers approximately
parallel.

Plywood is usually made of a n odd number of veneers with the grain of each
layer a t an angle of 90" with the adjacent ply or plies. High-density material
includes compreg, impreg or similar commercial products, heat stabilised wood
or any of the hardwood plywoods commonly used a s bearing or reinforcement
plates. The woods listed below are used for structural purposes. For interior
trim, any of the decorative woods such a s maple or walnut can be used.

WOOD USES (Only where specified in the SRM)

Spruce All structural members.

Douglas Fir May be used a s substitute for spruce in same

sizes or in slightly reduced sizes.

Noble Fir May be used as substitute for spruce.

Western Hemlock May be used a s substitute for spruce.

Northern White Pine Cannot be used a s substitute for spruce without

increase in sizes to compensate for reduced
strength.

White Cedar May be used a s substitute for spruce in same

sizes or in slightly reduced sizes.

Yellow Poplar Should only be used a s a substitute for spruce

after accounting for reduced strength properties.

All wood and plywood used in the repair of aircraft structures must be of
aircraft quality. Ideally the wood used to repair a part should be the same as
that of the original whenever possible. If it is necessary to substitute a different
wood, always follow the recommendations a s laid down in the SRM.

Maximum grain inclination shollld not exceed 1: 15

Permitted Defects

Ideally the wood should be defect free but often this is not possible and some
defects will be present. Some defects are allowed - other are not.

Cross grain. Spiral grain, diagonal grain or a combination of the two is

acceptable providing the grain does not diverge from the longitudinal axis of
the material more than 1:15. A check of all four faces of the board is necessary.
The direction of free-flowing ink will assist in determining grain direction

Wavy, curly and interlocked grain. Acceptable if irregularities do not exceed

limitations specified a s above.

Hard knots. Sound hard knots u p to 3/8" (10mm) diameter are acceptable
providing: (1) they are not in projecting portions of the I-beams, along the edges
of rectangular or bevelled unrouted beams, or along the edges of flanges of box
beams (except in lowly stressed portions) and (2) they do not cause grain
divergence a t the edges of the board or in the flanges of a beam more than
1 : 15.

They should not be in the centre third of the beam and should not be closer
than 20" (508mm) to another knot or other defect (applies to lOmm knots -
smaller knots may be proportionately closer).

Pin knot clusters. Small clusters are acceptable providing they produce only a
small effect on grain direction.

Pitch pockets. Acceptable in the centre portion of a beam providing they are a t
least 14" (356mm) apart where they are in the same growth ring and do not
exceed 1%'' (38mm) in length by %" (3mm)width by 1/8" depth and providirig
they are not along the projecting portions of I-beams, along the edges of
rectangular or bevelled unrouted beams, or along the edges of the flanges of
box beams.

Mineral streaks. Acceptable providing there is no decay.

Defects Not Permitted

Spike knots. These are knots running completely through the depth of the
beam perpendicular to the annual rings and appear most frequently in
quartersawed lumber.

Checks, shakes and splits. Checks are longitudinal cracks extending,

generally, across the annular rings. Shakes are longitudinal cracks usually
between two annular rings. Splits are longitudinal cracks induced by induced
stress.
Compression wood. This defect reduces the strength of the wood and is difficult
to recognise. It is characterised by its high specific gravity (heavy) and it has
the appearance of a n excessive growth of summer wood. In most woods it
shows little contrast in colour between the spring wood and the summer wood,
If in doubt reject the wood, or subject samples to a toughness test.

Compression failures. This is caused by the wood being overstressed in

compression by natural forces during the growth of the tree, felling trees on
rough or irregular ground, or rough handling of logs. Compression failures are
characterised by a buckling of the fibres that appear as streaks on the surface
substantially a t right angles to the grain and can show as pronounced failures
to very fine hairlines. In doubtful cases carry out a toughness test.

Decay. Examine all stains and discolorations to determine whether or not they
decay. All wood must be free from decay.

Spliced Joints

This a process of inserting a piece of solid wood or ply into a n existing w o o ~ c n

member.

The scarf joint is generally used in splicing structural members. The two pieces
to be joined are cut a t a n angle (bevelled) and glued. The slope of the bevel
should be not less than 10 to 1 in solid wood and 12 to 1 in plywood. The scarf
is cut in the general direction of the grain.

PRESSURE I I PART BEING

/
PART BEING
SCARF CUT
JOINED

Fig. 15 SCARF JOINT

When making the scarf it is important to ensure that the two mating edges are
in close contact. The best method for doing this is to cut the two scarf mating
edges separately then clamp them together using G clamps and 2 strong
timbers (two by four - 2in x 4in). Then a fine toothed saw is run down the joint
to act similar to a router.

The process may need repeating after tapping the timbers closer together. The
edges are then given a light plane.

The scarf may not be exactly 1 in 10 (though it should be close) but a t least the
two mating surfaces will be exactly parallel to provide a sound glued joint.
If softwood, subsequent sanding should not be carried out but is recomnlr.nded
for some hard plyu~oodsurfaces, wood that has been compressed through
exposure to high pressure and temperatures, resin-impregnated wood (irr~pr-eg
and compreg), or laminated paper plastic (papreg)

It is recommended that no more than 8 hours elapse between final surhc:e

finishing and gluing.

Plywood Skin Repairs

Most skin repairs can be made using:

* The surface or overlay patch - a rectangular, triangular, oral c.)r
round patch fitted over the cleaned out damaged area.
* The splayed or flush fitting patch - for use with smaller damaged
areas.
x
The scarf patch - similar to the splayed patch but uses a scarf of 1
in 12 and used for bigger repairs.
* A plug patch - similar to an insertion repair for metal airframes.
* A fabric patch - for very small holes.

The Surface Patch

Should not be used on plywood over l/s inch (3mm) thick and the general
procedure is:

1. Consult the SRM for repair details and the AMM for details of
systems and equipment that may need removing to gain access.

2. Bring aircraft and materials into hangar for 24 hours to allow to

get to correct temperature for gluing (if in cold climate).

3. Trim the damage rectangular or triangular shape depending on the

location of the damage relative to other structure such a s frarnes
and formers. The corners of the cutout should be rounded with a
radius of a t least five times the thickness of the skin.

4. Classify the damage - this is always carried out after cleaning out
the damage to a regular shape.

5. Manufact~x-ethe backing plates (doublers) from ply a t least a s

thick a s the skin. These are reinforcements placed under thc edge
of the hole inside the skin.
 The doubler should extended from one framing member to another
and are strengthened at the ends by saddle gussets attached to the
frames.

6. Cut the patch to extend a t least 12 times the skin thickness

beyond the edges of the opening from material of the same kind
and thickness a s the original skin. The edges of the patch are
bevelled (scarfed).

7. Apply glue to a.11 surfaces (refer to the adhesives section in this

book) and nail to prevent any movement. Clamp together if
possible --if not apply weights to ensure surfaces are held tightly
together.

8. After the glue has dried the area should be covered with fabric if on
the outside of the aircraft. The fabric should overlap the original
ply skin by a t least 2 inches (51mm).

9. The fabric should be doped and any paint schemes reapplied.

10. Any disturbed systems refitted and function tested.

11. The appropriate documentation cleared eg the CRS completed.

PLY PATCH
PLY SKlN
SKlN
DAMA

DOUBLER
/ BEHIND
HOLE CUT TO SIZE SKIN

Fig. 16 TYPICAL PLYWOOD PATCH

BEVELED EDGES
\
T PATCH PLYWOOD SKIN
\
3T 114" MIN

-- i

Fig. 1'7 SECTION A-A TYPICAL PLYWOOD PATCH

The leading edge of a surface patch should be bevelled with an angle of at least
four times the skin thickness. The face-grain direction of the ply patch must be
in the same direction a s the original skin.
The Splayed or Flush Patch

A splayed patch is a patch fitted into the plywood to provide a flush surface.
The term 'splayed' denotes that the edges of the patch are tapered, but thy
slope is steeper than is allowed in scarfing joints. The slope of the edges is cut
at an angle of five times the thickness of the skin.

Splayed patches are used for small holes where the largest dimension of the
hole to be repaired is not greater than 15 times the skin thickness and t.hy skin
thickness is not more than 0.1" (2.5mm).

After trimming the damage to a regular shape, tack a small piece of plywood
under the hole to provide a centre point for a compass. Draw two concentric
circles around the damaged area on the aircraft skin. The difference between
the radii is five times the skin thickness. The inner circle marks the limit of the
actual hole and the outer one marks the limit of the taper.

Cut out the inner circle and taper the hole evenly to the outer mark with a.
-,hisel, knife or rasp. Prepare a circular patch, cut and tapered to match the
nole. The patch is of the same type and thickness as the plywood being
repaired.

Apply glue to the bevelled surfaces and place the patch into place with the
face-grain direction matching that of the original surface.

After the patch is in place, a pressure plate cut to the same size of the patch is
centred over the patch, with waxed paper between the two and pressed firmly
against the patch with a weight or clamp to provide pressure. Do not use
excessive pressure. After the glue has set, fill, sand and finish the patch to
match the original surface.

WEIGHTS 114" PLY

T = 0.1" OR OR CLAMP PRESSURE PLATE
LESS / WAXPAPEROR

I 4 I- \ \
5T PATCH PLYWOOD SKIN

Fig. 18 SPLAYED PATCH

Scarf Patch

Scarf patches are preferred for most skin repairs as they provide a smooth
outer finish. The scarf patch differs from the splayed patch in that it car1 be
larger (limits laid down in SRM) and the edges are scarfed to a 10 to 1 slope
instead of the 5 to 1 used with the splayed patch. The scarf patch also uses
reinforcements under the patch where the glue joints occur.
Scarfed patches are used on flat surfaces or curved surfaces provided they are
not too curved (greater than 100 times the skin thickness). Backing blocks or
other reinforcements must be shaped to fit any skin curvature.

3T 114 MIN SCARF

/ / 1

Fig. 19 SCARF PATCH

Whenever possible, the scarf edge of the patch should be supported internally.

A backing block is shaped from solid wood and fitted to the inside surface of
the skin and is temporarily held in place with nails. A hole, the same size as
the inside circle of the scarf patch, is made in the block and is centered ove-
the trimmed area of damage. The block is removed after the glue on the pa' -1
has set, leaving a flush surface to the repaired skin.

When the back of a damaged plywood skin is not accessible, it should be

repaired a s follows: After removing the damaged sections, install backing
strips along all edges that are not fully backed by a rib or spar. To prevent
warping of the skin, backing strips should be made of a soft textured plywood,
such a s yellow poplar or spruce rather than solid wood. All junctions between
backing strips and ribs or spars should have the end of the backing strip
supported by a saddle plywood gusset.

If needed, nail and glue the new gusset plate to the rib or frame. It may be
necessary to replace the old gusset plate with a new saddle gusset, or it may be
necessary to nail a saddle gusset over the original.

Attach nailing strips to hold backing strips in place while the glue sets. U s , 3
bucking bar if necessary to provide support when nailing. After the glue SF. i,
fill and finish to match the original skin.

Plug Patches

Similar to an insertion patch, they may be oval or round and are used on
plywood skins. They are used only for damage that does not involve the
supporting structure under the skin.

The plug patch is made u p of a plug or insert with edges cut square and a
backing piece or doubler.
 BUTT JOINT PLUG PATCH PLY S K I N

/
/ \\ /
/

PLYWOOD DOUBLER

Fig. 20 PLUG PATCH

The skin is cut out to a clean round or oval hole with square edges. The patch
is cut to the same size and when installed, the edge of the patch forms a butt
joint with the edge of the hole.

A round patch can be used where the cutout is no larger than 6" (152mrn) in
diameter. The general procedure is not too unlike that described for a si-lrface
repair with the following main points of difference:

1. A plug patch is cut of same material and thickness a s the original

skin with square edges.

2. Cut insert and hole in skin the same size.

3. Cut the doubler or backing piece of %" (6mm) plywood.

4. Apply a coat of glue to the outer half of the doubler surface where
it will bear against the inner surface of the skin.

5. Centre doubler a t back of skin hole. Nail in place using a bxlcking

bar or similar support for backing and clamp.

6. After the glue has set, apply glue to the centre surface of the
doubler and insert. Place the insert in hole and screw with No 4
wood screws a t 1" (25mm) pitch.

7. Apply pressure to patch by means of a pressure plate. Place waxed

paper or cellophane between plate and patch to prevent glue from
sealing plate to the patch.

9. After the glue has set, remove pressure plate, waxed paper, nails
and screws. Fill nail and screw holes, sand and finish to match the
original surface.

The steps for making an oval plug patch are similar to those for making the
round patch. The maximum dimensions for oval patches are 7" by 5" (178mrn x
127mm).
Fabric Patch

Small holes that do not exceed more than 1" (25mm) in diameter, after being
trimmed to a smooth outline, can be repaired by doping a fabric patch on the
outside of the plywood skin. The edges of the trimmed hole should first be
sealed and the fabric patch should overlap the plywood skin by at least 1".
Holes closer than 1 inch to any frame, or in the wing leading edge or frontal
area of the fuselage, should not be repaired with fabric patches. The patch
should have a serrated edge.

Spar And Rib Repairs (Solid Wood Repairs)

For minor damage the web members of a spar or rib can be repaired by
applying a n external or flush patch, provided the damaged area is small.
Planks of spruce or plywood of sufficient thickness to develop the longitudinal
shear strength can be glued to both sides of the spar. Extend the planks well
beyond the termination of any damage - a s laid down in the SRM.

If more extensive damage has occurred, the web should be cut back to
structural members and repaired with a scarf patch or joint. Not more than
two splices should be made in any one spar.

A spar may be spliced at any point except near highly stressed areas such as
wing attachment fittings, landing- gear fittings, engine mountings, or lift and
inter-plane strut fittings. Splicing under minor fittings such a s drag wires,
anti-drag wires or compression strut fittings is acceptable provided that the
reinforcement plates of the splice should not interfere with the proper
attachment or alignment of the fittings. For other fittings any measurements a s
to proximity/overlapping of reinforcing backing pieces etc are not exceeded.

Always splice and reinforce plywood webs with the same type of plywood as the
original. Do not use solid wood to replace plywood. Plywood is stronger in
shear than solid wood of the same thickness because of the variation in
grain direction of the individual plies. The face-grain of plywood replaceme.
webs and reinforcement plates must be in the same direction a s that of the.
.
original member to ensure that the new web will have the required strength.

Bolt and Bushing Holes

All bolts and bushings used in aircraft structures must fit tightly into the
holes. Looseness allows the bolt or fitting to work back and forth which will
enlarge the hole. In cases of elongated bolt holes in a spar or cracks in the
vicinity of boltholes, splice in a new section of spar or replace the spar entirely.

Holes drilled to receive bolts should be of such a size that the bolt can be
inserted by light tapping with a mallet. If the hole is so tight that heavy blows
are necessary to insert the bolt, deformation of the wood may cause splitting or
unequal load distribution.
Well-sharpened twist drills produce smooth holes in both solid wood and
plywood. The twist drill should be sharpened to approximately a 60" c u t t ~ n g
angle.

Bushings made of plastic or light alloy provide additional bearing surfacv area
without any significant increase in weight. Sometimes steel bushings are used
to prevent crushing the wood when bolts are tightened.

Rib Repairs

A cap strip of a rib can be repaired using a scarf splice. The repair is reinforced
on the side opposite the wing covering by a spruce block, which extends
beyond the scarf joint not less than three times the thickness of the strips
being repaired. The entire splice, including the reinforcing block, is rei~lforced
on each side by a plywood plate.

When the cap strip is to be repaired a t a point where there is a joint between it
and cross members of the rib, the repair is made by reinforcing the scarf joint
with plywood gussets.

When it is necessary to repair a cap strip a t a spar, the joint should be

reinforced by a continuous gusset extending over the spar.

Edge damage, cracks, or other local damage to a spar can be repaired by

removing the damaged portion and gluing in a properly fitted block, reinforcing
the joint by means of plywood or spruce blocks glued into place.

The trailing edge of a rib can be replaced and repaired by removing the
damaged portion of the cap strip and inserting a softwood block of white pine
or spruce. The entire repair is then reinforced with plywood gussets and nailed
and glued.

Compression ribs (the members fitted between the top and bottom of a rib)
come in many different forms and their repair will be specified in the S R M .

Ideally smaller items structural members such a s glue blocks, filler blocks,
compression members, braces and rib diagonals should be replaced.

FABRIC COVERING

The fabric covering of a n airframe is to provide a n aerodynamic airtight and

weatherproof covering (achieved after doping and painting). The fabric has
some strength in tension but non in compression.

If a large area of the aircraft is to be covered (or the whole aircraft) an

opportunity presents itself for the inspection of the complete skeleton of t /le
airframe and a visually inspection of all the systems, pipelines, cables, c-ot i trol
runs etc.
All foreign matter is removed and protective treatments (as prescribed in the
relevant drawings/AMM) must be applied. It may be necessary to install flying
control cables, electric cables, fuel tanks and other syst~ems/components
before covering large areas and these should be inspected as necessary and
checked for security. The most suitable conditions for fabric covering are -
room temperature [16"C to 2 1O C (61O F to 70F)]and a relative humidity of not
more than 70%.

MATERIALS

This part of the book describes the materials used in the covering of UK
manufactured aircraft. Non UK fabric-covered aircraft use these or similar
materials manufactured in accordance with equivalent specifications.

Natural Fabrics

Supplied in bolts, rather like large toilet rolls. These fabrics are woven frorr
spun threads or 'yarns'; those running lengthwise are termed the Warp YalLis
and those running crosswise are termed Weft Yarns (they run from weft to
white - a play on words 'Left to Right').

After manufacture the fabric is inspected by being passed over a light-box and
any defects noted. These are marked by sewing a small piece of red cotton on
the selvedge of the fabric. The fabric is then wound on a spindle to form the
bolt.

The selvedge is the non-fraying edge of the fabric where the weft yarns are
'turned around' during the weaving process.

When in use the bolt is hung from a steel bar suspended from the ceiling and
the fabric is pulled down in a similar way to how toilet paper is pulled from a
toilet roll. Where a defect is noted (by the red cotton on the self-edge) that 2--a
is c u t away and is not used for aircraft work.

The number of yarns per centimetre (or per inch) varies with different weights
of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both the warp and the weft
directions.

When an unsupported fabric covering is required to carry air loads,

unbleached linen to British Standards (BS) F1 is normally used, but some
aircraft have coverings of cotton fabric complying with BS F8, BS F57, BS F116
or DTD 575A.

A light cotton fabric complying with BS F 114 (referred to a s Madapolam) is

generally used for covering plywood surfaces. This acts as a key to the doping
scheme, giving added strength, weather proofing and improved surface finish.
 BOLT OF
FABRIC

DEFECT
---
INDICATOR WEFT YARNS

SELVEDGE I

FRAYING EDGE ' \

SELVEDGE

Fig. 21 A BOLT OF FABRIC

Tapes

Linen tapes complying with B8 F1 and cotton tapes complying with BS F8 are
available in various widths. They are used to cover leading edges, trailing
edges, ribs, stitching and for repair work. They are usually doped into position
- the dope acting as an adhesive. The tapes are supplied with serrated edges
sometimes called pinked edges.

If linen tape is not available then I t may be cut from a bolt of fabric using a soft
pencil and rule for marking out and cutting using pinking shears (serrated
edge scissors). If serrated edge scissors are not available the edges of the fabric
must have their wrap yarns removed (teased away) to leave only the weft yarns
for a %" (6mm) on each side.

The reason why the edges of the tape are serrated is that the zigzag edge
effectively lengthens the edge (compared to if it was straight) - and this
provides a longer edge to give better adhesion.

Cotton tape complying with BS F47 (referred to as 'Egyptian Tape') is generally

used on those members where chafing may occur between the structure and
the fabric and is also used externally to protect the fabric against damage by
the stringing cord (stringing = tying the fabric onto ribs etc).

Egyptian tape (which is quite expensive) has three thread inclinations - weft,
warp and bias - with the bias thread being woven a t 45'. Both edges are
selvedges and therefore it cannot be made u p by cutting from the bolt but must
be ordered in from stores.
Thread. Used for hand or machine sewing. Linen thread complying with BS
F34 is normally used. For hand sewing, No 40 thread (minimum breaking
strength 3 kg [7 lb]) is used double, or No 18 thread (minimum breaking
strength 7.25 kg [ l 6 Ib]) is used single. For machine sewing, No 30 thread
(minimum breaking strength 4.5 kg [ l o lb]) or No 40 thread is used.

Sewing machines are not too unlike domestic sewing machines - but often
have a longer arm to allow for sewing greater amounts of material. They are
used to sew together pieces or fabric prior to putting on the aircraft.

Stringing

Flax cordage complying with BS F35 or braided nylon cord (coreless) complying
with DTD 5620 is normally used. Used to tie the fabric to the structure.

Eyeleted Fuselage Webbing

On a number of older aircraft, cotton-webbing braid with hooks, or lacing

eyelets and kite cord, are used for securing the fabric to the fuselage.

Man-Made Fabrics

Natural fabrics, such as cotton or linen, deteriorate in use a s a result of the

effects of sunlight, mildew or atmospheric pollution and may require
replacement several times during the life of the aircraft.

Man-made fabrics are rlow approved and used extensively on many aircraft
which makes fabric recovering less frequent.

The two main types of materials are polyester-fibre and glass-fibre, which are
marketed under various trade names (Dacron etc). The general procedure for
the use of these fabric is given below but, of course, you should always cor, ~ l t
the AMM/SRM for the aircraft concerned -- and follow the fabric
manufacturer's recommendations.

Polyester-Fibre Materials. These may be attached to the structure by the

methods described later under the heading "Covering Methods" or by use of
pre-sewn envelopes ("sock" method) or by use of an approved adhesive a t the
points of contact with the structure. The materials used for attachment and
stringing must be compatible with the main fabric.

Before stringing, polyester fibre covers are tautened by the application of heat,
the degree of shrinkage being proportional to the heat applied. The most
common method of applying heat is a household iron set a t about 120C ('wool'
setting) and used in an ironing motion. Care is necessary to prevent the
application of excessive heat as this may melt the fibre, or overtauten the fabric:
and distort the airframe structure.
Where non-tautening dope is used after fabric fitting, the fabric may be fully
tautened prior to doping (check by tapping the fabric with the fingers - it
should be tight - similar to a drum, but not too tight), but where tauteri~rrg
dope is used the initial shrinkage should leave the cover fairly slack, since
tautenir~gwill continue over- a period of months after the dope has bee11
applied.

(If in doubt as to how much tautening is needed - make u p a wooden frame

about a metre square - cover it with fabric - and use it a s a test piece. One can
always do this some days before the planned time for the actual doping so as to
be ready when the time comes.)

Repairs within the specified limits may be carried out (as described later), a n d /
or patches may be stuck on, using a suitable adhesive. Large patches should
be tautened in the same way as the main covering fabric.

Glass-Fibre Materials. Glass-fibre fabric is normally fitted to mainplanes and

tailplanes in a spanwise direction, being attached a t the leading and trailing
.edges with a 50mm (2 in) doped seam. Fuselages may conveniently be covered
using four pieces of material a t the top, bottom and sides, doped seams again
being employed. Some glass-fibre material is pre-treated to make it compatible
with cellulose acetate butyrate dope and is not suitable for use with cellulose
nitrate dope.

Glass-fi'bre material is only slightly tautened by doping and must be a good

initial fit, after which glass-fibre stringing should be fitted in the appropr-ia.te
manner.

Repairs within the specified limits may be made by cutting out the damaged
area of fabric and doping on a cover patch which overlaps 50mm (2 in) a11
round.

Storage

All materials used for fabric covering should be stored at a temperature of'
about 20C (68F)in dry, clean conditions and away from direct sunlight.
When required for use, the materials should be inspected for possible flaws (eg
iron mould discolouration, signs of insect, rodent or other damage) and any
affected parts rejected.

PREPARATION OF STRUCTURE PRIOR TO COVERING

The structure should be prepared by removing all sharp edges from any parts
which will be in contact with the fabric. Wood should be lightly sanded a11d
metal edges taped with Egyptian tape to prevent chafing. Where any covering
tape is wound on structure it is important to ensure that the covered parts are
suitable protected from corrosion (metal parts) or deterioration generally
(wooden parts) - and all carried out in accordance with (iaw) the SRM.
The structure to be covered should be inspected as outlined above. Corners,
edges,
- projections,
- -
bolt or screw heads etc should be suitable protected. Where
serious chafing may occur and a strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or
leather patch may be sewn to a fabric patch, then doped into position.

In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to
prevent fabric from adhering to wooden structure (where it should not adhere),
all aerofoil members whlch will be in contact with the fabric are normally
covered with adhesive cellulose or aluminium tape, or painted with dope-
resistance white paint. Exceptions to this requirement are described later.

On some aircraft, which have a tubular metal fuselage frame (primary

structure), the fuselage shape is made u p with wooden formers attached to the
main framework and to these wooden formers are secured stringers onto which
the fabric covering is doped. This secondary structure must be inspected for
security and any sharp edges removed with fine glass paper.

Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection

should be provided by wrapping such parts with Egyptian tape. Before the
tape is applied the structure should be treated with varnish to protect it fr~.,n
corrosion should the tape become wet.

Flying/other controls and cables should be tensioned to assume their normal

positions and secured by cont.ro1 locks.

COVERING METHODS

An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running a t 45" to the
slipstream, or in line with the slipstream. The former (bias) method is generally
considered to be stronger and more resistant to tearing, but the latter method
is used on most light aircraft. Two covering methods are described below, but
the actual method used will depend on the SRM.

The Prefabricated Envelope

Sometimes called the "sock method" where a fabric envelope is made u p on the
bench using machine sewing etc. Each envelope is made u p from a pattern
using accurate measurements (rule, pencil etc). An envelope is made u p for the
for the mainplanes, fuselage, tailplane, fin, flying control surfaces etc.

The envelopes are made loose enough (but not too loose) to facilitate slipping
them over the structure and to achieve the proper tautness after doping. They
are attached to the structure by stringing or other approved methods. Some
fixtures may be fitted and the material doped, painted etc.

On mainplanes the envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually pulled
down towards the root, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with the
trailing edge.
When the cover is located it is secured (by stitching, cementing, or retaining
strip) to the inboard end of the mainplane, and necessary openings for cables,
struts, tank caps, etc are cut and stringing is applied a s necessary.

For the fuselage the envelope may be open, or partially open, a t the bottom, to
simplify fitting. The fin envelope is usually fitted first; then the fuselage
envelope is stretched forwards over the fuselage and secured in the same way
a s the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented or doped to the fuselage
formers.

Control surface envelopes are usually left open at. the hinge line, where tliey
are secured by cementing, doping or stitching.

The Blanket Method

With this method the fabric is cut to shape, and machined together to forrn
larger areas and then attached to the structure.

$or the mainplanes a n d tailplanes the cover is normally made-up from lengths
of fabric machine stitched together. This is wrapped around the mainplane
from front to rear starting and finishing a t the trailing edge and joined by hand
stitching using the Trailing Edge stitch. On some aircraft with light alloy
structure, hand stitching is dispensed with and the edges are doped into
position. The fabric is then attached to the ribs by stringing.

A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the fuselage. The
fabric is not normally attached in one piece, but usually consists of several
pieces (eg sides, top a n d bottom), which are doped separately onto the frame or
sewn together a t their edges. Joins or seams are covered with doped-on tape.
Since the air loads on the fuselage are not as great a s on the mainplanes, it is
not usual to employ stringing, although it may be specified in some instances.

Control surfaces are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes and usually
require stringing. The fabric is normally folded round the hinge line and sewn
cogether round the remaining contour of the surface a t the trailing edge.

JOINING FABRIC TO FABRIC

This may be carried out by a sewing machine (off the aircraft) or hand sewing
(off or on the aircraft). Obviously machine sewing is significantly faster arltl
more accurate, but when it comes to accuracy all sewing is carried out by first
marking out with a rule and soft pencil. A line is drawn on the fabric along
which the line of stitches is to run and, for hand stitching, the pitch of eac:h
individual stitch is marked (not too unlike the marking out used when
riveting).
Before commencing the actual stitching the two pieces of fabric are 'tack
stitched' together. This entails the temporary stitching of the fabric at fairly
widely spaced intervals just to hold the fabric pieces in place. As the normal
stitching progresses so the tack stitches are removed.

Hand stitching (and stringing) requires a lot of patience.

Seams

The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore-and-aft
line of the aircraft or on the bias, depending on the covering method used.
With the exception of trailing edge or leading edge joints (where such action
cannot be avoided) seams should never be made at right angles to the direction
of airflow. Two types of machine seams are employed, the balloon seam and the
lap seam.

The balloon seam or French Fell (figure 22), is normally specified for all fabr'-
joints. To make the seam, the edges of the fabric are folded back 16mm (0 .A5
in) and are then fitted into each other as shown, tacked together and then
machine sewn with four stitches per centimetre (nine per inch) in two parallel
lines 9mm (0.375in) apart and 3mm (0.125in) from either edge.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 22 THE BALLOON SEAM

After completion, the seam should be examined over a strong electric light
(preferably a light-box) to ensure that the inside edges of the fabric have not
been missed during sewing.

The lap seam (figure 23) should only be used when specified in the SRM.
Unless the selvedges are present, the edges of the fabric should be serrated
with 'pinking' shears. The edges should overlap each other by 31mm (1-25")
and should be machine sewn with four stitches per centimetre (nine stitches
per inch), the stitch lines being 12mm (0.5")apart and 9mm (0.375")from the
edges. After stitching, a 75mm (3")wide serrated-edge fabric strip should be
doped in position. Note the conversion discrepancies.
 EDGE
75mm COVERING
TAPE
POSIT'ION

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 23 THE LAP SEAM

HAND SEWING

Hand sewing includes:

* The Trailing Edge stitch.
* Stringing.
A The Herringbone stitch.
* Darning.
k
The Boot stitch.

The first two will be dealt with in this section with the remainder being dealt
with in the section headed Fabric Repairs.

Beeswax

All threads used for hand sewing and all cord used for stringing (when not pre-
waxed), should be given a liberal coating of beeswax. This protects the thread,
facilitates sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the fabric or
:nlarging the stitch holes when it is pulled through.

The thread is waxed by holding the beeswax in one hand (it is not unlike a bar
of soap) and pulling the thread or cord over the bar. It will wear a small grove
in the bar a n d the process is repeated 2 or 3 times to ensure complete waxing.

Overhand Stitch

Sometimes called the Trailing Edge stitch (figure 24) and is used a t trailing
edges, wing tips and wherever a sudden change in cross section occurs.
Sufficient fabric should be allowed for, for turning under before the fabric is
cut. 12mm (0.5in)turn-under is usually sufficient. An even gap of about 6mm
(0.25in) (usually) should be allowed for pulling up the two edges to obtain the
correct fabric tension, but this figure can only be determined finally by
experience.
 . . . .. - . FABRIC

TRAILING EDGE

OVERHANDOR
TRAILING EDGE
STITCH

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 24 OVERHAND OR TRAILING EDGE STITCH

The sewing should follow the contour of the component evenly to ensure a good
finish after doping. The number of stitches should be three per centimetre
(eight per inch), with a lock stitch being included about every 50mm (2in). : '

lock is shown a s the last stitch in figure 24.

Stringing

Flax cord complying with BS F35 is normally used for stringing purposes and
is generally applied in single strands a s shown in figure 25. As a n alternative,
but only when approved by the manufacturer, doubled No 18 thread may be
used during repair work.

SINGLE KNOT

ANTI CHAFING

SINGLE KNOT

STRINGING C ORD

BOTTOM RIB- . PLY GUSSETS

BOOM

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 25 TYPICAL STRINGING
When the fabric covering of the component has been completed, cotton ariti-
chafing tape to BS F47 is stretched centrally over the fabric along each rill, top
and bottom and stitched into position a t the trailing edge.

Using a stringing needle (if access cannot be obtained to the rib inside thy
aerofoil the needle must be long enough to pass through the thickness of the
aerofoil) and commencing a t the top surface, the stringing cord should be
passed through the tape and fabric as close to the rib a s possible, out through
the bottom fabric and tape, round the lower rib boom and back u p through
both surfaces again. A double knot is used to secure the first and last stringing
loops and after each 450mm (18") section. In between, single knots are used.

The stringing pitch is normally 75mm (3")but in the slipstream area, or on

aircraft of more than 9 10kg (20001b) weight, the pitch is often reduced to
38mm (1.5").

Variations from these may be stipulated in the relevant SRM and it may be
necessary to vary the pitch in order to avoid internal structure or system
components.

After completion a strip of serrated tape, 37mm (1.5")wide, should be doped

over the stringing line on both surfaces, care being taken to ensure that no air
is trapped under the tape and that the tape is securely attached to the main
fabric.

Note. The knots shown in figure 25 are typical but different knots may be
specified in the SRM.

Boom Stringing

This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections where it might be

difficult to thread the cord the long distance from the top of the wing to the
bottom. The procedure is similar to that described for ordinary stringing,
except that the cord is passed round the rib boom a t the top and bottom
of round the entire rib.

Top and bottom fabric are therefore attached separately and the inside of each
boom must be taped to prevent chafing of the stringing cord. Alternate rill and
boom stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium depth, ie between
150 and 300mm (6 to 12").

Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is maintained a t a satisfactory

tension and that it is not so tight a s to cause distortion of the ribs.
The Slip Stream

For stringing purposes, the slipstream area is considered to be the diameter of

the propeller plus one rib on either side. In the case of multi-engined aircraft,
the entire gap between the slipstreams, regardless of its width, is also
considered to be slipstream area.

Miscellaneous Methods of Fabric Attachment

In addition t.o the standard methods of fabric attachment, other methods

maybe employed. Some methods are described below.

Strip Attachment. Attachment of the fabric by wrapping it around a light alloy

strip or rod, which is then secured in a channel or groove is sometimes used
with metal structures (figure 26).

FABRIC COVERING THIS JOINT SHOWN PRIOR

METAL RIB TO TIGHTENING UP
\

ATTACHMENT

LIGHTENING HOLES /

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 26 METAL STRIP ATTACHMENT OF FABRIC

Special Boom Attachment or Special Stringing. These methods can vary

depending on the aircraft. The process shown in figure 27 involves pressing the
fabric into special rib booms using aluminium alloy channel pieces with the
covering fabric protected top and bottom by protective tape. The metal strip is
attached to the boom by screws and the "channel" produced by the fixing is
covered over by a doped on length of tape.
 CHANNEL ATTACHMENT SCREW SERRATED OR FRAYED
Screws into caged (anchor) nut fixed EDGE STRIP DOPED ON
to underside of rib
\ /
PROTECTIVE TAPE

FABRIC COVERING

ALUMINIUM ALLOY
CHANNEL PROTECTIVE TAPE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 27 SPECIAL STRINGING

4dhesives. On some small aircraft, where air loads are light, stringing is not
used on the wing and tail surfaces and the fabric is fixed to the structure by
means of a proprietary adhesive. This method produces a much smoother
surface on the fabric and saves time during construction and repair.

Attachment of Fabric to Plywood

Dope is generally used for the attachment of fabric to plywood, but before the
fabric is applied, the wood surface should be smoothed with fine glass paper
and any cavities, such as those caused by the countersinking for screwheads,
filled and allowed to set. The filled area should be kept to the absolute
minimum because of the reduced adhesion of the doped fabric onto filler.

The wood surface should be treated with one coat of tautening dope, followed
by a further coat after the first one has dried. After the second coat of dope has
Iried, the fabric should be spread over the wood and stretched evenly to avoid
wrinkling. A coat of tautening dope should then be brushed into the fabric
making sure that it penetrates through the fabric. For this purpose a fabric
pad is useful for rubbing in the dope.

After the dope has dried it should be lightly rubbed down to remove small
spikes that might have formed using 'wet and dry' rubbing paper (grade 0 or
00). Then the required paint finishing scheme is applied (see later notes on
doping).

Attachment of Fabric to Metal Surfaces

Where aluminium alloy is used a s part of the structure (such a s the leatf~ng
edge profile) the fabric is generally doped into position. Alternatively, a
thermoplastic adhesive may be used and guidance on the use of this xn;itt.rial
may be obtained from the SRM.
To ensure satisfactory adhesion of the fabric, the metal surfaces should be
thoroughly cleaned and primed with an etch primer.

Drainage and Verl tilation

Drainage and ventilation holes are necessary on all aircraft particularly fabric
covered ones to minimise corrosion of metal parts, rotting of wood, fabric, etc.

Drainage holes are usually positioned on the lower surfaces of fuselages,

nacelles, mainplanes, tailplanes, control surfaces etc and the AMM will show
their location. After fabric covering the aircraft, these must be replaced by
punching the correct diameter hole in the fabric and doping on a drainage
eyelet. It is common practice to clear the eyelet using a n ice pick once the final
finish has dried.

When holes are used for ventilating purposes, the holes may be located in
sheltered positions regardless of drainage qualities.

Drainage eyelets are usually oval or circular in shape and are doped onto t,,;
surface of the fabric. In some cases they may be secured by stitching through
pre-pierced holes in the eyelets before the finishing scheme is applied.

Shielded or shrouded eyelets may be used to improve either the drainage or the
ventilation, or to prevent the ingress of driving rain or the entry of sea spray
(on marine aircraft). These eyelets must only be used in positions laid down in
the S R M / A M M and must not be used a s an alternative to standard eyelets. It is
also important that the shroud is facing in the correct direction - usually
rearwards for draining and forwards for ventilation - but not necessarily so.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 28 PLANE & SHROUDED EYELETS

Inspection Panels

Inspection panels are usually cut into the fabric after the completion of fabric
covering. The actual panels employed will vary on the aircraft. Three methods
commonly used are described below.

Woods Frame. These are light circular or square frames, made from celluloid
sheet, which are doped onto the fabric covering at the required positions. The
fabric covering is then cut away from inside the frame and a serrated edged
fabric patch doped over the whole area a s shown in figure 29.
 FABRIC PATCH DOPED OVER REPAIR

12mm RADII
DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 29 WOODS FRAME INSPECTION PANEL

To use the inspection panel the patch is removed and after the inspection is
carried out a new patch is doped on and the finishing scheme re-applied.

Zip panels. These consist of two zips machine sewn into the fabric in the form
of a vee, the open ends of each zip being a t the apex of the vee. This type of
access is suitable for positions where frequent inspection or servicing is
necessary.

Sips tend to get clogged u p by dopes, paints etc and can be very difficult to
open so care should be taken to keep the sips clean a t all times.

Spring Panels. This is particularly suitable for use on light aircraft. It consists
of a circular plastic ring and a dished light alloy cover. The ring is doped into
position in the same way a s the Woods Frame and the fabric cut away from the
inside. The cover is fitted by pressing the centre of the cover with the thumbs
whilst holding it in both hands.

PLASTIC RING DISHED COVER RIVETED TO CLIP

FABRIC COVERING METAL CLIP ACCESS HOLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 30 CROSS-SECTION OF SPRING PANEL

The dish shape is reversed away from the clip allowing the clip to be inserted
diagonally in the hole. The complete cover with the clip is rotated to align the
clip under the ring and the pressure is released from the cover. The dishr:d
cover reverts to its normal shape and closes onto the plastic ring a s shown in
figure 30.
REPAIRS TO FABRIC

If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and

uneconomical to make repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and
location of damage to the fabric that may be repaired will be detailed in the
SRM, but extensive damage is often made good by replacing the complete fabrlr:
panel. However, the replacement of a large fabric panel, particularly on one
side of a component, may lead to distortion of the structure and it may be
advisable to completely re-cover the component.

Before commencing any repair, the cause of the damage should be ascertained
and rectified - if possible. The internal structure should be inspected for direct.
damage and secondary damage (damage caused by transmitted shock). The
inspection should also include a check for loose objects such a s stones (thrown
u p by tyres), remains of birds, insects, etc. These should be removes and any
structural damage made good.

All dope should be removed by using thinners from the fabric surrounding +%e
damaged area before any stitching is carried out, since doped fabric will t e ~if
any tension is applied to the repair stitches.

Repair to Cuts and Tears

If a straight or L shaped tear it may be repaired using the herringbone stitch

doping a length of tape over it afterwards. If the damage is larger it may be
repaired by darning, if larger still it may be repaired by a n insertion repair.
Outside these limits (all laid down in the SRM) the area will have to be
recovered.

Herringbone Stitch

The herringbone stitch (also known a s the Ladder Stitch) should be used fc--
repairing straight cuts or tears, which have sound edges and for insertion
repairs. The stitches should be made as shown in figure 3 1, with a lock k - _ ~ t
every 150 mm (6").

There should be a minimum of two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to

the inch) and the stitches should be 6mm (0.25") from the edge of the cut or
tear. The thread used should be that a s stated earlier in the book and needles
should be just big enough to allow the thread to be threaded through the eye.
Some needles are curved to allow for stitching back u p through the material.
 1. Start with 2. Pass thread CUT OR TEAR Finish with a
a thumb under fabric IN FABRIC thumb knot FABRIC
knot , / / \ /

3' Then
over 4.Then through cut & under etc
DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 3 1 THE HERRINGBONE STITCH

After the stitching has been completed on a straight tear, a 25mm (1")wide
serrated edge tape should be doped over the length of the stitching.

After a patch repair using the herringbone stitch a square or rectangular fabric
serrated edge patch should be doped over the whole repair, ensuring that the
edges of the patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering and
that they overlap the repair by 37mm (1.5").

In both cases the original doping scheme (and paint scheme) should be
restored.

Repairs using Woods Frames

This is a recognised method of repair. Damage greater than simple cuts and
tears which cannot be repaired using the herringbone stitch can be repaired by
using the Woods Frame method. The process is similar to that described for
fitting a Woods Frame as a n inspection panel. Repairs of u p to 50mm (2in)
;quare may be made, provided they are clear of seams or attachments by a
distance of not less than 50mm (2in).The affected area should be cleaned with
thinners or acetone and repaired a s follows:

The Woods Frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged
area and, if the frame is of the square type, the edges should be parallel to the
weft and warp of the covering. When the dope has dried, the damaged portion
of the fabric is cut out and the aperture covered by a fabric patch as previously
described.

If a Woods Frame is not available one can be made from cellulose sheet 0.8mrn
(0.030in)thick with a minimum frame width of 25mm (lin). In the case of the
square type the minimum corner radii should be 12 mm (0.5in).In somt.
cases, aircraft manufacturers use 2mm plywood complying with British
Standard V3 for the manufacture of the frames, in which case it is import-dn t to
chamfcr the outer edges o f the frame to blend with the aerofoil contour.
Repair by Darning

Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired by darning provided

the hole is not more than 50mm (2")wide a t any point. The stitches should
follow the lines of the warp and weft and should be closely spaced as shown in
figure 32. The first darn (weft) should follow the fabric weft yarns a s near a s
possible picking up on sound fabric about 0.25" (6mm) away from the edge of
the damage. The second darn (warp) should follow the warp yarns of the fabric
and the first line should pass OVER - UNDER - OVER etc the weft darns. The
second line should pass UNDER - OVER - UNDER etc the weft yarns with each
successive line alternating the OVER - UNDER - OVER sequence.

FABRIC
/COVERING
FABRIC PATCH
DOPEDOVER \
REPAIR

DARN YARNS
IN-LINE WITH
WEFT & WARP

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 32 REPAIR BY DARNING

The whole repair should be covered with a serrated fabric patch in the usual
way, with a n overlap of 37mm (1.5")from the start of the edge of the darn.

Repair by Insertion

For damage over lOOmm (4") square, insertion repairs are generally used. I NO
methods are described.

Note that when cutting the fabric for repair the corners are not radiised (as in
metal repairs) and, except for round holes the edges of any cuts are in line with
the weft and warp yarns of the covering material. All square and rectangular
patches are cut parallel to the weft and warp yarns.

Normal Insertion Repair

The damaged area of the fabric is cut out to form a square or rectangular hole
with the edges parallel to the weft and warp. Each corner of the hole should
then be cut diagonally (at 45O), to allow a 12mm (0.5")wide edge of the covering
fabric to be folded back under the fabric. This should be held in position with
tacking or hemming stitches.
The patch should be made 25mm (I")larger (in both length and width) than
the cut-out area and each edge should be folded under for 12mm (0.5") and
tacked in position in a manner similar to that described above. In this
condition the size of the insertion patch should be similar to, or slightly smaller
than, that of the cut-out area. Note that none of these edges have pinked
edges .

The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut-out area with a
few tacking stitches and then sewn in position using a herringbone stitch of
not less than two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to the inch), as
shown in figures 31 and 33. A 25mm (1")wide tape should then be doped over
the seams.

Important. Before commencing the cutting away of the damage you shoc~l(l
work out the exact size of the repair on a piece of paper noting the pitch of the
stitches being %" (very similar to how a metal repair is carried out). Once
worked out the SRM should be consulted to see if the resulting cut away is
within the repairable (repair by insertion) limits. If it is outside the limits then
there is no need to proceed with the insertion and recovering the whole area
should be considered.

For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or serrated
edges, is doped in position to overlap the edge of the tape by 3 l m m (1.25").
Where the size of the insertion is more than 225mm (9") square, a 75mm
(3")wide fabric serrated edge tape is used. The tape should be mitred
(a 45"cut) a t the corners and doped in position.

The original finish is then restored.

ALTERNATIVE COVER
25mm COVERING PATCH OVER WHOLE AREA
Pitch of 114" is modified at
the corners 8 the diagonal
stitch forms a figure of 8 &
the inside hole is used

12mm FOLDED UNDER

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 33 NORMAL INSERTION REPAIR
An Alternative Insertion Repair

Consists of cutting away the damaged fabric a s described above, but the edges
of the covering fabric as well as the edges of the insertion patch are turned
upwards (12mm for the covering fabric and 37mm for the insertion).

The insertion is tack stitched in position and a boot stitch is used to stitch it
in correctly. The boot stitch (figure 35) is hand sewn taken along the folded
edges a t Y4" (6mm) pitch (stage 1 in figure 34).

r
A

1-
37mm
INSERTION PATCH

I
, .' :ITCH , , , , " ,
J

EDGES DOPED DOWN

pizq /,
r I

DOPED ON
FABRIC PATCH
ISTiEET-1
lf -
r '..-'!--,
1

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 34 ALTERNATIVE INSERTION REPAIR

Stage 2 entails laying the edges down outwards from the centre of the repair
(folding down) a n d doping in position. A fabric patch is then cut with a 2 5
overlap on all edges a n d doped into position.

Edges of insertion repair a n d patch should be frayed or pinked.

No 18 waxed thread to BS F34 is used for boot stitching. Two threads with two
needles are used crossing past each other through the same hole (or very close
to). The threads are tied together a t the ends a n d with a lock knot every
150mm (6").

Checking Fabric Condition

The fabric covering of a n aircraft will deteriorate with time. The rate of
deterioration depends on the type of operation, climate, storage conditions and
the maintenance of a satisfactory surface finish. Because of water penetration,
oil contamination, chafing and local wear, the covering will deteriorate quicker
in some areas than others.
 TWO THREADS

START KNOTS

Fabric & stitches shown before

the stitches are pulled tight

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 35 THE BOOT STITCH

In some cases a n arbitrary life may be placed on the fabric, but fabric coverings
should be checked a t the periods specified in the maintenance schedule and
prior to renewal of the Certificate of Airworthiness.

4 visual examination is carried out on the fabric, inside and out, as far as
possible checking areas where deterioration is likely to occur, or is known to
occur on that particular aircraft. Unless defects are found this is usually
sufficient to warrant acceptance of the condition of the fabric as a whole. If the
strength of the fabric is in doubt then further tests will be necessary.

Fabric Strength Testing

A "rule of thumb" test for checking the strength of the fabric is to push the
fabric hard with the thumb (on an open area of unsupported fabric). If the
thumb pushes through, then the fabric is definitely too weak.

If the thumb moves the fabric in, causing the paint covering to crack, then
further tests are required. If there is little movement of the fabric then it is
likely to be satisfactory. Warning - this method is not reliable and not
satisfactory a s a definitive test.

Note. Any locally cracked paintldope finish can be locally repaired by removing
with an approved solvent and the re-application of the doping/painting
scheme. Make sure the fabric is serviceable first.

A more reliable method is to use a portable tester such as the one shown In
figure 36. These testers are, generally, only suitable for checking the condition
of fabric where the dope finish has penetrated the fabric. Finishes such a s
cellulose acetate butyrate dope do no normally penetrate the fabric and
experience h a s shown that the absorption of moisture in humid c o n d i t i o ~ ~
can
s
produce unreliable test results.
In addition, butyrate dope, even when some penetration of the fabric has
occurred, produces a finish which hardens with age, a s a result the conical
point on the tester will not readily penetrate the covering and the test will tend
to indicate that the fabric is stronger than it actually is. Thus where butyrate
dope is used, or where the dope has not penetrated the fabric, laboratory tests
should be tests should be carried out.

For a laboratory test (see later text in this book) a piece of fabric is cut from the
aircraft and the dope is rerrloved using a suitable solvent where necessary. The
test piece is given a tensile test and if it has a strength of a t least 70% of the
strength of new piece of fabric to the appropriate specification then it is
considered airworthy.

Portable Tester. The tester shown consists of a spring loaded penetrating cone
and plunger housed within a sleeve. When pressed against a surface the cone
is forced u p through the sleeve against the spring and the plunger projects
through the top. The tester should be used on single layer unsupported fabric
only and should be held a t 90" to the surface with pressure applied toward?
the fabric in a rotary motion, until the sleeve flange touches the surface (fip. ~ . e
36).

The amount of penetration is indicated by the length of plunger showing above

the sleeve and is marked by coloured bands or a graduated scale.

A table is provided with the tester giving the colour or scale reading required
for a particular type of fabric.

Note. This tester is of American manufacturer and the table supplied refers to
fabric complying with American specifications (AMS, TSO and MIL). It can be
adapted for use on fabrics complying with DTD and BS specifications by
comparing the strength requirement specifications of US and UK fabrics.

The test should be repeated a t various positions locally on the aircraft and the
lowest reading obtained should be taken a s representative of the fabric a s s
whole.

All punctures produced by the tester should be repaired with a 50 or 75mm

(2 or 3") diameter doped fabric patch.

Laborato y Tests. These are normally associated with testing for tensile
strength and uses tensile tests and bursting strength tests.

Tensile tests are used on new fabric and require the use of six warp and six
weft samples, each 62mm x 300 to 400mm (2.5in x 12 to 16in) in area. These
test are not generally used for fabric coverings on aircraft, a s they would
necessitate significant areas of fabric removal (and partial re-covering of the
aircraft) - and the fabric might turn out to be serviceable.
 COLOURED BAND
INDICATOR

SPRUNG LOADED
SMALL HOLE IN FABRIC PENETRATING CONE

Fig. 36 PORTABLE FABRIC TESTER

On aircraft, therefore, it is recommended that the portable tester be used first.

and if the results are not satisfactory, or in-conclusive, samples of fabric
should be sent to a laboratory for bursting strength tests in accordance with
the specification for that particular type of fabric. These tests require small
samples approximately 87mm (3.5") in diameter.

Bursting strength tests can be carried out on a machine operating on the

principle of applying force to a polished steel ball of 25.40mm ( I ") diameter, the
ball being in contact with the test sample, which is clamped between two
circular brass plates having coaxial apertures of 44.45mm (1.75") diameter.
The load is applied a t a constant rate and the load a t the breaking point of the
fabric is the bursting strength of the fabric.

An Instron machine, which operates on this principle, is suitable for

conducting tests on used aircraft fabric. A s an alternative, a machine operating
on hydraulic principles can be used. In this machine, hydraulic pressure is
applied a t a constant rate to a rubber diaphragm, which is positioned to
expand through a clamp aperture of 30.99mm (1.22") diameter, exerting a force
gain st the fabric sample held between the clamps.

Note. The test methods referred to above are in accordance with the American
Federal Test Method Standard No 191, Methods 5120 and 5122 respectively.
All tests must be carried out by an approved test establishment.

DOPING

This particular subject, doping, is not actually specified in the syllabus but the
CAA has informed u s that it is considered a s an integral part of structural
fabric covering (which it is of course) so questions will be included in the C:AA
examination paper.
Natural fabrics, such as cotton or linen, deteriorate in use a s a result of the
effects of sunlight, mildew and atmospheric pollution. Ma-n-made fibres resist
some of these agents better than natural fabrics but still require protection.

The dope film provides following functions:

a) Tautening of natural fabrics.

b) Waterproofing.
c) Air-proofing.
d) Light-proofing.

Materials

Dopes. Dope consists of a number of resins dissolved in a solvent to permit

application by brush or spray. This is modified with plasticisers and pigments
to add flexibility and the required colour (see figure 37). There are two types of
dope in use, namely, cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate butyrate. The
former is usually known simply as nitrate dope and the latter a s butyrate 0.:
CAB dope. The main difference between the two is the film base.

In nitrate dope a special cotton is dissolved in nitric acid, whilst in butyrate

dope cellulose fibres are dissolved in acetic acid and mixed with butyl alcohols.
The plasticisers in the two dopes are also different, a s are the resin and solvent
balances. Dope must be stored under suitable conditions and has a tendency
to become acid with age. If old dope is used it will quickly rot the fabric. Only
fresh dope should be used, preferably buying it in for the job in hand.

Dope-Proof Paints. Due to the nature of the solvents used in dope, many paints
will be attacked and softened by dopes. Dope-proof paint must be used to coat
structure, which will be in contact with the doped fabric. Spar varnish is used
for wooden structure and a n epoxy primer is suitable for metal structures.

Aluminium Dope. To make the fabric lightproof, preventing damage from ult--7-
violet radiation, a n aluminium dope is used. This is usually supplied readv
mixed but can be prepared by mixing aluminium paste or powder in clear , - ~ p e
but it is essential that the materials are obtained from a n approved supplier
and mixed in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

Thinners. Dopes are formulated so that the solid constituents are suspended in
the appropriate solvents. For spraying purposes it will normally be necessary to
thin (reduce the viscosity) of the dope.

It is important that only the thinners a s recommended by the manufacturer of

the dope be used. The amount of thinners required is specified by the
manufacturer and modified by experience t.o take account of the equipment
used, atmospheric conditions etc.
The viscosity can be measured by using a Viscosity Cup, which a cup with a
small hole in the bottom. In use, the cup is dipped into the dope to fill it with
dope. It is then lifted in the air to let. the dope flow out. The flow is timed from
when the c u p is lifted from the container to the first break in the flow.

In this way subsequent batches of dope can be mixed to exactly the same
viscosity as the first batch. It is important that nitrate and butyrate dopes are
mixed only with their own specialised thinners. A retarder, or anti-blush
thinners, is a special type of thinners with slow-drying solvents. By drying
more slowly they prevent the temperature drop and consequent moisture
condensation that cause blushing in a dope finish. In use, the retarder
replaces some of the standard thinners and can be used in a ratio of u p to one
part retarder to four parts of thinners.

FILM FORMERS

Fig. 37 DOPE CONSTITUENTS

Cleaning Agent. Methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK)is a solvent similar to acetone. I t is

used as a cleaning agent to remove wax and dirt and to prepare surfaces for
2ainting or re-doping. It is also used for cleaning spray guns and other
equipment.

Fungicides. Since natural fabrics can be attacked by various forms of mildew

and fungus, it may be necessary to provide protection for cottons and linens
when doping. This is achieved a fungicide being added to the first coat of dope.
The dope is usually supplied ready mixed but can be prepared by using a
fungicidal paste obtained from an approved supplier (mixed with the clear dope
in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions).

The first coat of dope should completely penetrate the fabric.

Caution. All fungicides are poisonous. Avoid contact and do not inhale t h e
fumes -- this applies to all solvents, paints etc anyway.
Tack Rags. A tack rag is a rag dampened with thinners and is used to wipe a
surface clean after it h a s been sanded to prepare it for the application of the
next coat. Proprietary cloths are also available.

Sandpaper. Sanding is carried out using wet-or-dry (sometimes called "wet-and

-dry7') paper. This is a waterproof sandpaper supplied in various grades - eg:
280, 360 and 600 (the finest grade).

Safety Precautions

The storage and use of dopes in the UK is covered by various Government

regulations made under the Factories Act.

Solvents are highly flammability. They have a low flash point and the vapour
produced is heavier than air. Once ignited a serious fire, which can spread
rapidly is produced.

A common cause of ignition is the shorting discharge of static electricity

Static electricity can be generated by brushing, sanding and wiping large areas
of fabric (and many other materials) a s when applying dopes, paints and
sanding down and cleaning. Ordinarily this may not be a problem but when
doping etc there are usually large amounts of inflammable fumes in the
atmosphere ready to ignite with the smallest spark.

For example: if an operator is sanding a large area and wearing rubber soled
shoes and not earthed in any way he/she will be a t the same electrical
potential a s the surface. Should the charge on the operator be lost through
bodily contact with some earthed metal part in the hangarlspray shop and
he/she touches the aircraft structure being worked on the static charge will
jump to earth creating a spark and igniting the fumes.

The best way to prevent happening is to eliminate the static charge by

grounding the structure being doped. An earth wire connected between the
structure to a clean metal part of the spray shoplhangar will do the job.

Clothing that is made of synthetic fibres will build u p a static charge more
readily than clothing made from cotton. Leather soled shoes will allow the
static charge to earth to ground.

When spraying (particularly nitrate dope) ensure that the spray gun, the
operator and the structure being doped are all grounded together.

In the spray shop, floors should be kept clean by being doused with water and
swept whilst still wet. Remember, spontaneous combustion can occur if dope
and zinc chromate oversprays are mixed.
The fumes created during the spraying process are hazardous to health ;is well
as being a fire risk. Correct operator protection must be provided a s
recommended by the dope manufacturer's. At the first sign of any irritation of
the skin or eyes, difficulty in breathing or a dry cough, the operator should
stop work and seek medical advice.

All electrical equipment used in the shop must be designed so that it canriot
ignite any fumes. Lead lamps must be of the explosion proof type.

Working Conditions

It is important to control both the temperature and humidity of the air in the
spray shop. It is also necessary to maintain sufficient airflow through the shop
to remove the fumes.

Electric driven explosion proof extractor fans are installed a t floor level in the
shop to extract all the fumes. The rate of airflow is dictated by the size of the
spray shop and is the subject of various Government regulations. The
discharge of the vapours may also be the subject of further requirements and
the advice of the Factory Inspectorate should be sought. The air inlet to the
spray shop should preferably be via a n adjoining room, or behind a baffle to
reduce draughts to a minimum.

Ideally the air and humidity of the incoming air can be controlled in the
adjoining room before it enters the spray shop (cooling with a n air conditioning
unit to remove the moisture then reheating to obtain the correct temperature).

Many problems associated with doping can be traced to incorrect temperature

or humidity of the air and/or the dope. Dope (and any other materials) brought
into the shop from the outside store-room must be allowed to stand overrlight
in the temperature controlled shop. The air temperature should be between 2 1"
and 26C (70" to 79F). If the temperature is too low the rapid evaporation of
the solvents will lower the temperature of the surface to the point where
moisture will condense and be trapped in the finish. Too high a temperature
causes too rapid drying of the dope, which can result in pinholes and blisters.

Ideally the relative humidity should be between 45 and 50% but satisfactory
results can be obtained with relative humidity a s high as 70% or a s low a s 20%
depending on temperature and airflow, but doping is more difficult a t these
values.

Relative humidity can be measured with a hygrometer and although direct

reading instruments are available, the wet and dry bulb type is still the most
common. In this instrument two thermometers are mounted side by side, the
bulb of one being kept wet by water evaporating through a wick.

To take a reading of relative humidity, both thermometers should be reat1 and

the difference between them noted; the wet bulb thermometer will be the lower.
Wet Bulb reaaing away Irom Lne ury DUID reaulrlg g i v ~ r ~Lrlc
g ucprcaslurl V ~ ~ U G

of the Wet Bulb.

The Wet Bulb reading and the Depression Value reading are read off against
each other on a table - where the two columns meet will indicate the % relative
humidity.

All brushes, spray equipment, cups, containers etc should be kept clean using
thinners before the dope has had time to dry. Oil and water traps in the
airlines should be cleaned regularly and air bottles drained of accumulated
moisture. If equipment has any dried dope, it should be dismantled and the
parts soaked in methyl-ethyl-ketone or a similar solvent. Packings and seals
should never be soaked in solvents or they will harden and become useless.

Preparation Prior To Doping

The area to be doped should be thoroughly cleaned. The correct temperatur

and humidity should be achieved with the atmosphere and all materials.

An inspection should be made of the fabric-covered component to verify the

following points:

a) The structure has been painted with dope-proof paint where

required.
b) Correct and secure attachment of the fabric to the structure.
c) Correct allowance for tautening of the cover where this is a
natural fabric such a s cotton or linen. If the cover is too slack, no
amount of doping will rectify this, if it is too tight, the structure
could easily be distorted.
d) All dust h a s been removed from the fabric.
e) The fabric has reached the correct temperature.
f) Plastics components, such a s windows and windscreens, are
adequately protected against solvent attack. Use solvent proof
masking and masking covers,

With the dope a t the correct temperature, it should be mixed and thinned to
the correct consistency for brush or spray application as appropriate.

Whilst the dope is in storage the solid materials tend to settle and the purpose
of mixing is to make sure these are brought back into suspension.

To mix the dope, half the contents of the tin are poured into a clean tin of the
same size. The remaining dope is stirred until all the solid material is in
suspension. The contents of the first tin are then poured into the contents of
the second and a check made that all pigment has been loosened from the
bottom. Then the dope from one tin is poured into the other and back again,
until it is thoroughly mixed.
Application to Natural Fabric

The best-looking and most durable film is produced by using multiple (.o;its of
a dope that is low in solids. A large number of thin coats, however, requires a
great deal of time and modern dope schemes tend to use fewer, but thicker:
coats than the earlier schemes. The dope scheme is a schedule listing the
number and order of coats of each type of dope.

The standard aircraft doping schemes are 752 (medium tautening), 751 (lrght
tautening - used on light structures that would be distorted by over tautening)
and 753 (heavy tautening - used where a n extra taut cover is required).

Priming Coats. This first coat of dope provides the foundation for all the
subsequent coats. It forms a mechanical attachment by the dope encaps~rlating
the fibres. The dope should be thinned by 25 to 50% and applied by brush.
The dope is worked into the fabric to ensure adequate penetration, but it
should not drip through the other side.

4 fungicide should be added this first coat. When applying the first coat to the
wings, the entire wing should first be doped on both sides aft of the front spar.
The dope should be allowed to shrink the fabric before doping the 1eadir:g edge.
In this way the fabric will tauten evenly and adjust itself over the leading edge
cap without forming wrinkles.

There are three tautness levels available; a low tautness scheme, a medium
tautness scheme and a high tautness scheme. The main difference being the
number of coats of dope. Given below, a s a n example, is shown the medium
tautness scheme.

MEDIUM TAUTNESS SCHEME (BSX26/752)

Dope Weight Normally obtained in the

g/m2 oz/yd2 following number of coats

*ied oxide tautening dope 68 2.0

Aluminium tautening finish 34 1.0
Pigmented non-tautening finishes 34 1.0

Where an aluminium finish is

required the scheme should be:

Red oxide tautening dope 102 3.0

Aluminium non-tautening finish 34 1.0

Where a glossy finish is required

follow with:

Transparent non-tautening finish 34 1.0 1 or 2

Note: A tolerance of + 20% is permissible on any of the weights given above.

After a 1 hour rninimum drying time, apply tapes, drainage eyelets, grommets,
inspection panel rings etc. A heavy coat of nitrate dope should be brushed on
where required and the tape laid on, working it down onto the surface and
rubbing out any air pockets a s the tape is laid. A further coat of clear dope is
brushed over the top of the tapes. Drainage eyelets or grommets and
inspection rings are attached in a similar manner.

To ensure good adhesion eyelets, grommets and rings may be soaked in dope
thinners for no more than two minutes to allow them to soften. Holes in eyelets
and rings are opened with a sharp, pointed knife after doping is complete.
Taping is followed by a further coat of clear dope, which may be butyrate and
may be applied by a spray gun.

Filling Coats. When the first butyrate coat has dried, the fabric will feel rough
due to the short fibre ends (the nap) standing u p and being hardened by the
dope. This nap can be sharp and should be lightly sanded off, using dry
sandpaper. The surface should then be rinsed clean with water and dried.

Two full wet cross-coats of butyrate dope should now be applied one sprayel I

on in one direction and the other a t right angles to it - before the first coat
dries. These in turn should be followed with one good cross-coat of aluminium
dope after light sanding of the clear dope to improve adhesion. The aluminium
coat is in its turn wet sanded lightly to produce a smooth surface and the
residue rinsed off with water. Once the aluminium coat h a s dried, it should be
checked for continuity by shining a light inside the structure. The film should
be completely lightproof.

Finishing Coats. The finishing coats of pigmented butyrate dope may now be
sprayed on. The number of coats should not be less than three. A high gloss
finish is obtained by lightly sanding each coat when dry and spraying multiple
thin coats rather than several thick coats.

The use of a retarder in the colour coats will allow the dope to flow out and
form a smoother film. The final coat should be allowed to dry for a t least a
month before it is polished with rubbing compound and then waxed. The
surface should be waxed a t least once a year with a hard wax to reduce th.
possibility of oxidation of the finish.

Application to Polyester-Fibre Fa.bric

Polyester-fibre fabrics are being increasingly widely used for covering aircraft
because of their long life and resistance to deterioration. For this reason it is
important that the dope film is of the highest quality so that its life will match
that of the fabric.

Priming Coats. Polyester-fibre fabrics are heat shrunk to provide a good smooth
finish and tautening of the fabric is not a function of doping, although all
dopes will tauten to some extent.
The most notable difference in doping a synthetic cover is the difficulty, when
compared with natural fabrics, of obtaining a good mechanical bond betmreen
the dope and the fibres. Unlike natural fibres the polyester filaments are riot
wetted by the dope and the security of attachment depends on them being
totally encapsulated by the first coat. This must be nitrate dope thinned In the
ratio of two or three parts dope to one part thinners. This is then brushed into
the fabric to completely encapsulate the fibres.

The dope should form a wet film through the fabric but it should not drip
through to the opposite side. The initial coat should be followed by two rnore
brush coats thinned to a brushing consistency.

Since polyester is not organic, there is no need for a fungicide to be added to

the first coat.

Filling Coats. Taping and attaching of drainage eyelets or grommets and

inspection rings follow the same procedure as for natural fabrics. Priming coats
should be followed by spraying two full-bodied cross-coats of clear butyrate
dope. After these have dried they should be lightly sanded (400 grit) and
cleaned with a tack rag. One full cross-coat of aluminium dope should then be
sprayed on and lightly wet sanded when dry, the residue being rinsed off with
water. This coat should be tested to verify that it is lightproof.

Finishing Coats. The finishing coats should now be applied in the same manner
a s for natural fabrics. It should be noted that with a properly finished polyester
cover the weave of the fabric will still show through the dope film. Any attempt
to completely hide them with additional coats will result in a finish that does
not have sufficient flexibility to resist cracking.

Application to Glass-fibre Fabric

Glass-fibre fabric has a loose weave, which tends to make it difficult to apply to
aircraft structures. To overcome this problem it is pre-treated with butyrate
dope and the covering and doping must be carried out in accordance wit.h the
manufacturer's instructions.

Priming Coats. Nitrate dope must not be used under any circumstances with
this type of fabric. The first coat of clear butyrate dope is sprayed on with the
dope being thinned only enough to permit spraying. The atomising pressure
must be set to the lowest possible that will permit atomisation without the
dope being blown through the fabric. The coat should be heavy enough to
thoroughly wet the fabric and soften the dope in the fabric, but must not be so
heavy that it causes the dope to run on the reverse side of the fabric.

If the dope is allowed to run in this way an orange peel finish will develop and
the fabric will not tauten properly.
After the first coat has dried, further coats of butyrate dope should be sprayed
on, each a little heavier than the one before, until the weave fills and the fabric
tautens; this may take a s many a s five coats.

Tapes, drainage eyelets/ grommets and inspection rings are applied with a coat
of butyrate dope.

Filling Coats. Once the fabric is taut and the weave has been filled, two full-
bodied brush coats of clear butyrate dope should be applied and allowed t.o
dry. The film should then be carefully sanded, making sure that it is not
sanded through to the fabric.

Whilst the fabric is not damaged by ultra-violet radiation, the clear dope can
deteriorate as a result of exposure and therefore, a coat of aluminium dope
should be sprayed on for protect.ion and lightly wet-sanded smooth.

After the aluminium dope has been sanded, the residue should be removed '-v
washing with water and then the surface dried.

Finishing Coats. These are applied in the same manner a s for natural fabrics.
Several thin, wet coats of coloured butyrate dope will allow the surface to flow
out to a glossy finish.

Doping Problems

If not carefully controlled some doping faults can occur (some of these faults
can also occur with painting). These are listed below.

Poor Adhesion. Adhesion may be poor between the fabric and the first coat of
dope and between the aluminium coat and subsequent coats. Adhesion to the
fabric, particularly polyester fabric, is largely dependent on the technique used
to ensure the encapsulation of the fibres. Adhesion to the aluminium coat r q y
be impaired if too much aluminium powder was used or if the surface was r?dt
thoroughly cleaned after sanding. The use of a tack rag to finally clean a
surface before applying the next coat is always recommended.

Blushing. Blushing is a white or greyish colouration that forms on a doped

surface. If the humidity of the air is too high, or if the solvents evaporate too
quickly, the temperature of the surface drops below the dew-point of the air
and moisture condenses on the surface. This water causes the nitrocellulose
to precipitate out. Moisture in the spray system or on the surface can also
cause blushing. Blushing can be controlled by reducing the humidity in the
air (raising the temperature by several degrees may help) or by using a retarder
in the place of some of the thinners.

A blushed area can be salvaged by spraying another coat over the area using a
retarder instead of some of the thinners; the solvents attack the surface and
cause it to flow out.
Bubbles or Blisters. Caused by the surface of the dope drying before all i.11i:
solvents have had time to evaporate. This may happen if a heavy coat of tiope is
applied over a previous coat that has not dried.

Dull Finish. The gloss of butyrate dope may be improved by the addition (.)i'up
to 20% retarder in the last coat. Excessive dullness may be caused by I-xolding
the spray gun too far from the surface so that the dope settles a s a semi-dry
mist. Small dull spots may be due to a porous surface.

Fisheyes. These are isolated areas which have not dried due to contamir~ation
of the surface with oil, wax or a silicone product. Cleanliness is important with
all wax removed using a suitable solvent before re-doping the area.

Orange Peel. Caused by insufficient thinning of the dope or holding the spray
gun too far from the surface. It can also be caused by too high a n atomising
pressure, use of thinners that dries too fast or by cold damp draughts.

Pinholes. Smaller versions of a blister. Apart from the causes listed above, they
can be caused by water or oil in the spray system. An air temperature that is
too high can also be a cause.

Roping. This is a condition in which the surface dries a s the dope is being
brushed on causing a n uneven surface. Common when the dope is cold. When
applying with a brush, dope should not be over-brushed. The pressure applied
to the brush should be sufficient to ensure the penetration of the dope through
the fabric.

Rough Finish. Dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding and too low a
working temperature can all cause a rough finish.

Runs and Sags. This type of defect is caused by too thick a coat, especially on
vertical surfaces. This causes the dope to run and sag.

Seneral Considerations

The weight of the dope applied to the fabric is a n indication that the scheme
has been correctly applied. In the BS X26 doping schemes the weight per unit
area is given and should be checked by doping a test panel a t the same time a s
the structure. The fabric is weighed before doping and then again after doping,
the difference being the weight of the dope film. Mil Specs call for a minimum
dope weight of 161g/m2 (4.75 oz/yd2) with a tolerance of + 20%.

When an aircraft is re-covered and re-doped it is essential that it is re-weighed

and a new Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule raised, it is also import.ant
that control surfaces are balanced and checked against the AMM.
CONTENTS

Page

Springs
Bearings
Internal clearance
Lubrication
Sealing and protection
Gears
Zontrol chains
Drive belts
 SPRINGS

A spring is a device that will deflect under load (storing that energy as a strain)
and return to its original length once the load or force is removed.

Springs are normally made of spring steel (high carbon steel hardened and
tempered and chrome vanadium steels) supplied in sheet or wire form (typical
specification SAE 6 150). Sheet form is used to manufacture leaf springs and
wire is used for the manufacture of coil (helical) springs. Coil springs can be
used as compression springs or tension springs.

Springs are used in the aviation industry for:

* Control springs - in instrument force/ torque balance systems.
-f;
Lock springs - in over-centre geometric locks.
J;
Return springs -- in hydraulic/pneumatic valves to return the valve
to its original setting.
A
Force pressure springs - to produce a pressure within a
hydraulic/ pneumatic valve for operation/ control purposes.
* Shock absorber springs - to absorb energy eg, kinetic energy to
strain energy - spring shock absorbers on some tail-skids.
* Force springs - spring balance etc.

Hooke's Law

Robert Hooke English physicist 1635 - 1703. Hooke's law of elasticity states
that, u p to the elastic limit, the strain (change in length) of a material is
proportional to the stress (force per unit area). By their very nature springs are
designed to work within this law. This means that if 1 unit of force is applied to
a spring it will deform 1 unit of length and if the unit of force is doubled the
change in length will double.

The spring balance shows this. Support, say, a lkg bag of sugar on the balance
and it will extend a certain amount and if the mass is doubled to 2kg the
balance extension will double.

Terms Used For Coil Springs

Free Length - The length of the spring without any load applied. When
checking this length is should be within the limits a s laid down in the
appropriate maintenance manual.

Pitch - The distance between the centre of one coil of the spring and its
adjacent coil - without any load applied.

Coil Distance - This is the distance between two ad-jacent coils - without a n y
load applied.
 MEAN
COIL FREE LENGTH
DIAMETER
\ 1 2 3... ...13 COILS ,

OUTSIDE INSIDE
COIL COIL PITCH WIRE DISTANCE (AT BOTH ENDS)
DIAMETER DIAMETER DIAMETER BETWEEN COILS

Fig. 1 COIL SPRING TERMS

Wire Diameter -- The diameter of the wire from which the coils are made.

Outside Coil Diameter - The outside diameter of the unloaded spring (OCD).

Inside Coil Diameter - The inside diameter of the unloaded spring (ICD).

Mean Coil Diameter - The average between the OCD and the ICD.

Tip Thickness -.-. The thickness of t.he ground section of the end of the spring
(Compression coils only).

Compression Springs

May be wound left or right handed and are usually finished off top and bottom
by grinding the coils flat to provide a surface on which the spring can act.
The coils are usually made of round section wire but they may also be made of
square section bar and the coil diameter is usually large compared to its free
length.

Tension Springs

Again, these may be left or right handed and the coils are terminated, usually,
by the ends being bent to provide a fixing to the component. Coil wires are
usually of round cross-section with the coil diameter being small compared to
the free length.

Springs may be designed in several forms:

* Helical (coil springs). Very common.
* Ream spring. Absorbs a large amount of energy but has a limited
amount of movement.
 Leaf spring. Similar to a beam spring but is thinner and may be
built u p with several layers.
* Special springs. To include cup spring discs built up into a slc]ck
providing a n effect similar to a compression spring.

Maintenance

There is little maintenance requirement for springs and almost all rectifjcation
is by replacernent. Further details or maintenance checks are in module 7.

BEARINGS

Bearings are designed to reduce the friction between moving parts - usually
rotational movement of a shaft within a housing. They may be classified as:
J;
Air Bearings. The rotating parts are kept apart by a thin film of air
pumped under pressure between the journal and the rotating
shaft. In some systems the air pressure is applied before the shaft
starts to rotate and friction (and hence wear) rates can be very low.

Journal Bearings. (High Friction Bearings). The shaft rotates

within a bush usually supplied with oil under pressure.

Roller/Ball Bearings. Sometimes called Low Friction bearings. Use

is made of balls or rollers running between inner and outer races.
Lubricated with oil or grease. Most are radial bearings.

RADIAL
BEARINGS

THRUST BEARING

ANGULAR CONTAC
BEARINGS

Fig. 2 BALL RACES

Ball bearings employ balls, sometimes caged, which rotate within grooved
tracks. Roller bearings use cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers running in
suitably shaped tracks. Both types run contir~uously.

Inner and outer races, and balls and rollers are made from high-grade carbon
chromium steels, which is resistant to wear (the most important factor) and
allow rotary motion while absorbing axial and thrust loads. The metal is also
corrosion resistant. Metal with a high chrome vanadium content is used such
as S A E 6195.

Selection of Bearing Type

In the selection of the correct type of bearing for any particular part of a
transmission system the following factors must be taken into consideration:

Magnitude of the load to be carried.

Direction of the load or loads.
Available space.
Rotational speed.
Precision accuracy.
Alignment requirements.
Axial displacement requirements.
Noise requirements (silent running?).
Rigidity.
Bearing life.

Taking each point in turn:

Load magnitude is usually the most important factor in determining the size
and type of bearing. Ball bearings are usually used for light to medium loads,
whilst roller bearings are better able to cope with heavier loads.

+
RADIAL LOAD

Fig. 3 RADIAL LOADS

RADIAL LOAD
RADIAL LOAD

FLANGED OUTER
RACES

-___ UNFLANGED
INNER RACES

Fig. 4 ROLLER & NEEDLE BEARINGS

Loud direction is important as cylindrical roller bearings having only onc, race
without flanges a n d needle roller bearings can carry only radial loads.
A combined load comprises both radial and axial forces acting simultaneously.
The most important factor affecting the ability of a bearing to carry an ax131
load is its angle of contact (A).

CONTACT
ANGLE
OUTER CAGE THRUST RACEWAY
CE GROVE

FLANG

Fig. 5 EXAMPLES O F BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS

RADIAL LOAD
RANGE
RADIAL LOAD
RANGE t
AXIAL LOAD

F i g . 6 RADIAL & AXIAL LOADING BALL & SPHERICAL ROLLERS

RADIAL LOAD

AXIAL LOAD
INNER RACE ONLY AGAINST
THE TAPER

Fig. 7 RADIAL & AXIAL LOADING TAPERED ROLLERS

The greater the angle (A) the more suitable the bearing is for axial loading.
Single and double row angular ball bearings and taper roller bearings are
mainly used for combined loads. Deep groove and spherical rollers may also be
used.

Single row angular ball and taper bearings carry axial loads in a single
direction only. Where t.he direction of axial loads vary, two back-to-back (or
face-to-face) bearings can be used. In the case of high axial loads, separate
thrust bearings (eg deep groove ball) and support bearings (roller) are used.

Thrust ball bearings are suitable for moderate axial loads, and are designed to
be either single or double acting.

Spherical roller thrust bearings can carry heavy axial loads but smaller radial
forces.

LOAD

Fig. 8 SINGLE & DOUBLE BALL THRUST BEARINGS

THRUST I
RADIAL.
LOAD

II)- RADIAL

/
OUTER RACE

Fig. 9 SPHERICAL DOUBLE ROLLER BEARING

Spherical control rod bearings are not revolving bearings and are used where
movement back and forth is required. They are used on flying control rod
systems for example. They may be used a s rod end bearings and may be
located in threaded fixtures to enable control rigging to be carried out.
Spherical bearings also allow for slight misalignment of control rods and
components during normal operation.

Available space is determined by the component design. Deep groove balls are
normally used on small diameter shafts while cylindrical or spherical rollers
can be considered on larger shafts. Needle bearings can be used where radial
space is limited (such as Hardy Spicer constant velocity joints), whereas single
row cylindrical or deep groove ball thrust bearings are used in areas of limited
i ~ ~ ispace.
al
(A Hardy Spicer coupling is used in shaft power transmission systems to allow
limited angular movement about the shaft/s centre line. I t uses four needle
bearings a s part of a centre cross piece 01- universal joint to allow limited
angular movement between the two rotating shafts.)

BOLTED JOINT BETWEEN

THE TWO SHAFTS

OUTPUT SHAFT

GREASE NIPPLE

IP RETAINERS

Fig. 10 HARDY SPICER CONSTANT VELOCITY JOINT

BEARING/
HANGAR SELF ALIGNING
OUTER RACE

ROLLING
ELEMENTS 'FIXED' INNER
I I RACE
SHAFT

Fig. 11 SELF ALIGNING BEARING

SINGLE ROW DOUBLE ROW RADIAL DUPLEX

THRUST

SNAP SHIELDED SEALED SELF MAGNETO WHEEL AXIAL

RING ONE SIDE ALIGNING THRUST

Fig. 12 BALL BEARINGS

Speed limitations are determined by the maximum permissible operating
temperature of the bearing, the type of lubrication and cooling available. Low
friction bearings (ball or roller) which generate low internal heat are ideal for
high rotational speeds.

Precision bearings are used on shafts where stringent demands are made on
accuracy ie high-speed shafts; these will include double row angular ball
thrust bearings.

Angular misalignment can, for example, be caused by a shaft deflecting under

heavy loads or fuselage flexing in flight for a long shaft. Bearings capable of
accommodating s u c h movement are self-aligning ball bearings, and spherical
roller bearings.

STRAIGHT STRAIGHT STRAIGHT PAPERED TAPERED

SEPARABLE SEPARABLE NON DOUBLE ROW
OUTER RACE INNER RACE SEPARABLE

BARREL BARREL CONCAVE CONCAVE NEEDLE

DOUBLE ROW DOUBLE ROW

Fig. 13 ROLLER BEARINGS

Axial displacement of a shaft by a force (for torque measurement) or expansion

or contraction (due to temperature change) is permitted by the use of a 'non-
locating' bearing of the single flangeless race roller or needle type. Note that
normal bearing configuration consists of a locating (fixed) bearing and a non-
locating (free) bearing.

Silent running is sometimes a n important factor in bearing selection (bearings

in the vicinity of the flight deck or near passenger compartments). Deep groove
ball bearings are normally chosen for this type of application.
 INNER RACE

SHOULDERS

DIAMETER

SEPARATOR

Fig. 14 DEFINITIONS - ROLLER BEARINGS

CUP LENGTH

Fig. 15 DEFINITIONS - TAPER ROLLER BEARINGS

LENGTH A

RE1
LIP

Fig. 16 DEFINITIONS - NEEDLE BEARINGS

Rigidity of a bearing under load can sometimes be important. Although the
elastic deformation of a loaded rolling bearing is very small, roller type bearings
deflect less than ball bearings due to the greater contact area between the
rolling elements a n d the raceways.

Bearing llfe is defined a s the number of revolutions (or operating hours at a

given constant speed) which the unit is capable of enduring before flaking or
breakdown occurs on the races or rolling elements. As no two bearings of the
same type have identical lives the 'basic life rating' is based on the life achieved
by 90% of a test population of identical bearings in laboratory test conditions.

Bearing Elernents

Bearing Rings (Inner and Outer Races) and Rolling Elernents (Rollers and Balls)
are made from high-grade carbon chromium steels, allow rotary motion while
absorbing axial and thrust loads. The metal is hard, resistant to wear and has
good anti-corrosion properties.

Cages. The primary function of these is to keep the rolling elements apart and
in separate bearings retain the rolling elements. Made from pressed brass, steel
or phenolic materials. May be called a separator.

Seals. May be made of elastomeric material with the seal snapped into position
with a ring.

Radial Bearings

Used in all forms of transmission, eg shafts, gears, control rods, pulleys, etc.
Manufactured with the balls in single or double rows, normally they are rigid
but may be self aligning when accurate alignment may not be maintained
during operation. May be sealed to prevent debris from entering the bearing
and to retain the lubricant. Balls are normally retained in a cage, but in sc e
cases there is a filling slot which enables more balls to be used giving a grt er
load capacity.

Angular Bearings

Suitable for radial and axial loads in one direction. The outer race is recessed
on one side to allow assembly/dismantling. Where axial Ioads in both
directions occur two bearings are used back-to-back. The load capacity
depends on the contact area.
Thrust Bearings

Designed for axial loads only, so are used with either a roller or ball radial
bearing. Balls are usually retained in a cage between two grooved races. hlost
suitable for heavy axial loads at low speeds.

Instrument Precision Bearings

Manufactured to close tolerances and used in instruments and commurlication

equipment.

Cylindrical Rollers

Capable of carrying greater radial loads than ball bearings because of tile
greater contact area. Bearings with ribs on both races will also be capable of
carrying light axial loads. Most common are rollers where the length is equal to
he diameter. Needle roller bearings have lengths several times greater than the
diameter.

Taper Rollers

Designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle with the shaft axis.
Capable of accepting radial and axial forces simultaneously. May be installed
back-to-back. The axial loads cause rubbing on the cone lip or flange so
adequate lubrication is necessary. Used in helicopter rotor heads, gear boxes
etc.

Spherical Rollers

May have one or two rows of rollers running in a common spherical track in
he outer race - this gives good self-aligning properties. Can withstand high
radial and axial loads.

INTERNALCLEARANCE

Standard ball and roller bearings are manufactured in four classes of

diametrical clearance and are marked to indicate the class of fit. It is important
that any bearings replaced are of the same part number and nomenclat~~l-r:
(check J A A form 1 and IPC/AMM) and have the same classification of f i t . The
marking is generally a series of dots or circles.
One Dot Bearing - Group 2

This group has the minimum arnount of clearance. Used where minimum axial
and radial movement is required - usually precision work. Must not be used
where heat is likely to be transmjtted to the bearing and are not suitable for
thrust bearings or for high speed.

RADIAL
CLEARANCE

41- AXIAL
CLEARANCE

Fig. 17 INTERNAL CLEAMNCES

Two Dot Bearing - Normal Group

Intermediate range and used for most general applications. Used where only
one race is an interference fit within its housing (requires force to be
fittedlremoved) and there is little transfer of heat to the bearing.

Three Dot Bearing - Group 3

This group has a larger clearance range and is used where both inner and
outer races are interference fits in their housings. Heat transfer is moderate
and the bearing is suitable for high speed operation.

Four Dot Bearing - Group 4

These have the greatest clearances. Both races are interference fits and heat
transfer is considerable.

LUBRICATION

Provided to reduce friction, dissipate heat and prevent corrosion. For low
speeds the bearing is usually packed with grease - which might be anti--freeze
grease. For high speeds the bearing may be lubricated by an oil spray from a
metered supply - as in some jet engines. It is important that only oils and
greases as specified in the AMM are used and lubrication frequencies a s stated
in the maintenance schedule are adhered to.
SEALING AND PROTECTION

Bearings must be protected against the entry of moisture and dirt, and t c ~
prevent the loss of lubricant. Considerations affecting the type of seal would be
(a) type of lubricant, (b) space available, (c) misalignment of shaft and (d) seal
friction.

There are two basic forms of seal:

a) Non rubbing seals.

b) Rubbing seals.

Non Rubbing Seuls rely on narrow gaps or radial labyrinths to form the seal.
This type has negligible friction and wear and is particularly suited for high
speeds and temperatures. Straight or spiral grooved labyrinth seals used in
areas of extreme temperature (in conjunction with sealing air pressure) are
used on jet engines.

7ubbing Seals rely on the elasticity of the sealing material and maintaining a
minimum pressure at the sealing surface. Can be a simple felt or
rubber/polymer washer for grease or grit seals. 'V' seals comprise a rubber
ring with a 'hinged' rubber lip that is pressed radially against the sealing
rotating surface. Used on wheel bearings.

Y' seals are used externally with grease lubrication and internally with oil.
Carbon rubbing seals are sometimes used with high-speed shafts.

Shielding and sealed bearings are pre-packed with the correct lubricant and do
not normally require lubrication in service eg deep groove or self-aligning ball
bearings - but check the AMM.
 GEARS

A gear is a machine element used to transmit motion between rotating

shaftslwheels when the centre distance between the shafts is not too large.
They provide a positive drive, maintaining exact velocity ratios between driving
and driven shafts.

Power transmission gears are usually made from chromium molybdenum steel
(eg E4 130) which provides good toughness and resistance to wear. Some (low
power) gears are made from sintered metal (powered metal). Non-power gears
can be rnade of almost any material including composites for quieter running
non lubricated arrangements.

Most gears are run lubricated either by regular maintenance lubrication or by

being run semi submersed in oil or spray lubricated.

J p CRITICAL SECTIONS
OF WHEEL & PINION I

OF WHEEL & PINION

Fig. 18 BASIC GEAR TYPES

There are two basic gear tooth profile forms the origins from which all gear
types are derived. They are the involute gear, by far the most common in
general use, and the conformal gear, but because of problems that were lar, 'y
insurmountable until now, has not been used much in the past. Modern
manufacturing techniques have brought about its resurrection and a t least one
helicopter (the Lynx) now utilises conformal gearing.

An involute tooth is laid out along a curved line which is generated by taut wire
as it is unwound from a cylinder. The generating circle is called the base circle
of the involute. The involute curve establishes the tooth profile outward from
the base circle. From the base circle inward, the tooth flank simply follows a
radial line and is faired into the bottom land with a small fillet.

Terms used:

Addendum The radial distance between the Pitch Circle of a gear wheel
and the top of the tooth.
Addendum Circle The circle that passes through the tips of the teeth.

Circular Pitch Length of the arc of the Pitch Circle between the centres of
other corresponding points of adjacent teeth. Generally
referred to simply as the 'pitch'.

Clearance The difference between the Addendum and the Dedendurn.

Dedendum The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the Root
Circle (depth of wheel tooth below pitch circle).

Dedendum or The circle that contains the roots of the teeth.

Root Circle

Face That surface of the tooth which is between the pitch circle
and the top of the tooth parallel to the axis of the gear.

Flank That surface which is between the Pitch Circle and the
bottom land parallel to the axis of the gear (the flank also
includes the fillet).

Interference If contact does not occur on the line of action then

interference may occur. This is often the case when a pinion
with a small number of teeth is in mesh with a gearwheel
with a large number of teeth - the faces of the wheel teeth
binding with the flanks of the pinion teeth. If this happens
the pinion teeth will be undercut at the roots. This will
cause debris causing further wear and weakening of the
teeth with eventual failure.

Line of Action Contact between the teeth of meshing gears takes place
along a line tangential to the two base circles. This line
passes through the Pitch Point and is called the Line of
Action.

FACE

Fig. 19 INVOLUTE GEAR TOOTH DETAIL

 FACE
WIDTH

/
\
TOOTH TOP LAND
SPPCE / - a - F

TOO
THlC ADDEND1
CIRCLE

. - FLANK
ADDENDUM

DEDENDUM

\ BOTTOM ROOT \
PITCH ROOT
LAND
CIRCLE CIRCLE

Fig. 20 SPUR GEAR TERMS - 1

Pinion The term applied to the smaller of two mating gears.

Pitch Gear teeth pitch may be measured as follows:

Daimetral Pitch is the number of teeth per inch of Pitch

Circle Diameter. It is a ratio.

Circular Pitch is the distance between two corresponding

points on two adjacent teeth around the Pitch Circle.

Pitch Circle A circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from
the gear axis to the Pitch Point.

Pitch Circle The diameter of the Pitch Circle.

Diameter

Pitch Point The point a t which two pitch circles meet - the point of
contact which transmits the motion tooth to tooth.

Pressure Angle The angle between the line of action a n d the common
tangent to the Pitch Circles at the Pitch Point.

Top Land Is the top surface of a tooth at the tip or crest. The Bottom
Land is the surface between the fillets of each adjacent
tooth a t the root.

Root Fillet That bottom portion of the tooth profile where it joins the
bottom land. It is usually concave.
 DEDENDUM

C
D
CICULAR PITCH

CLEARANCE

ADDENDUMOR
TIP CIRCLE

INTERNAL
SPUR EXTERNAL SPUR

Fig. 21 SPUR GEAR TERMS - 2

Toe That part of a bevel gear that is the shortest part of tht.
tapered tooth. It subscribes the smallest diameter. The heel
is the other end of the tooth that subscribes the largest
diameter.

Tooth Space Distance between two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle.

rooth Thickness The thickness of a tooth measured along the pitch circle.

Working Depth Is the maximum depth that the tooth extends into the tooth
space of the mating gear.

Whole Depth Is the sum of the Addendum and the Dedendum.

Types of Gears

Various types of gears transmit power through gearboxes. The type selected for
use in a specific application will depend on:

How much power to be transmitted

k
Is a change of rpm required?
t
Is a change of torque recyuired?
 * Is a change of angle or direction of drive required?
" Is the gear system to be free from feedback (non-reversible)?

Using a smaller driver gear (with less teeth) than the driven gear, will reduce
the speed of the driven gear but its torque will be increased. If a larger driver
than driven is used the reverse is true.

A gear system, or gear train, is made up of gears that are:

* Driver - a gear wheel that drives another gear wheel.
k
Driven - the other gear wheel that is being driven.
* Idler - this is a driven and a driver wheel a s it is a wheel between
two others. Often used to change the direction of rotation (eg anti--
clockwise to clockwise) or change the speed.

Figure 2 3 shows an internal and external Spur Gear where either the larger
the smaller gear could be the driver so loads in the system would be 'fed-b% i'
from the driven to the driver,

Figure 24 shows a Worm Gear where the worm is the driver but the driven gear
(Pinion Gear) could not be the driver as any movement of it would not turn the
worm (non reversible, no feedback).

Fig. 22 GEAR TRAIN

INTERNAL

Fig. 23 SPUR GEARS

 WORM
U
Fig. 24 WORM GEAR

Gears are named according to the angle of intersection of the axis and thc
shape of their teeth:
A Spur
L;
Helical
* Worm
* Hypoid
* Bevel etc

Spur Gear

These are classified as external (the most common), internal, and Rack a r ~ d
Pinion. External spur gears have teeth which point outward from the cent re of
the gear. Internal or annular gears have teeth pointing inward towards the
gear axis. A rack (a gear with teeth spaced along a straight line), together with
a pinion gear, convert straight-line motion into rotary motion and vice versa.

Spur gears are normally straight toothed (but can be spiral cut - helical gear).
Used on shafts that r u n parallel to one another but not on the same axis. Can
Se noisy due to impact of engaging teeth.

PITCH LINE OF RACK

Fig. 25 FWCK TOOTH DETAILS

 Fig. 26 RACK & PINION SPUR GEAR

Helical Gears

These are a development of the spur gear. lnstead of the teeth being parallel to
the axis of the gear they lie at an angle (a helix angle).

The main advantage of helical gears over straight cut gears is that more teeth
area are in contact at any one time. Meshing takes place along a diagonal line
across the faces and flanks of the teeth. Thus one pair of meshing teeth remain
in contact until the following pair engage so the load on the teeth is distributed
over a larger area. This provides a smoother and quieter drive as well as
enabling more pourer to be transmitted.

The disadvantage of helical gears is that they produce a heavy axial load on the
shaft. This axial load can be eliminated by the use of double helical gearing
(herringbone) but can also be absorbed by thrust bearings that support the
gear shaft.

DOUBLE SINGLE

Fig. 2'7 HELICAL SPUR GEARS

blank
A d o ~ t b l chelical gear h a s two sets o f teeth, orit: w ~ t ha rig11t 11:ir1~1 l-ir.lix a l ~ dthe
other n.ith a left hand helix.

In sorne drive systems from engines to propellers and rotor heatls, t h e axial
thrust loat3 o n a shaft fitted with helical spul- gears is utilised fox torque
measurement purposes The shaft is allowed a sniall a r n o ~ ~ofl ~( > l n dfloat a n d ,
a s torclue is applied, t h e shaft moves axially (as it rotates). This axial movement
pushvs on a small piston t h u s producing pressure in a n o ~ l e dfilled d a s h pot.
The oil pressure is transduced into a n electrical signal for fllght deck indicators
r e a d l ~ i gtorque in Nm.

SPUR GEAR
PRE
CYL DRIVING GEAR)

- AXIAL THRUST WHEN

TORQUE APPL-IED

HELICAL GEAR

OUTPUT SHAFT

Fig. 28 GEAR BOX SHOWING HELICAL GEAR A S

TORQUETRANSDUCER

S p u r gears a r e found in gearboxes; in epicyclic reduction gear trains; accessory

drive trains, a n d in gear-type oil p u m p s - for engine oil systems and some older
hyclra~~lic systems (giving low pressure/ high flow rates).

For internal s p u r gears, the positions of t h e adderldum a n d dcclendum are

rcvcrsc.ci from those of t h e external gear but are still relatetl to I l ~ roote a n d tip.
This I-csults i11 a different tooth :\ction a n d less s l ~ p p a g ethari with a n
equivalent external s p u r .

'I'hc. iiitcrnal gear makes it suited to closer centre distances t1iat-I could IJ(> used
ivith :ti1 external gear of the same size When it is necessary to r r ~ c t i ~ ~ t tatie in
s a m e s e n s e of rotation for two parallel s l ~ a fst , the, 1nte1-nttlgc1:11 i s t,spec-~:~ily
desi~ :t t ~ l ebecatisc it eljmi~i;~tes
thy nced for an idler- gcar 'I'1ic:sc. c.orlditio[ls
rnnltc- the internal gear highly adaptable tto ey~icyrlicand pl;t~l(:t;t~ y ~c;\J tr~~lns
11s r r i e ~ ~ t ~ o; t rt xl ~~\ l~t ~l~, C I I C ; I I gears <ire e s s e n l ~ a l ls~p u l gears.'l'lle~run on
parallel axes with teeth oblique t o the tooth s ~ ~ r f n csta1-ting e, :it one edge
~_roc~edi!lg across the face of thc tooth. This actlon results in reduced irnpact
stress a n d quieter operation, particularly at high speed.

I-ierl-ingbonc-gears are equivalent to two hel~calgears of opposite hand placed

side by slde They are suited to high-spced operation and eliminate the axial
thrusi produced hy single helical grars Helical gears are referred to as right or
left hand in the same manner a s screw threads. A right hand gear being one on
whlch the teeth twist clocktvise a s they rerede from the ol~server-looking alo~lg
t h c gear-axis

Usecl t o coriiiect shafts in the sarne plane where the centre lines inter-sect and a
change of direction is required. The teeth can be either straight cut or spiral
cut and its basic form is that of a cone. They are commonly found on
intermediate and tail rotor gearboxes on helicopters where a change in the
direct~onof drive is required. They are also used in many gearbox accessory
drives a t the input stage of the turbine shaft and the accessory drive. Used to
change the shaft 'axis clirectiorl a n d l o r change the speed.

GEAR 1 AXIS I
PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER

*
l-3
P lg- 29 BEVEL GEAR TERMS
'The :1ng1~between tlic shafts is u s u a l l ~a right angle h u t it rnay Iinve
: i l l \ :~ngle

u p to 180" The vvlocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of t h e i ~t,a.;es
or teeth ratios.

TWObevel gears with equal numbers of teetll a n d running togethvr s v l t l ~t i l t ~ i r

s h a f t axes intersecting a t 90"are called M l t ~ egears. Several forrns of l ~ c ~ v c l
gears a r e in use, including straight tooth. spiral anti skewed gear-s.

Exter-rial bevel gears have pitch arlgles lcss than 90'. Internal bi-~velge:lr:, have
pitch angles greater than 90".

A crow11 gear 1s one havlng a pitch angle of 90'. In n crown geai- thcrefot t., its
pitch surface is a plane and the crown gear corresponds in this respeci to a
rack and s p u r gcaring.

The s ~ n l p l e s forrri
t of bevel gear h a s stl.alght teeth. 'The diametrical p ~ t c . ko~f a
bevel gcar is constant across the full widtl~of the teeth.

Because each point on a stralght tooth bevel gear rerr~ainsa fixed distance- from
the pitch cone apex, there is no sliding along as the tooth engages.

Spiral bevel gears provide a gradual engagement compared to the full line
engagement of straight bevel gears. 'Their teeth are curved and oblique. 'J'11ey
have greater load carrying ability than with straight teeth gears of t l ~ esarrie
size.

Fig. 30 BEVEL GEARS

Bcvcl Gear Terrris

If the rurved surface of the back cone is viewed normally the tevth hcivc: t i l t .
s a m e profile a s the tceth on a spur gear The atlderldum a ~ l dc l e d c * n d ~ i hi~vc.
n~
thc slinie proportions a s s p u r gear leetli but are mc.as~iredabove ancl bt,low the
p ~ t c hrircle ~ ~ a r a l lto
e l the back cone clriver.
l J ~ - t , h ht ,~ :ii~gIcs
i ~ 1.~11- t.1 5
gt~'iij ; t i L~ i l l j ~o r 20L a s fo:.s p u r gears.
~ . ~ s u ~14',:~'

A t l t f l t lonal t o those terms ~ ~ s for are used

~ l gears the f'ollowi~~g
t spur

t)l:i-h ('oiie Angle The anglt. btltween the axis of t h e gear and the p1tc:h cone
teeth (-elI trf- When the pitch c-one angle is 45" the gear is a
mltre gear

Fac c- A~lgle Angle t)etivethnthe ljne at rlght angles to the axis arid the
top surfaces of the teeth.

1l:clgt. Angle The angle between a line at rlght arigles to the axis and the
top edge of the teeth.

R~lcienclu~n
Angle The angle between the gear wlleel and the top surfaces of
the teeth.

Angle
I)erlerid~ir~l The angle Gc.tween the gear wheel and the bottom surfacc
of the teeth.

On some gyar boxes, to establish correct wear patterns, one of the bevel gears
m;ly be adjusted forwards or backwards along its axis (by a fraction of a mm).
This may be carried out using shims (as per the manual)and will put more or
less area of tooth in rrlesking contact.

'These are used where thc centre lines of the two shafts neither intersect or r u r ~
parallel.

They are similar to bevel gears in application and form, but the basic surfaces
on which they are cut are hyperboloids instead of cones. The teeth are helical
and the axes of the shafts c-lo not intersect.

TOE /HEEL

Fig. 31 HYPOID GEAR

Used \?.here a large reduction in speed and ari increase i n torcluc. is r e q ~ ~ ~ r e d
Gives a 910 back-feed' provisiori and used on systems where it is required that
any load taken by the system is not felt on the input to the worm Used or1
lifting equipment using either a. manual or powered worm input.

These connect shafts a t right angles which lie on different planes. The worm I S
esserlt~allya screw which may have a singlt., double or triply start thread.
These engage with teeth on the pjnion gear. Older teeth or1 pinions were
straigl~tbut now are usually wasted to give a greater contact area with tht-
worm. Worms may be known as Encircling or H~ndleyWorms. W ~ t hparr~llel
worms the teeth are straight sidecl on a section througli the axis, a n d have the
same proportions a s standard involute track teeth.

The worm is t h e driver a n d the pinion is the driven gear. Movement cannot be
transmi ttvd t h e other way.

SKEW GEAR

Fig. 32 WORM GEARS

G e a r Trains

A PI-inciple function of gears is to change the speed of rotation a n d / o r their

jirectjon. Besides changing speeds the torque can be reduced or increased.

The change in speed of two gears in mesh is calculated a s the Velocity Ratio.
Velocity Ratio (VR) is t h e number of revolutions N1 of the driving gear dividecl
by the n t ~ r n b e rof revolutions Ny of the driven gear in the s a m e time interval.

For gears with teeth Tl a n d 7'2, respectively, VR is expressed as the following

equation:

Exarn1)lc. I . If a 20 tooth piriiorl (the smaller of a palr of gears) tir~vc~s a 4 0 tooth

gear-, thc: piriiori must rotate ~ L V I C ~for
' e a c l ~one revolut~onof t11e gear.
 -
- 20
- '/J or 0.5 (half a s fast)
40

Example 2 Driver spur with 200 teeth (2u 40Orprn What is the speed of the
d r i v e n gear with 30 teeth?

-
- 200 =- 6.66 (6.66 times faster)
30

-
- 400rprri x 6.66 = 2666rpm approx.

Stepping u p or stepping down the speed of the driven gear will also affect i
torque. Stepping up the speed reduces the torclue by the same ratio and
st eppir~gdown the speed increases the torque by the same ratio.

If the final, or driven gear, in a two gear (external spur) gear-train is to rotate in
t h e same direction a s the driver then a n Idler gear i s required between the two.
If tile distance between the driver gear the final gear is large then several idler
p a r s may be required The idler gear does not affect the speed ratio.

'I'he most important d~stirlctionon classifying gear trains is that between

ordinary and epicyclic gear trains In ordinary trains, all axes remain
stationary relative to the frame but in epicyclic trains, a t least one axis moves
relative to the frame.

SUN WHEEL
PLANET FIXED
PINION 1 ANNULUS
CARRIER

PLANET P~NIONS

Fig. 33 SPUR EPICYCLIC GEAR

'l'hc. rc.ci~~ction in the sprvtl o f the final d s ~ v emay be ach~evedin several stages
; I S In some helicopter nlain rotor drives. 'I'he first stage is normally corriprisctf
of ;in 11711)ut geal ctrivu~ga n i r l y ~ r l tdriven gear, whic11 11;~s
a Larger number of
t ( , L l i t i i , , ~t ~l l ~, ~ T - ~ X ~ L I -
The I-vtiuction achieved across this type o f gearing is expressed a.; a r;it~o,
wher-c. the number of teeth on the drive11 are compared with thc n u r n b c r of
teeth o n the driver. T h u s a gear train consisting of a driver with 30 teetll and
drix-en with 90 teeth would have a reduction ratio of 90 : 30 or 3 : I .

Thc second reduction stage is usually i n the form of a spur ep~c:y<-lic. reduction
gear. 'This consists of a central, or Surr gear, ~vhrchrevolves insidc a sr:~tionary
Ring gear (the ring gear, a fixed annulus, norrnally forms part of the g e a ~box
outer- ~ ~ a s i n
a ngd is internally toothed) Interposed between the s u n gear , ~ n d
the rlng gear, and meshing with both, are sets of Planetary Pinloris, varjilng in
number from three to eight (figure 33 shows 3). The planetary pinions a r e
housed in a carrier to which is secured the output shaft.

As the s u n gear rotates, the planetary pinions are made to rotate about their
cutis,:iind, because they are in mesh with the ring gear, which is stationary,
they "walk" rouiid the gear, taking with them the planetary pinion carrier. This
transmits a drive to the output shaft, which rotates in the same direction as
the s u n gear, but a t a reduced speed.

The reduction achieved in an epicyclic gear assernbly is also expressed as a

ratio, but t h e numbers of teeth o f t h e sun gear and the ring gear only are
considered. The actual reduction car1 be found using the following formr-]la:

Number of teeth of S l J N + Number of teeth of RING

Number of teeth of S U N

Thus tln assembly consisting of a s u n with 40 teeth a11d a ring with 120 teeth
\voul(l have the following reduction:

This c a n be expressed a s a ratio of 4 : 1

From the above it can be seen that the planetary p i n ~ o n sare, in fact, ~ d l e r
gears a n d their n u m b e r of teeth is of no consequence to the actual reductjon
ratio. They are, of course, a n essential part of the assembly, providing the
means of transmitting the output drive power.

In sorrle assemblies, the epicyclic gearing is in two stages (figure 35),wit17 the
lower stage output shaft driving the upper stage s u n gear. In a single stage
assembly the planetary pinion carrier transmits the drive directly to t h c ~ n a i n
rotor drive shaft.
T!!j s gear trair! ronsists rjf two cpposed bevel gears of different diameters.

'Tht. large gear 111 figirrr 34 1s the driving gear and the smaller gear is a fixed
stationary gcal l'hree planet gears or pinions, free to rotate, are mounted or1
equally spactld arms whirl-i are part of the output shaft (eg a propeller shaft).

They are situaletli belwevn, arld are in engagement with, both the driving and
fixed bevel gears Rotation of the driving gear causes the planet gears to rotate
which drives their respectlrie rnounting arrns and the shaft. The assembly
allows for high torclue transmission and acts as a r-eduction gear.

FIXED GEAR

3
PROPELL

Fig. 34 BEVEL EPICYCLIC GEAR

Figure 28 shows a two stage speed reduction gear box for a helicopter. Stage
one is a s p u r gear and stage two is a helical gear. This gear also acts a s a
torque transducer utilising the fidct that when power is transmitted through the
gear the helical teeth produce a n axial movement of the shaft.

Pressure is created in a n oil filled cylinder which is converted to a n electric,

signal for transmission to cockpit instruments.

Fjgure 35 shows the gear train or transmission system of a twin engined

helicopter (based on the Aerospatial Super Puma). There is no need to commit
the details to me1mor.y and the figures are approximate - but studying the
clrawing will give 311 insight into how gears are used.

Both (jet) engines drive into the system at about 22,000rpm. This goes via a
ciouble helical rccluctiori gear to bring the rprri down to about 8000rpm These
two drives feed into a common drive via a single helic:~l reduction gear to bring
t h e rpm down to about 5000rprn.

'I'his common drivr drives ( h e rnain bevel gear to redlice the r p m again - down
to about 20001-pm.
 MAlN ROTOR
265rpm

. n

265rprn
EPICYCLIC REDUCTION
REDUCTION
GEAR
REAR TRANSMISSION
772rpm

FORWARD
ACCESSORY DRIVE
30UBLE L H ENGINE
HELICAL 22840rpm
REDUCTION
GEARS OIL PUMP
MAlN BEVEL
GEAR

Fig. 35 HELICOPTER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The final reduction stages to the main rotor are achieved uslng a doublt.
serially m o u n t e d epicyclic reduction gear. This brings the final speeci d o ~ v nto
265rpm.

The individual engine drives take s p u r gears to drive accessories s u c h as oil

p u m p s , hydraulic p u m p s , generators etc (about 2 0 0 0 to 3000rprn), arid the
comnlon drive is used to drive the tail rotor.

CONTROL, CHAINS

These comply with t h e requirements of British S t a n d a r d s 2 2 8 or I S 0 6 0 h .

C h a i ~ l sancl sprockets provide a strong flex~blepositive connectior~in cor~trol

systerns and a r e generally used where it is necessary to change tlirectiori or to
conrlcct to a p u s h / p u l l rod system. Used where high loads a r e c.ncountc.rt.d, eg
engine controls, flying controls etc

'The chain i s m a d e u p of a series of a pair of liril<s (an inncr llrllc and an o ~ ~ t e r

link). E;lch i n n e r link consists of two:
 A O i ~ t r rplates.
A t3enrir1g pins.

'I'he ckialri llas three principal dirrtprisions:

* Pitch The distance between the centre of two adjacent

rollers/pins.
?; Roller diameter.
.A
'I'hc ivldth betwerr~the lnner plates.

These dirr~ei~sions ar-e important for the serviceability of'the chain and for its
correct fitrr~rntaround sprocltet wheels, pulleys etc.

INNER 1

WIDTH
.-INK

BETWE E N
OUTER

BEARING
PIN

------.
<r \ I

1
I
OUTER LINK

ROLLER

INNER
I I
PLATES
I I OUTER PLATE
+"-

+-t Secured by peening the end of the

bearing pin. If a disconnect point
ROLLER would be secured by locked nuts
DIAMETER o n the bearing pin or other
approved method.

Fig. 36 ROLLER CHAIN CONSTRUCTION

Chain assemblies are supplied from the manufacturer (approved supplier) ;

complete proof load tested units a n d no attempt should be made to dismantle
riveted links or attachments. Only the bolted o r screwed attachments can be
disconnected.

Any peerled n u t s and bolts and split pins must be used O I ~ C Conly.

'I'he chair) is supplied boxed, lightly oiled and coiled in oil--paper.It is identified
by part rlurnber and name arid shoulcl be accompanied by the appropriate
stores release docurnentatiurl (,JAA/ EASA form 1 )

LVheri fittings ~ l r econnected to the end of t h e chain they m u s t be fitted in a

positivc way using lockecl pins, locked n u t arid bolt asscmblics etc. The SBAC
standard for. locking a nut and boll asserriblv 1s to peen the bolt end for chams
of 8mrn pitch or under a t i c i LISP a split pinned lock nut for larger chains (the
out cr ~ ) l ; \ tof
e the cl1a113 is tlorrnally tapped)
 END CONNECTOR
Allows for attachment to pushlpull rod,
cable turnbuckle, cable connector,
bellcrank lever etc

\
SPROCKET WHEEL
CHAIN Allows for chain direction change &
Taking tensile far component drive
loads only

t Rotates chain about its axls

by 90 degrees

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 37 CHAIN & SPROCKET ASSEMBLY

EXTENSION PIECES
I\
I \
/
/
Will not allow chain
to be fitted to the
sprocket the wrong

NON-INTERCHANGEABLE
END FITTINGS POCKET
WHEEL

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 38 NON-REVERSIBLE CHAIN

The use of cranked links for the attachment of end fittings to chains is riot
permitted. Nor is it permitted to use spring clips for the attachment of linlts to
join the ends of a looped chain. Positive methods must be used such a s bolted
joirlts (with the bolts loclted).

Charlgc of direction is achieved by the use of sprocket wheels. A n d the axls of

the ch:tin m a y be changed by 90" hy llie use of a hi-planer block.

7'0 1)rcxventthe chain from being fitted the wrong way round non 1-evers11,lc.
chai~i~; arc: ~isecl.
These are the samr a s the standard chain except that they have extension
pieces every othrr lirik and they are fitted to sprocket whecls where there is a
guard close tu tile whrel. When fitted to the sprocket wheel the extension
pieces pass around t he wheel either sidr of the wheel. If 11 is attempted to fit
the cham to r i ~ c\vheel the wrong way round the extension pieces will be on the
outsidr circunifrrrrrt-t of the wheel and will not pass u n d r r the guard.

Fig. 39 NON-REVERSIBLE CHAIN FITTED TO T H E A 3 2 0 TAILPLANE

MANUAL TRIM CONTROL SYSTEM

Chains rnay have handed or rion-intercharrgeable erld fittings, this means that,
together with the chain extension pieces and guard it is impossible to fit t h e
chain incorrectly into t h e system.

Maintenance

This is detailed in module 7.

 DRIVE RE1,'I'S A N D PIJL1,EYS

These are used to drive conlparativelv lightly loaded componerit s suc.11 ; I S

generators - on some piston engine aircraft, and tirriing rnec%har~isnls C:)rrectly
installed a n d tensioned they provide an illexpensive lightweight dl-ive SJ stem
which is easy to maintain. The fabric reinforced rubber belt forms a c-oi~tinuous
loop around two (or more) pulleys Note Pulleys are called sheaves in qome
publications.

On some systems the belt may go ax-ound more than one pulley with uric. belng
the driver a n d the others being driven. To maintain tension a sprurig loaded or
acljustable idler pulley may be fitted (normally in the longcst s t r :light rtln of the
belt) between the driver a n d driver1 pulleys.

This chapter deals with the different types of belts ant1 pulleys that may be
fo~lnclin service. For the actual design a n d maintenance practices of a
particular belt drive system you s h o ~ ~ refer
l d to the belt drive rr1anufac.turer7s
manual a n d / o r the AMM.

Many belt drives are of t h e "V"type, though there are examples of flat belt
drives in u s e a n d synchronous belts for applications where it is important that
components operate synchronousl.y (cam belts on pjston engines for example.

These are used with flat pulleys with flanges a n d / o r with guides The flanges or
guides are to ensure the belt does not come off the ptllley. The flat belt system
is cheaper t h a n other belt systems :tnd used where very little load transmission
is required. They are of thinner cross section and the specification dirnensions
a s for- V belts are less important.

V Drive Belts

These are divided into 2 groups - - heavy duty and light duty. The V design
ensurf-s it sits within the V shaped pulley with no tendency to come off a n d
increases its grip as more tension (power) is applied. The belts a r e made of
rubber or synthetic materials a n d are strengthened by fabric material, thls
provides strength in tension and reduces the belts ability to stretch. 'The
rubber provides grip a n d a wearing surface. It also proterts the fabric from
moisture a n d contamination.

Tlie c1:issical cross section is shown In figur-r~4 I . It is sornetinles callvtf 13,lnded

Cons tl-uction. The main tension fabric yarns r u n longltudil~allyand I ht.
complete belt is enclosed by a fabric covering a n d a layer of rul-~ber
 MATERIAL

Fig. 40 FLAT BELT CONSTRUCTION

RUBBER OH
SIMILAR
MATERIAL.

MAIN TENSION
MATERIAL

---
--,
,/
II SUPPORTING FABRIC
Helps keep shape of belt

Fig. 4 1 VEE BELT CONSTRUCTION

Its loading is higher than the flat belt but the radius of the p~llleysm u s t not be
too small. For snialler pulleys where a reasonably load is required a notched
belt should be used.

'The Molded Notched V belt is shown in figure 42 with the tension fabric plies in
the outcr section - wliere the tension loads are highest. Tlie belt is designed to
take sirnilar loads to the Banded V Belt b u t will accornrnodate pulleys of
smaller radii. Notched V belts are usually designated with an X', so a 3 V
notched belt, for example, would be designated a 3VX.

Size

'Thcre are three measurements t h a t are used to designate the size of a V belt:
its Outside Circumference (OC); its Effective Length (EI,) and its Pitch Length
(PL).

Out side Circumference (OC)

This is measured uslng n tape mvasure wrapped around the outside of the belt
I t is not very accurate a n d does not provide n measurement of the belt when
rlncier tcnsiorl (it will stretch slightly unc1c.r load), which it would be under
nornl;\l working conditions. Flowcver, ~t does provitle a nonlirlal length w h ~ c hI S
c;lsjr to meastlrt.
 MAIN TENS
FABRIC

Fig. 42 MOULDED NOTCHED V BELT

Effc-ctive Length (EL)

This requires a special measuring rig consisting of two pulleys, one fixcd and
m e loadable with a n attached measuring scale.

'To rneasure the EL of a belt it is placed around two pulleys with specifieti
groove sizes. One pulley is fixed and the other is designed so it c a n be lo:~dedto
stretrh the belt. There is a scale on the loaded pulley to indicate the length
b e t w e ~ nthe two pulley centres.

Tlie belt is placed around the pulleys and the second pulley loaded to a
specified load, the belt is moved through three complete revolutions whilst
being subjected to the load. The EL of the complete belt is calculated by taking
the indicated measurement of the loaded pulley times 2 a n d a d d ~ n gt h ~ to
s the
circumference of one pulley (this equals the two halve c~rcumferencesof each
pulley).

It is the Effective Length that most manufacturers quote in their specific'at .ions.

BELT UNDER TEST

FIXED
PULLEY

Fig. 43 EFFECTIVE LENGTH (EL) MEASURING RIG

Wherl the belt helids around a p u l l ~ vthy outside of the belt is l r l tension and
the insldt I S 11-1 cornprt.ssion Whe~c,the centre of the tension occurs is called
the neutral axis or tensile chord l ~ n eThe tensile chord 1s within the belt
(towards tile outcr edge) and therefore cannot bt. measuretl. The PL is the
length of the tens~lt;chord around the complete belt.

It is calculated using equations but a qualitative approach will serve to indicate

its relatioxlship to OC a n d EL.

Assume we have two identical belts with the same extt:rnal dirncnsions but one
belt (belt 2) h a s a lower tensile chord (it is designed with its fal~i-ic
yarns
further away horn the outer edge). For the two belts the OC and E L would be
the same 1,ut the PL of belt 2 tvould be smaller than the PL of belt 1.

Pcllleys (Sheaves)

These are usually made of steel and supplied in various diameters and groove
angles. Diameters specified include outside diameter and pitch diameter and
include groove angies ranging from 32" to 38'.

BELT DRIVES FROM

HANDWHEELS TO SPROCKET

HANDWHEEL

TOOTHED
DRIVE
WHEELS
OCKET WHEEL

, CHAIN TO rAlLPLANE

Fig. 44 SYNCHRONOUS BEET SYSTEM - A 3 2 0

S\7nc-llronousBelts

Thest. are slmllar to flat belts in d c s ~ g nt.xc.ept that t h r v are toothed 'I'lie teeth
are mo~rldecla s part of the inner surface and prcwidr a posltlve d r ~ v e~v1t11no
slip (the other belts are used wher-e a n y slip, if present, is not a problerl~).

Synchronous belts are used with toc~thrdpulleys and used with t~xnirlgd r ~ v e s
such as ignition systems and valve 11ftixig mechanisrns of some pistor] engines.
They :ire niore expensive than the other iirlts.

'lgure 44 shows a n exarnple of t h y use of a synchronous belt system. I t

c.onnec.ts the tailplane trim wheel 111the flight deck of tlie A 3 2 0 to sproc-ket
drives under tlie floor. 'These use a chain and cable systern back to thc
tailplar~e.Thc system is dup1icate:d.

General

t is important that when replac~ngeither a pulley or a belt of any systcrri that

~t is checked for serviceability and also that it is the correct part (chvclc belt
markings). Marly pulleys/belts, partjcularly of the V type construction look
very sjmilar, and it is important that t h e IPC/AMM is followed closely ancl
docu~nc.ntssuch a s the JAA/EASA forrri 1 clearly specifies the correct part by
name, part number, batch nuniber, serlal nuniber etc.
CONTENTS

Page

Screw threads
Terminology
Standard screw threads
Identification of nuts and bolts
British nuts and bolts
TJnified bolts and screws
A S bolts
BSF and BA nuts
Unified nuts
AS nuts
American nuts and bolts
Locking and retaining devices
Special fasteners
Screw thread inserts
Studs
Keys and keyways
Rivets and riveting
British solid rivets
American solid rivets
Selection of rivets
Blind rivets
Tucker pop
Chobert.
Avdel
Cherry
Rigid pipes
Fuel delivery pipes
Flexible hose assemblies
Pipe-line identification
 SCREW THREADS

A screw-thread is a continuous helical groove cut externally into a piece of round

section material or internally into a previously drilled hole. Threads are
manufactured in many different forms - the majority of which are V form with
different angles of V depending on the standard.

Screw-threads are used extensively with nuts, bolts, studs and other fastening
devises. They are also used in power transmission systems, precision measuring
equipment and many other applications.

CREST

--I1
MINOR DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER
---- -------
EFFECTIVE DIAMETER k--
TWO START THREAD

LEAD = PITCH x NO. OF STARTS

Fig. 1 SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY

Terms

Single Start Thread - A single continuous helical groove cut either internally or
externally. Most screw thread fastening devices (eg nuts and bolts) use this type of
thread. With a single start thread the lead is equal to the pitch.

Thread Form --The profile of the thread form. See figure 2.

Crest - The tip of the thread whether internal or external.

Root - The bottom of the thread groove whether internal or external.

Flank - The side which connects the root and the crest.

Thread Depth - The radial distance between the crest and the root.

Threud Angle - The angle between two flanks.

Major Diameter - The diameter taken across the crests of an external thread or the
roots of an internal thread. May be known as the outside or nominal diameter.

Minor Diameter - Diameter taken across the roots of an external thread or crests
of an internal thread.

Pitch - The distance from one crest to the next or from one part of the crest to the
same part of the next crest.

Lead - The axial distance moved by the moving part (usually a nut) of a threaaed
pair when it is turned through one revolution. On a single start thread, lead
equals pitch. On a double start thread lead is twice the pitch

Coarse and Fine Pitch - Two threads may have similar thread forms and major
diameters yet have different thread depths. The threads with the deeper thread
will have less threads per inch and is said to be coarser. A coarse pitch single
start thread has a greater lead than a finer pitch thread of the same major
diameter. Therefore, the coarse thread has a smaller minor diameter and the
male member is consequently weaker. A fine thread has a stronger root portion,
tighter grip, finer adjustment and is more resistance to slackening under
conditions of vibration than is a coarse pitch screw of similar major diameter.

Multi Start Thread - These are threads with more than one start (more than one
helical grove). A double start thread has two threads of the same size running
helically around the shaftlhole together but starting opposite one another. WILA
such a thread the lead is twice the pitch. Multiple start threads increase the
linear movement of the moving member without changing the pitch of the thread.

Left Hand Thread - In the majority of screw threads, the helical groove is cut in a
clockwise direction so that the moving member of a threaded pair, when turned in
a clockwise direction, will move away from the operator. En some situations,
however, it is necessary to have a left hand thread. In this case the moving
member of a threaded pair, when turned in a clockwise direction, will move
towards the operator. Most threads are right-handed but some are left-handed
such as the threads on oxygen charging equipment and one thread of a
turnbuckle.
 STANDARD SCREW THREAD SYSTEMS

These standards should not be confused with standardised 'nut and bolt'
systems, although most 'nut and bolt' systems will use standard screw thl-eads.

The following pages give a brief description of most of the standards that you are
likely to encounter.

British Standard Whitworth (BSW)

An older UK standard using a symmetrical V-shaped thread form with a 55"

thread angle. The thread is rounded equally at crest and root. Threads per inch
vary from 24tpi for 3 / 16" BSW to 4tpi for 2 %" BSW. Not used on aircraft but
used in general engineering.

BSF & BSW THREADS BA THREADS

UNF, UNC, IS0 & AN THREAD FORM ACME POWER THREAD

+--t PITCH

SQUARE POWER THREAD BUlTRESS POWER THREAD

Fig. 2 THREAD FORMS

British Standard Fine (BSF)

This has the same thread form as BSW but has a finer pitch, eg %" BSW has
20tpi, %" BSF has 26tpi. It is found largely on older type British aircraft.

Basic sizes are:

3/ 16" to 5/16" major diameter by steps of 1/32"

813" to 1" major diameter by steps of 1/ 16"

1%))to 13/4" major diameter by steps of %"

2" major diameter upwards by steps of %"

British Association (BA)

This is a fine pitch thread of symmetrical V-shaped form with a thread angle of
47%". The thread is rounded equally at crest and root. This type of thread may be
found on older British aircraft mainly on smaller electrical and instrument
equipment. It is a metric thread and sizes range from 0 BA - 6mm major diameter
to 10 BA - 1.7mm major diameter.

American National

The two standard American threads are the American National Fine and American
National Coarse. They are similar to BSF and BSW in application respectively.
The thread form is different from the British ones with truncated roots and crests
- and has a thread angle of 60".

American National Coarse (ANC)- This thread has a pitch to diameter ratio
approximately equal to the BSW thread. Sizes range from No 1 (0.073" majoi
diameter) to No 12 (0.216" major diameter). Beyond this range the sizes are
indicated by stating the major diameter in fractions of an inch (eg 5/16" ANC).

American National Fine [ANF)- This uses the same thread form as the ANC but
has a pitch which is finer than BSF. The size range is the same as for ANC.

Unified

In order to bring about some standardisation in screw-threads, negotiations

between the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States in 1948 resulted in
the adoption of unified standard screw threads with metric equivalents. These
threads are of two basic series which are Unified Coarse Thread (UNC)and Unified
Fine Thread (UNF).
Unijied Coarse (UNC) - the pitch of these threads is similar to BSW and ANC
Sizes range from %" to 4" major diameter.

Unzfied Fine (UNF) - The pitch of these threads corresponds with BSF and ANF.
Sizes range from 1/4" to 1%" major diameter.

International Standards Organisation (ISO) Metric

This thread replaces BA, BSW and BSF thread forms. The thread comes in a
coarse and fine series. The coarse series approximates to BSF and is the one for
general aircraft use. The fine series is for components needing very fine threads.
Sizes range from 1mm to 100mm. The coarse and fine threads are designated as
follows:

MI 2 - M - metric, 12 - diameter of thread (coarse series).

MI2 x 0.75- MI2 as above, 0.75 indicates the pitch of the thread and this
is not a standard coarse series.

OTHER THREAD FORMS

There are many other thread forms such a s BSP (British Standard Pipe) for pipes;
Knuckle Threads for cloth and soft fixings, and special-to-type threads. One
group of threads, however, does require a mention and these are the Power
Transmission Threads. They are used to convert rotary movement into linear
motion and also designed to take significantly higher loads than the V form
threads. They may be suitable for power transmission in one or both directions.

Power threads are used on:

* Some aircraft flap systems.
* Vices.
* Lathe lead screws.
* Locking devices on aircraft lifting jacks etc.

The Acme Thread

This is an American power transmission thread which is suitable for transmitting

power in either direction. The included angle is 29". This type of thread works
well with half nuts used for quick release mechanisms.
Square Thread

This thread is also used for power transmission in both directions. It h a s an

angle from flank to root of 90".

Buttress Thread

A buttress thread is designed primarily to transmit loads in one direction only -

as in a vice. One flank is a t 90" to the axis while the other is a t 45" - this gives an
included angle of 45". This thread also works well with quick release half nuts.

IDENTIFICATION OF NUTS AND BOLTS

This section may be a bit tedious, but it is of vital importance to the safety of t. ,

aircraft that the correct nuts and bolts are fitted.

Remember the incident where an airliner windscreen was fitted using under size
bolts? The windscreen blew out when the cabin pressurised and the pilot was
sucked out of the aircraft by the rush of air. It was only the quick action of the rest
of the flight crew that saued him - b y grabbing hold of him - even though he was
half way out of the aircraft. The engineer concerned had not checked on the correct
size of bolts to befitted and finally fitted the wrong ones.

So it is very important that the correct n u t s and bolts are fitted and it is very easy
to fit the incorrect ones.

QUESTION Describe how you would check a n u t and bolt for correct size,
material etc, to be fitted to an aircraft? (10 mins)

ANSWER The first thing to do is to ascertain what is the correct n u t a n d brl. to

be fitted. It is not sufficient just to say 'Check it with the one t h a Lllas
been removed'. It might have been fitted a s an incorrect item in the
first place. There are several ways of checking:
* Look in the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC).
A
Check the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM).
* Check the spares lists displayed at the stores.
JC
Check the modification/repair leaflet if being used.

Once you have ascertained the correct type and size required then the
verification that you have the correct item can be carried out in
several ways:
 j
:
The part may be in a sealed packet with the part number and
identification marked on the packet (small nuts, bolts a r ~ t l
screws). The EASA (JAA) form 1 may be available for inspection.
* Larger nuts, bolts and screws can be identified by symbols and
codes stamped on the head; colour; anti-corrosive treatnlt:nt
etc.

BRITISH NUTS AND BOLTS

BSF and BA Bolts a n d Screws

The following drawing shows some typical forms of BSF and BA n u t s and bolts.

HEXAGON HEAD
u
COLD HEADED HlGH TENSILE
HEXAGON HEAD HlGH
TENSILE STEEL SET
BOLT STEEL BOLT SCREW

CLOSE TOLERANCE
SHEAR BOLT CHEESE HEAD
(HIGH TENSILE STEEL)
(HIGH TENSILE STEEL)

7 8 9

?i%
ROUND HEAD
%? @
COUNTERSUNK
HEAD
RAISED
COUNTERSUNKHEAD

Fig. 3 TYPICAL FOFWS OF BA AND

B S F BOLT AND SCREW HEADS
Legend for figure 3 .

1. Hexagon headed bolt. Natural Colour. Corrosion resistance steel.

2. Cold headed HTS (High Tensile Steel) bolt. Cadmium plated.

3. HTS screw (all the shank threaded = screw). Cadmium plated.

4. Close tolerance HTS bolt. Cadmium plated.

5. HTS shear bolt (has a thin head). Cadmium plated.

6. Cheese head screw. Supplied in various materials, eg

* A1 Alloy - anodic finish.

* Corrosion resistant steel - natural finish.
* Low tensile steel - cadmium plated.
* Brass - tinned.

7. Round head screw. Supplied in the same materials as 6 above.

8. 90" countersunk screw. Again supplied in the same materials as 6

above.

9. Raised countersunk (90") screw. Again supplied in the same materials

a s 6 above.

Aluminium alloy bolts can be identified by a n = sign or an L sign stamped on the

head.

Remember the smaller nuts, bolts and screws are identified by the packet label
and the larger ones may be identified by symbol, shape of head, code markinf
and colour.

Size Markings

For the smaller bolts and screws the size is indicated by a number following the
part number. It indicates the nominal length in tenths of a n inch. It is preceded
by a letter indicating the diameter of the shank.

blank
 'X' = NOMINAL LENGTH

Fig. 4 NOMINAL LENGTH OF BSFIBA

BOLTS/SCREWS

Diameter Code Letter

A - 6 BA
B - 4 BA
C - 2 BA
E - % BSF
G - 5 / 1 6 BSF
J 318 BSF
L - 7 / 16 BSF
N - % BSF
etc

EXAMPLE

A 318 inch A 2 5 bolt of nominal length 3.3 inches would have as a part number:

The A25 indicates the British Standard Specification for the bolt a n d would
specify material, anti-corrosive treatment, colour and shape of head.

UNIFIED BOLTS AND SCREWS

The following drawing shows some typical forms of Unified bolts a n d screws. The
usual identification, if the bolt/screw is big enough is three (or part of) to~lching
circles stamped on the head or on one side.
 Fig. 5 TYPICAL FORMS OF UNIFIED SCREWS AND BOLTS

Legend for figure 5.

1. Hexagon headed bolt which may be supplied in high tensile steel

cadmium plated or corrosion resistant steel natural colour.

2. Hexagon headed close tolerance bolt. HTS cadmium plated.

3. High tensile steel shear bolt. Cadmium plated.

4. Dogpoint. This is the identification on the shank end of some of the

smaller bolts.
 5. Mushroom headed bolt. Supplied in high tensile steel - cadmium
plated and corrosion resistant steel - natural colour.

6. Pan head bolt. Supplied in materials the same as 5 above plus Al

alloy (green) and LTS (Low Tensile Steel),

7. 90" countersunk head. Supplied in:

* High tensile steel. Cadmium plated.

* Corrosion resistant steel. Natural colour.
* A1 alloy. Anodised green.

8. 100" countersunk head. Supplied in materials the same a s 7 above.

Other types of screws/bolts are also supplied including close tolerance

countersunk heads and double hexagon headed close tolerance bolts. The finish
d l depend on the material, eg:

Corrosion resistant steel - natural finish.

Steel - cadmium plated.
A1 alloy - green.
Brass - tinned.

Size Marking

The nominal length of the bolt/screw is the same as for BSF/BA bolts and screws,
ie it is the plain shank from under the head - or if countersunk to include the
countersunk portion.

All [Jnified screws can be identified by markings/codes on the packaging label.

Larger bolts can be identified with the code (standard and size code) though
countersunk screws are not usually marked at all.

Diameter Code Markings

Y - 0-80 UNF
z - 2-64 UNF
A - 4-40 UNC
B - 6-32 UNC
C - 8-32 UNC
D - 10-32 UNF
E - 92 in UNF
G - 5/16 in UNF
J - 3/8 in UNF
etc
BRITISH AEROSPACE COMPANlES 'AS' BOLTS

These cover a range of sizes and shapes of head that are not covered by British
Standard Specifications.

Head shapes include:

* Hexagon.
* Round.
* Mushroom.
* Countersunk 90" and 120"
* Round flat head.
* Double hexagon.

Size Coding

Many of these bolts are not marked in any way and therefore identification would
have to rely on packeted-labelled items. The nominal length is measured in the
same way as BSF and BA bolts and screws and length identification and diameter
coding is also the same as BSF bolts.

The size coding is preceded by the A S number. For double hexagon headed bolts
the nominal length includes the complete shank including the threaded portion.

BSF AND BA NUTS

The shape and materials of the nuts is similar to the bolts already described. They
are supplied in the following forms:

* Slotted.
* Castellated.
* Standard.
* Thin - for shear bolts.

The size marking and identification is similar to that described for BSF/BA bolts.

UNIFIED NUTS

These are of hexagon form and may be:

* Standard thickness.
* Thin - for use with shear bolts.
* Slotted.
* Castellated.
They are identified in a similar way to the bolts ---.with larger nuts kiaving the
Unified symbol stamped on them and the Rntish Standard number followed by a
letter indicating the diameter.

Drawings and label identifications will also include the following letter w1-lele
applicable:

P - ordinary nut.
S - slotted.
C - castellated.
T - thin.

Anchor nuts are not normally identified so great care must be exercised when
selecting/ using anchor riuts.

Left hand threads are indicated by the letter I, printed on the specification and
stamped on one of the flats of the nut.

Fig. 6 EXAMPLE OF A PARTS CATALOGUE - RB211

Note. Figure 6 shows an example taken from the IPC (Illustrated Parts Catalogue)
of the Rolls Royce RB2 1 1 . It shows the itemising of all the parts of the bracket
detail to include rivets, washers and 3 A S bolts and nuts.

BRITISH AEROSPACE COMPANIES 'AS' NUTS

The double hexagon stiff n u t s are supplied in a size range from 8-36 UN,JF
(Unified Fatigue Resistant Fine Thread) to 9/ 16 - 18 UNJF. These are made of
heat resistant steel and may be identified from the AS number marked on the side
of the washer face.

NOTE. The 8 (as in 8-36) indicates the diameter - in this case 8 BA.

Ordinary n u t s and anchor n u t s are supplied made of HTS or corrosion resistarit

steel all with UNJ thread. They are not marked individually but are identified L,
a label in the packet in which they are supplied. The identification will incluc' ,-he
AS part number and the size code.

Anchor n u t s can be supplied in a variety of fonns, eg

* Double lug.
"ingle lug.
* Strip etc:.

AGS (Aircraft General Standards) Nuts

These may be supplied in various forms, eg

* Stiffnuts.
* Wing nuts.
* BSP n u t s (British Standard Pipe).
* Whitworth threads.
* UNC a n d UNF threads.

Diameter size coding is similar to HSF/BA bolts and material codes are:

i MS (Mild Steel) - cadiniilrn plated.

2 CRS Corrosion Resistant Steel) or rnonel metal -- cadmium plated.
3 A1 alloy - anodised blue.
4 Brass/ bronze - tinned.
AMERICAN NIJ'TS AND BOLTS

Many of the world's civil aircraft are of American rnaxlufacture, so rt is only

natural that we should know something of the nuts a n d bolts prtsduced xri
America.

There are various standards in the U S incltlding.

A- Federal Specifications.
k
SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers Specifications.
k
AMS - Aeronautical Matenals Division of SAE.
* AN - Air Force/Navy Specifications.
t
MIL and M S - Military Standards.
-A
NAS - National Aerospace Standards - accepted by the majority of
aircraft manufacturers. If used on military aircraft they will carry the
AN or MS prefix.

Screw Threads

Threads on both aircraft: bolts and machine screws are of the American riativnal
Standard type. This standard h a s two common classes of fit: class 2 - fret. fit and
class 3 - medium fit. The Class 3 or medium fit is used most extensively for
aircraft bolts and machine screws.

Threads are noted by the number per inch. The NAS standard corltairis the:
following three groups of threads: 1 National Coarse, 2 National Fine and 3
National Extra Fine. The National Coarse (NC) and National Fine (NF) are used on
aircraft bolts and machine screws.

In general, the National Coarse threads are used in the smaller sizes through to
No 8 and the National Fine threads are used in sizes N o 10 and larger.

Jnified Threads are used a n d these threads make interchangeability poss~ble

between American, British and Canadian production. The main difference
between the old 'National' threads and the 'Unified' threads is that the former
provides a slightly looser fit.

For example, where a National Fine thread of medium fit was defined as 'iVF3' the
Unified thread is 'UNF3A' or 'UNF3B'. These threads are designated by the
prefixing of the letter 'U' and the suffixing of either the letters 'A' or 'R' depending
on whether the thread is external (bolt) or internal (nut)
AN Bolts

'These are supplied i n two series:

* 3 to 1000 - generally low strength cadmium plated steel or A1 alloy. Ofterl

called the Early Series.
* 6 figure series (lQ0,OOand upwards). These are n ~ a d efrom higher
strength materials and are of' more recent design.

Identification of the nut/bolt can be by reference to the packetlparts list but bolts
in particular can be identified by symbols marked on the head.

DOUBLE DASH INDICATES

ALUMINIUM ALLOY BOLT

DASH INUlCAlES
CORROSION RESISTING
STEEL. \
'X' INDICATES STEEL

Fig. 7 AN3 to AN20 HEXAGON HEADED BOLTS

AN bolts may be obtained in the following materials. The coding symbols shown
follow the basic dash number and identify the material required.

C -
- Corrosion resisting steel.
DD = Aluminium alloy - anodised.

AN Air Force -- Navy Standard.

4 Diameter = inch. Thereafter code increments by 1/ 16 inch.
3 Bolt with drilled head and shank.
10 Dash No indicates bolt length - related to diameter.
A The adding of letter A indicates no cotter pin (split pin) hole.
Early Series A N Screws

'Fhese differ frorri the bolts in that they are made of lower strength rnaterlal, have
slotted or cruciform heads that are either:

* Countersunk (100' or 82").

" Washer head (has a small washer machined a s part of a roirnd hea<l).
" Raised cheese head (Fillister head),
T o u n d head.
* M~lshroomhead (Truss head).

Cod irig

The AN number indicates the type of head. Size coding can vary depending on
type of head and type of thread, eg fine or coarse. In very general terms the code
-elates to the diameter in 1 / 16ehinch.

The length code represents the shank length - including the head if countersunk
- ira I / 1 6 t h inch increrrients.

Supplied in:

Steel.
' Corrosion resistant steel.
" Brass - unplated.
* Brass - plated.
" A1 alloy.
" Bronze - unplated.
" Bronze - plated (cadmium).

Early Series AIV Nuts

Used with AN bolts and screws and are supplied in various forms, eg

"lain hexagon.
* 'Thin hexagon.
* Slotted plain hexagon.
* Slotted thin hexagon.
" Castellated hexagon.
A Wing.
Coding

Those intended for use with AN bolts have the same coding as the bolt. Those
intended for use with screws have the same code a s the screws. Letters in t?le
code represent:

C -
- Corrosion resistance steel.
DD = A1 alloy -- machine screw nut.
D -
- Other a1 alloy.
B -
- Brass.
L/R = Left/ Right hand thread.

Late Series A N Bolts

These are supplied as plain hexagon headed bolts with the material marked ox
them as a code, eg E l l - alloy steel cadmium plated. The heads may be supr d
drilled depending on the AN number. Size codings range from 10-32 to 3/4 -- 16.

Late Series A N screws

Supplied in cheese head or raised cheese head form, drilled or undrilled, with a
single screwdriver slot.

Size ranges from 4 - 40 to 10 - 3/13 UNC and UNF.

Late Series A N Nuts

Supplied in plain, slotted, thin or castellated f o m with the material specification

code stamped on one flat.

MS Bolts

Are supplied in a wide variety of head types, eg

* Hexagon - plain.
* Hexagon - drilled - one hole.
* Hexagon -- drilled -- 6 holes.
" Hexagon - slotted.
* Double hexagon (called a 12 point).
W o u b l e hexagon -- exiended washer face.
A Countersunk (100").
* Internal wrenching (Allen key).
In general codings represent the diameter in 1/ 16th inch and the grip length in
1/ 16th inch. Grip length = plain shank portion including the head where it is
countersunk.

Because the length code may change with the diameter it is rnost zrnportcant that
the complete part number of a particular item be checked by reference to 111e
packet identification and the IPC.

THIS BOLT IS MADE OF NICKEL STEEL,

CADMIUM PLATED TO PREVENT CORROSION.
THESE BOLTS MAY BE EITHER NF(73) THREAD
OR NC (74) THREAD AS PER CODING.

Fig. 8 M S 2 0 0 7 3 & M S 2 0 0 7 4 DRILLED

MEXAGONHEABEDBOLT

EXAMPLE: MS2 1250 - 05 - 07

21250 Identifies a double hexagon (12 point) drilled or plain U N F alloy steel
cadmium plated bolt.
- 05 Indicates diameter in 1/ 16th inch increments.
- 07 Indicates grip length in 1 / 16tll inch increments.

MS Screws

These are supplied in size ranging from N o 4 t.o 1% inch. Materials include:

* Steel - Cadmium plated.

* Steel - Zinc plated.
* Steel - Phosphated
Corrosion resistant steel.
" Alloy steel - Cadmium plated.
" Alloy steel - Phosphated.
Head Shapes include:

* Hexagon - slotted.
* Hexagon.
* Pan head.
* Countersunk '8 00".
* Cylinder head.

Head markings use symbols and code letters and numbers. 'Threads can be UNC
or UNF.

MS Nuts
These are supplied in vanous forms in plated or unplated condition. Sizes range
from No 4 to 1 inch diameter.

NAS Bolts and Screws

These are supplied in a wide range of specifications. Head shapes include:

I-{exagon - plain.
" Hexagon - crown head.
* Hexagon - drilled - corner to corner.
" Hexagon - drilled - 6 holes.
* Hexagon - single drilled.
* Hexagon - tri-wing recess (3winged Phillips style screwdriver slot).
* Countersunk 100" - Phillips, tri-wing torque-set, and hi torque.
* Internal wrenching (Allen key).
* 12 point (double hexagon).
* Cheese head (fillister).
* Pan head with various drive recesses.

Coding

'The coding includes type of head; diameter; length (total length of screws - grip
length for bolts); material and type of plating. The diameter coding is similar to
AN and MS parts for most bolts and screws. For the remainder they are coded in
numerical order.

'I'hreads may be UNC, IJNF, UNJC, UNJF or American National

The c,ode includes letters to indicate:

* Plating type.
"ype of locking - drilled shank etc.
* Type of recess:
-
T - Torque set.
H -
-- Hi 'Torclue.
P or R - Phillips
A Material type:

CR, C or E = Corrosion resistant steel.

v -
- Titanium.

Add 'DH' to part number to designate drilled head.

Add 'AA'to part number to designate drilled shank.

NAS 144 A BH . 25

Fig. 9 NAS 144 t o NAS 158 INTERNAL

WRENCHING BOLT

EXAMPLE: NAS 144ADH - 25

NAS""4 - % inch diameter bolt.

A - Drilled shank.
DH - Drilled head.
25 - 251 1 6 t h ~
inch long (1.6" long).
 LOCKING AND RETAINING DEVICES

British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCAH) prescribes that an approved

means of lockirlg must be provided on all connecting elements in the primary
structure, fluid systems, controls or other mechanical systems essential to the
safe operation of the aircraft.

I,ocking devices may be incorporated in the conlponent itself (self-locking nut) or

may be a separate item (spring washer). Some locking devices may be used once
only (locking wire) others may be used many times (locking plates). If in doubt
about which one to use and whether it can be used a second (or third time)
consult the AMM. Below are listed details of most of the locking methods.

Split Pix-Is

Manufactured from mild corrosion resistant steel or nickel alloy steel and u s in
conjunction with drilled bolts and slotted or castellated nuts. The steel pin is
fitted in a slot in the n u t and passes through a hole drilled in the bolt. 'The pin is
secured by bending the legs as shown in figure 10. Either method is acceptable in
locking slotted or castellated nuts. Used the pin once only. Snip off legs if they are
too long Drilling of bolt shanks is not permitted.

CASTLE NUT SLOTTED NUT

Fig. 10 SPLIT PIN USE

Spring Washers

This washer has either a single or double coil spring and is fitted beneath the nut,
When the n u t is tightened and the spring compressed, friction is set u p between
the faces (flanks)of the screw thread which is sufficient to prevent the n u t or bolt
turning. Provided the spring washer retains its springiness and the edges of the
single spring washer remain sharp then it may be re-used, but some
manufacturers recommend they be changed every time anyway - particularly on
joints that are dismantled infrequently.

The single washer has a sharp edge on the top and botlonl ends. One edge
protrudes into the base of the nut slightly and the other protrudes into the
component slightly. This further enhances the locking effect.
 EDGES DIG INTO
COMPONENT DOUBLE SPRING
WASHER

/---
SINGLE SPRING WASHER

Fig. 11 SINGLE & DOUBLE SPRING WASHER

Tab Washer

This is a metal washer with two or more tabs and is suitable for use with r i plain
nut, one tab is bent against one of the flats of the nut and the other over a r ~edge
or into a small hole in the component. Unless the tab washer is of the multiple
type, it should be used once only.

Multiple types have more than one tab so a new tab can be used each time the
washer is used.

\@
LEG BENT INTO HOLE
IN COMPONENT AND
OTHERS BENT ONTO
OFTHENUT
THE FLAT OR FLATS

Fig. 12 SINGLE TAB WASHER

Shake Proof Washers

These washers are manufactured from spring steel and can be used in place of
;pring washers, either the internal or external diameters are serrated and the
resulting legs are set a t a n angle so as to 'bite' into the pressure faces of nut and
component when the n u t is tightened. Used once only.

LEGS SET AT A
EXTERNAL SMALL ANGLE WITH
HARP EDGES INTERNAL

Fig. 13 SHAKE PROOF WASHERS

Locknuts

Locknuts are plain nuts which are tightened against ordinary plain n u t s or
against coxnponents into which male threaded items are fitted. Used marly times.

The first nut 1s tightened down in the normal way and the lock-nut is tightened
down onto the first nut. When tightening the lock-nut the first nut should he held
firmly by the use of a spanner.

Fig. 14 LOCKNUT

Locking Plate

A locking plate is usually manufactured from steel. After torque loading/correctly

tightening the nut the plate is placed over the nut and locked with a g n l b screw.
The gnlb screw is locked by the use of a spring washer. Carl be used repeatedly
provided it r e n l s n s a good fit around the nut or bolt.

Fig. 15 LOCKING PLATE

Wire Locking

The wire used for wire locking is normally 22 SWG (Standard Wire Gauge)
corrosion resistance wire -- or that specified in the manual. When wire locking the
following points must be considered:

a. No unsuppcrted length should exceed 3" (76mm).

b. No untwisted length should be greater than 7 8 " (10mm).
c. The twisted wire should extend through the locking point by %"
(13mrn).
 d. Angles of approach to be not less than 45" to the rotational =IS.
e. After removal of surplus wire, the twisted e n d s should be bent over to
prevent injury and catching on clothing, etc.
f. The lay of the wire must always be such a s to resist any tendency of
the locked part to become loose. Be careful to ascertain whether the
thread is a left-hand or a right-hand thread. Right hand thxeads
tighten clockwise, a left-hand thread is tightened by turnjrig ant1-
clockwise.

Examples of the use of locking wire are shown in figures 16 a n d 17 (single wire
techniques). Figure 18 shows the twisted pair technique being used on pipeline
unions.

Fig. 16 SINGLE WIRE LOCKING

TWISTED
LOCKNUTS ENDS STOWED
/\ /

READ SAFETY
\ INSPECTION HOLE
RH THREAD

Fig. 17 WIRE LOCKING A TENSION ROD

TYPE TURNBUCKLE

TWISTED PAIR LOCKING ONE UNION

NUT AGAINST THE OTHER

Fig. 18 WIRE LOCKING PIPE UNIONS

Cjrclips and Locking Kings

Manufactured from spring steel hardened and tempered. May be internal or

external. An internal circlip is fitted into a bore and springs outwards to fit in a
groove. An external circlip fits over a shaft and springs inwards into a groove. An
example is shown below where the circlip retains the centre part of the universal
or Hardy Spicer joint,

After fitting the circlip or locking ring an inspection must be made to ensure that
the circlip is correctly bedded in its slot or groove.

HARDY SPICER TYPE

UNIVERSAL JOINT

Fig. 19 PLATE & WIRE TYPE CIRCLIPS

Stiff Nuts

A stiff n u t is self-locking. I t is designed so that when assembled to a stud or LA,

the friction between the screw threads is so great that the n u t is held securely in
position. The friction is produced a t one end of the n u t by a built-in locking device
which can either be a nylon insert, an elliptical collar (Kaylock) or de-pitching the
last few threads (Philidas, Aerotight).

Note. When assembled, the end of the bolt must protrude from the end of the stiff
nut by a t least one complete thread.

Depending on application may be used more than once provided the n u t cannot
be txrned down by hand. Some rnanufact~~rers recoxnmend they are replaced
every time when used - particularly if joints are critical, or difficult to get at, or
are not often disturbed.
 THREADS

OBDlE PHILIDAS AEROTlGMT KEYLOCK SINGLE ANCHOR

ODDlE

DOUBLE
STRIPNUTS
NYLOC CAPPED NYLOC ANCHOR
NYLOC FLOATING ANCHOR

Fig. 20 STIFF NUTS & ANCHOR NUTS - GENERAL

Peerling and 'Centre-Popping9

This method of locking should not be used unless specified in the manual. The
bolt end is deformed to provide the locking which makes dismantling more
difficult. The bolt must extend 1'/z threads through the n u t before peening. A new
bolt and n u t is fitted each time. The peening is carried out using a hammer and a
centre punch deforming the end of the bolt into the sides of the n u t , or by 'centre-
popping' the interface between the n u t and the bolt. For some operations the bolt
might need to be supported from the other side using a large mass such a heavy
hammer.

Some countersunk screws are peened by using a chisel sharpened to a

screwdriver point. The surrounding metal is forced into the screwdriver slot of the
screw.

PEENING SCREW-DRIVER
SLOT \

@ CENTRE POPPING

Fig. 2 1 PEENING & 6CEIVTRE-POPPING'

Taper and Parallel Pins

Taper pins with a taper of 1 In 48 are used 0x3 tubular and solid circular sections,
for securing control levers to torque shafts and fork ends to control rods etc. Made
from steel or light alloy, they are classified by the small end diameter and. length.

Some are bifurcated, the legs are spread far locking, and others are solid a n d
peened to lock. Others may be fitted wit.h a screw thread so locking is carried out
using a nut and peening.

Locking Il sing Adhesives

Compoiients such as instruments, valves, switches etc may be locked with

Shellac, Loctite, Araldite or similar materials. The advantage of using adhesive as
a fastening method is the ability of a n adhesive to fill the joint area keeping ou
air and rnoisture and it i s also convenient. The manufacturer's recommendat ,s
must be followed as regards the use of these methods.

LOCKING DEVICES - HOW OFTEN USED

DEVICE NIJMBER OF TIMES LJSED/APPLTCATION

Locking Wire Once

Split Pin Once
Tab Washers Once (unless multi-tab type)
Circlips Once (wire type)
More than once (plate type)
Locking Plate More than once
Spring Washers More than once
Sh akeproof Washers Once

SPECIAL FASTENERS

There is a wide range of these types of fasteners. A few have been selected for this
book to demonstrate the range available.

Jo-Bolts may be classified as blind rivets. The complete item consists of a

threaded bolt with a roundhead, a rivet shaped n u t and a sleeve, assembled as
illustrated in figure 23. Rotation of the bolt forces the sleeve u p the tapered n u t
shank, clarriping the materials to be joined and a t a predetermined load the bolt
shears just inside the n u t head, leaving, virtually, a solid steel rivet in the hole.
Jo-Bolts are manufactured with hexagon or. 100" countersunk heads, in either
stainless or alloy steel and have a shear strength aln~ostequal to a bolt of
equivalent size and material The bolts are pre-lubricated a n d must not be
washed in solvent, since this would alter the gripping strength at which t l ~ ebolt
shank breaks.

The tools used for placing Jo-Bolts are in two concentric parts, the outer part
holding the n u t and the inner part gripping the bolt shank. Different adapters are
be fitted to the tool to accommodate the different size hexagon heads, or cruciform
slots of c:ountersunk bolts.

BOLT
/

BOLT LOCATED IN HOLE. TOOL GRIPS AND ROTATES

HEXAGON HEADED NUT BOLT PULLING SLEEVE WHEN FORMING COMPLETE
HELD IN TOOL. OVER NUT END BOLT STEM BREAKS

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 22 FORMING A JO-BOLT

Jo-Bolts have now been replaced by Jo-Locs. These are similar in operatiori to Jo-
Bolts but with a higher specification.

Rivnuts

Rivnuts are a form of blind rivet which is used as an anchor n u t , the internal bore
being threaded to receive a bolt or screw. Rivnuts have either flat or countersunk
heads. The countersunk head types are open ended a n d may or may not have a
locating key, but the flat head types all have a locating key a n d are supplied with
either a closed or open end.

Marks on the head indicate length in accordance with a manufacturer's code.

Rivnuts are installed with a special tool fitted with a thrradetl mandrel; the
mandrel is screwed into the rivnut and when the gun is operated the mandrel is
pullecl in a n d the Rivnut expands a s shown, locking ~t i n the hole.
 MANDREL UNSCREWED
AFTER RIVNUT FORMED

PLATES TO

INSERTED t
I RIVNUT
CLOSED

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 23 FORMING A RIVNUT

Fii-lex Fastener

This fastener is designed for joining composite panels. The countersunk hear. IS
an included angle of 1 30. The forming of the fastener is shown in figure 25.

2. TURN UNTIL HEAD

FULLYSEATEDgHEX
SHEARS OFF.
THREADCOLLARONTO
NER CLOCKWISE

THE FASTENER INTO THE

STRUCTURE COUNTERGLOCKWISE
USING A SOCKET ON THE CT
DRIVING HEX.

3. WRENCHING FLATS
ON COLLAR WILL
TORQUE OFF AT
PRE-DETERMINED
WRENCHING TORQUE.
FLATS

Fig. 24 FORMING A HI-LEX FASTENER

Hi-lite Fastener

These are supplied in a variety of forms (figures 25 and 26). Figure 26 shows the
forming process of the HPL type. Head shapes are pan head and 100"
countersunk.

PARTS TO BE JOINED

INTERNAL THREAD REUSABLE THREADED MANDREL

MATES WITH
THREADEDMANDREL

Fig. 25 HI-LITEHPL FASTENER

BASIC INSTALLATION INSTALLATION ON SLOPE

PIN AS BEFORE

HI-LITE SELF ALIGNING COLLAR

LLAR WRENCHING HEX SHEAKS

OFF AS BEFORE & INSTALLATION
OFF AT PRE-DETERMINED TORQUE.
INSTALLATION COMPLETE.

Fig. 26 FORMING A HI.*EITEHPL FASTENER

4
 SCREW THREAD INSERTS

Screw thread inserts (or wire inserts) are used:

a. In soft rrlaterials to allow frequei~tassembly and dis-assembly of

components with minimum thread wear to the component itself.
b. To increase the effective thread diameter and allow higher torques to
be used.
c. In schemes to repair a damaged thread.

Prior to installation the insert is shorter in length and larger- in diameter than
when in stalled.

In most cases the tools and inserts come in kit form with full instructions
supplied.

Good motor skills are required to fitjremove inserts successively.

NOTCH PARTLY
SECTION INSTALLED INSERT

TANG

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 27 WIRE THREAD INSERT

Identification

British thread form inserts (BA, BSW, BSF & BSP) can be identified by yellow
paint on the tang. Unified thread forms have no colour identification. More
precise designation is achieved by code number systems issued by SBAC and
other standards printed on the packet.

Installation

Since the internal and external threads on a thread insert have the same number
of threads per inch and the internal thread is designed to be of standard size,
then a special tap is required to cut the threads into which the insert is fitted.
These taps and checking gauges are provided by the insert manufacturer.
In general the installation procedure is as follows:

1. Refer to manufacturers information supplied with the Insert ktt

2. Drill correct size hole.

3. Tap the hole (taps supplied in the kit).

4. Gauge the tapped hole (gauges supplied in the kit).

5. insertion of the insert (tools and inserts supplied in the h t )

6. Removal of the insert tang.

7. Inspection and checking of work.

The hole for the insert should be drilled to the diameter and depth specified in
tables supplied by the insert manufa-cturer. Care should be taken to ensure that
the hole is drilled in the correct location and square to the surface and that all
swal-f is removed before tapping.

Thread Tapping

'The thread should be tapped with the special tap, a straight-fluted tap being used
for hand tapping and a spiral-fluted tap for machine tapping where this is
possible. Normal workshop practices should be used for tapping, with special
emphasis on cutting the thread coaxidly with the hole. Lubricant should be used
according to the type of metal being cut, eg a light mineral oil is generally
recommended for tapping light alloys. (Remember, when tapping to turn the tap
nalf turn forward and a quarter turn back so as the break u p the swarf ancl
provide a smoother thread.)

Thread Gauging

After the insert thread has been cut it should be cleaned of all swarf and foreign
matter. The thread should then be checked with a special CO/NO GO plug gauge
provided to ensure that the thread is satisfactory. Any thread imperfections
indicated by tightness of the GO gauge should be removed by furl her use of the
original tap or, if this is ineffective, by use of a new tap.
Fitting the Insert

The insert should be screwed into the tapped hole by use of either an inserting
key or an inserting tool of the pre-wind type, depending 01-1 which is recommended
for the particular insert. A different sized key or tool is provided for each size of
insert.

MANDREL HANDLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 28 INSERTING KEY

NOZZLE HANDLE

MANDREL

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 29 PRE-WINDINSERTING TOOL

The inserting key is used by sliding the insert onto it so that the tang is
engaged in the driving slot at its forward end; the assembly should then be
applied to the tapped hale, compressing the insert downwards with the thurr,
and forefinger of one hand whjle turning the key with the other hand; no
downward pressure should be applied on the key. The insert will wind into the
thread and should be installed so that the outer end of the insert is at least half a
pitch below the surface of the corriponent.

When a pre-wind tool is used the insert should be placed in the chamber with the
tang towards the nozzle and the mandrel pushed fonvard through the insert to
engage the tang in the slot. The mandrel should be rotated clockwise and pushed
gently forward to engage the insert coil in the nozzle threads, rotation being
continued until the insert is about to emerge from the outer end of the nozzle.
The tool should then be placed squarely over the tapped hole and the handle
rotated to transfer the insert from the tool into the tapped hole. No forward
pressure should be used.
Removal of t h e Tang

It is not always necessary to remove the tang of a wire thread insert, but rernoval
may be specified in some cases for screw clearance or product appearance. both
in blind holes and in through holes A tang in a through hole is removed b y use of
the inserting key used a s a punch, with the tang outside the engaglng slot, or by
use of a special punch.

A sharp blow with a hammer on the key or punch will fracture the wire at the
notch were the tang joins the coil. To remove the tang from an insert fitted in a
blind hole, long round-nosed pliers are required; the tang should be bent
backwards a n d forwards through the insert bore until it fractures at the notch
and can be removed.

TANG

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 30 TANG BREAK-OFF TOOL

Removal of Inserts

Under rlorrnal circumstances, particularly when fitting instructions have been

carefully carried out, the removal of inserts should be unnecessary. However, if
a n insert h a s to be removed because of bad fitting, darnage or wear, this can be
done by bending the top coil inwards to form a rough tang and unscrewing the
insert with the insertion tool or a pair of pliers. Some manufacturers recommend
the use of a tapered left-hand tap of appropriate size, which grips the top coils
internally a n d unwinds the insert when rotated. Other manufactures provjcle a
range of extractor tools, which are fitted with hardened and tempered blades. The
blade will bite into the inner surface of the insert, which can then be unscrewed.
After removal of a n insert, the threads in the hole should be carefully examined
for damage before fitting a new insert.
 HANDLE
PRESS DOWN &

INSERT

INSERT

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 31 AN EXTRACTOR TOOL

STUDS

These are supplied it? various thread forms and sizes to meet particular
requirements. In general they can be grouped into four main categories.

Standard or Plain Stud

By far the most widely used type of stud. The diameter of the unthreaded portion
is the same as the major diameter of the screw thread a t both ends. This type of
thread is called a minus thread - common to almost all bolts and screws. (Take
note - the following drawings on studs use British Standard BS8888 symbols f ~ r
the screw thread).

SCREWTHREAD

Fig. 32 STANDARD STUD

Waisted Stud

Used where reduction of weight without loss of strength is ~xnportant.The

d ~ a m eer
t of t h e plain (un-threaded) portion is reduced to I h e minor diameter of
the threaded (or less) t h u s reducing the weight of the stud without ampairing its
effective strength.

Fig. 33 WAISTED STUD

Xepped Stud

'I'his type provides a stronger anchorage than the plain stud if the stud is used in
soft or weak material. One thread is larger than the other. These can also be used
as replacements for plain studs when the tapped stud hole becomes damaged and
h a s to be re--drilled and re-tapped with a larger thread (iaw the SRM).

Fig. 34 STEPPED STUD

Shouldered Stud

This type is used where maximum rigidity of assembly is of prime impol-tance.

The stud is machined to form a projecting shoulder between the two threaded
portions. This shoulder seats firmly on the surface of the component and gives
additional resistance to lateral stresses.

Fig. 35 SHOULDERED STUD

Studs may be fitted by the use of:
A.
A spanner. Some studs are supplied with flats on the plain shank.
-k
rrwo nuts. The two nuts are locked together on the protruding thread
and the top n u t is used to tighten the stud into the hole.
J; A stud box.
~r
A stud removal and inserticrn tool.

Stud Removal

If complete, the stud can be removed by:

i;
A spanner - if provided with flats.
* Two n u t s (as above) but using the bottom nut to turn the stud out.
k
A stud removal and insertion tool.

If broken above the surface:

* File two flats on the stud and remove with a. spanner.

If broken below the surface you can (with difficulty):

~r Drill the stud centrally using a drill aboul. l/z the diameter of the stud.
Drive a square steel tang (locally manufactured) firmly into the hole
and remove the stud by turning on the tang,
* Use a n 'Easyout'. Drill the stud using a drill (the size is specified on
the Easyout). Insert the Easyout (which has a knuckle type tapered
left hand thread). Remove the stud using a spanner on the tang of the
Easyout. Easyouts are supplied in boxed sets.
* For larger studs. Drill and tap with a left hand thread. Screw in a left
hand threaded bolt and continue to turn (in an anti-clockwise
direction) to remove the stud.
* Drill the stud out using a drill to the crest diameter of the tappec
hole. Re-tap the hole. (None of the above processes are easy a n d this
one is even more difficult).

Stud Box

A stud box is a tool used for inserting studs and corlsists of a deep hexagonal nut
with a n ordinary bolt fitted a t one end. The stud is entered into the stud box, the
bolt is then tightened down onto i t , the stud box hexagon is then turned with a
spanner until the stud is fully screwed home.
 COPPER DISC

w
Fig. 36 STUD BOX

Stud Removal and Insertion Tool

This can be used to fit and remove a stud.

The stttd is passed through the hole in the end plate until i t s plair, part is
positioned within the hole in the cage, the locating screw is then. adjusted so that
the stud can not enter further into the hole. On rotating the tool body, the cam
followers are pressed tightly on to the stud p l a h shank and the stud can then be
screwed lri (or out).

C A M FOLLOWERS
IN CAGE

END PLATE A @
Fig. 37 STUB REMOVAL & INSERTION TOOL
These are supplied in sets providing a range of sizes. They ax-e made of steel with a
tapered left hand knuckle thread at one end and a square drive at the other.
When turned anti-clockwise into a drilled hole in the end of a broken stud the
tapered thread %ites' into the hole and provides a positive drive. When drilling
into the end of a broken stud it is important not to drill the hole too large. This
would cause the Easyout to swell the stud ill the hole as it is inserted and the
stud would be impossible to screw out.

LEFT HAND SQUARE END FOR

'KNUCKLE' WRENCHING
THREAD \

Fig. 38 'EASYOUT'

KEYS AND KEYWAYS

These are used where rotary power is to be trarlsrnitted from (or to) a shaft (or
hub) and a drive-wheel. The key is a solid piece of metal of rectangular or square
cross-section, fitted into a rriatched recess which is formed between the shaft and
the drive-wheel. Several different types are available.

Tapered Keys

These are made with a standard taper of 1 in 100 on the thickness - the tapering
face of the key matching the taper of the recess or keyway farmed in the bore -f
the wheel. The ability of the key to resist axial movement between the h u b an,,the
shaft depends on the fit of the key in the keyway. Careful fitting is essential. 'he
following types of taper keys are in common use:

Hollow Saddle Key - One side of this key is curved to suit the radius of the shaft
when driven into position, its taper provides a friction grip between h u b and shaft
that is capable of taking a moderate load only. There is no keyway on the shaft.

Flat Saddle Key - This form of taper key is rectangular or square in cross-section
and it bears on a flat formed on the shaft. It provides a more positive grip
between shaft and h u b than js achieved by the hollow saddle key, but still cannot
t,&e very high loads.
 WHEEL KEY
I KEYWAY

Fig. 39 HOLLOW SADDLE KEY

Fig. 40 FLAT SADDLE KEY

Plain Taper and Gib-Headed K e y s - These forms of taper key fit into keyways
which are formed partly in the shaft a n d partly in the hub. They are capable of
transmitting greater power than either of the saddle types. The gib-headed
key provides for easier removal.

Fig. 4 1 GIB-HEADED KEY

Feather Keys

Keys of this type are used in circumstances where it is required to allow axial
movement between shaft and wheel -- for example, a feather key rnight be useti if
it is necessary for a pulley or gearwheel to move along a shaft while still Ijejrrg
driven. The h u b keyway is cut to allow for side and top clearance round thcl key,
so permitting a sliding fit to the key in the keyway.
 Fig. 42 FEATHER KEY

W oodruff Key

'This key is made in the form of a segment of a parallel--sided disc. It fits into a
ke-yway of similar shape, which is formed partly in the shaft and partly in the
wheel. The cavity in the shaft conforms closely to the rounded portion of the kGi,
while an axial groove, of uniform rectangular cross-section, is cut in the whet o
a depth which permits a push fit between h u b and key. Woodruff keys may be
fitted to parallel or tapered shafts.

Fig. 43 WOODRUFF KEY

RIVETS AND RIVETING

Riveting is a semi-permanent form of joining material (metal, composites etc)

together and may be divided into three categories:

1. Solid rivets.
2. Blind rivets.
3. Special rivets/fasteners/blind bolting.
Solid Rivets

These rivets need access to both s ~ d e of

s the material being joined during the
forming process. They have a good strengthlweight ratio but require skill to form.
They are water and airtight and are less expensive than other types of rivet. They
are strong in shear b u t not so strong in tension.

All solid rivets are supplied from the manufacturer with the head pre-formed.
Both British and American rivets are identified by head or s h a n k end markings
except where a material is easily identified by its weigh! or natural c:olour.
Certain British rivets are coloured all over for ease of identification.

Blind Rivets

These require access to one side of the material only. They are more expensive
md require special equipment to form. Some are not water or airtight and some
are weaker than solid rivets. They require less skill to form.

Special Rivets/Fasteners/ Blind Bolting

There is a wide range of special fasteners and many are a cross between a rive1
and a n u t and bolt assembly. Most can be used in the 'blind mode'. Usually more
expensive than blind rivets. Generally stronger in tension and shear and all
require special tools to form.

SOLID RIVETS - BRITISH

Standards for these are set by the Society of British Aerospace Companies (AS
series) and the British Standards Institute (SP series). Rivets a r e identified by a
Standard Number and a Part Number. The Standard Number identifies the head
shape, material and finish, while the Part Number indicates the length ant1
diameter of the shank.

DIAMETER - thirty-seconds of a n inch or millimetres x 4 0 .

LENGTH - sixteenths of an inch or millimetres.

eg:

AS 162 408. AS 162 indicates A1 alloy L58 90" countersunk head, anodic
finish, colour green. 408 indicates %" diameter and %" long

SP142-40-16. SP142 indicates A1 alloy L86 100" countersunk head, anodic

finish, colour violet. 40-1 6 indicates 4mm diameter and I Grnrn long
SP inch size rivets are made in a range from 1/ 16" to 3 / 8 " diameter and from
1/8" to 3" long. The SP series has superseded the AS series.

SNAP MUSHROOM COUNTERSUNK COUNTERSUNK UNIVERSAL

HEAD HEAD HEAD TRUNCATED HEAD
RADIUSED HEAD

.. ..- -.- -

1O o O 100"
-- - -- - -
INCH SIZES METRIC SIZES
L = LENGTH D = DIAMETER

Fig. 44 S P INCH & METRIC RIVETS

AS countersunk heads include 90" and 120" with SP countersunk heads IOQu.
Flat countersunk and raised countersunk heads are available. The raised
countersunk head denotes close tolerance.

SOLID RIVETS - AMERICAN

The code used for American rivets is similar to that used for British rivets and
illustrated as an example is MS20470 AD 5-12, which has the following meaning:

a. MS signifies Military Standard. This standard has superseded the old

AN (Army-Navy) standard.
b. 204'90 is a code for the head shape and basic material (aluminium
universal head in this instance).
c. AD is a code for the rivet material (21 17 aluminium alloy in this
instance).
d. 5 is the diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch.
e. 12 is the length in sixteenths of an inch.

British rivets can be used in place of American rivets if the correct material is
used and the rivet is at least of equal strength,

'Table 1 shows some of the rivets available in the SP range. Table 2 shows some of
the SP metric range and table 3 shows some of the MS American range.
 British Material Material Head Finish Iderlt~fication
Standard Specification Type Mark

aluminium L 36 100" csk black anodic

aluminium alloy L 37* 100" csk natural
alumiriium alloy L 86 100" csk violet anodic
steel BS 1109 snap cadn~iurn
aluminium L 36 snap black ariodic
aluminium d l o y L 37" snap natural
aluminium alloy L 58 snap green anodic
aluminium alloy L 86 snap violet anodic
monel metal DTD 204 snap natural
monel metal DTD 204 100" csk natural

TABLE 1 SOME S P SERIES RIVETS

British Material Material Head F'ini sh Identification

Standard Specification Type Mark

SP 142 aluminium alloy L 86 100" csk violet anodic indented dot

SP 157 aluminium alloy L 86 universal violet m o d i c indented dot
SP 158 monel metal DTD 204 universal natural two indented dots
SP 160 aluminium alloy L 58 universal green anodic raised cross
SP 162 aluminium alloy L 37* universal natural raised broken line
a n d centre point

TABLE 2 SOME S P METRIC SIZE RIVETS

Rivet and Material Material Head Identification

Material Code Specification Type mark on head

aluminium 100" c:sk Nil

aluminium alloy 100" csk Dimple
aluminium alloy 100" csk Raised double dash
aluminium alloy 100" csk Raised dot
corrosion 100" csk Recessed dash
resistant steel
monel metal QQ--N-281 100" csk Nil
copper QQ-W- 34 1 100" csk Nil
aluminium alloy 5056 universal Raised cross
aluminium alloy 2024" universal Raised double dash
aluminium alloy 20 17" universal Raised dot
carbon steel QQ-S-633 universal Recessed trial ~ g l e

Not(,. For MS 20613 rivets P indicates cadmium plated and Z indicates zinc plated

TABLE 3 SOME AMERICAN RIVETS IN GENERAL USE

Notes 1. * Require heat treatmerit before use (all tables).
2. In table 3 the MS number (eg 20426) indicates the head type and the
letters jeg DD) are the materid code.
3. Some rivets can be heat treated then stored in a refrigerator to retard
age hardening. These are sometimes called "ice box" rivets - eg material
specifications 2024 and 20 17.

UNIVERSAL ROUND BRAZIER COUNTERSUNK FLAT

HEAD HEAD HEAD HEAD 100" HEAD

L = LENGTH
D = DIAMETER

Fig. 45 AMERICAN MS RIVETS

Temper Codes

Some rivets are supplied and used "as received" - in other words there is no
requirement for f ~ r t h e heat
r treatment before use. Some rivets require solution
treatment (normally using a n electrically heated oven) before forming so as to
allcw the rivet to achieve its maximum strength due to age hardening. American
rivets usually have a temper designation -- eg T4 = solution heat treated, F = as
fabricated etc.

NAS Rivet Codes

Some drawings - particularly American drawings - will have the rivet specification
laid out in a format similar to that shown in figure 47. The symbol standard j 1
NAS (National Aerospace Standard) and h a s four quadrants called: North Wec'
(NW); North East (NE);South East (SE) and South West (SW).

NORTH WEST NORTH EASl

QUADRANT QUADRANT

RIVET MATERIAL 8
TYPE OF HEAD
/sloe

~.

COUNTERSINK LENGTH NOT

SHOWN

SOUTH WEST SOUTH EAST

QUADRANT I QUADRANT

Fig. 46 NAS RIVET CODE STANDARD

The NW code specifies the rivet material and type of head. The N E code specifies
the shank diameter and whether the head is near side or far slde. The SE (:ode is
for length which is not shown, and the SW code is blarrk for protruding head
rivets and C for countersunk rivets.

The NAS rivet code is printed on the drawing at the end of each row of r~vets.

SE1,F:CTION OF RIVETS

When carrying out a repair it is most important to select the correct rivet It must
be the correct size, shape of head and rnaterial. Check the specific repair drawing
in the SRM (Structure Repair Manual) or check the repair specification for the
type of rivet to use. When ordering the rivets from stores it is important to check
the correct rivet specification by reference to the stores specification label on the
packet of rivets.

The shear strength of rivets used is not the only factor which determines the
strength of a riveted joint. Generally, if' the thickness of the sheets is less than
half the diameter of the rivets used, failure of the joint will depend on the bearing
stress rather than on the shear stress of the rivets.

In the absence of specific instructions 3 / 3 2 inch rivets should be used for 24 and
22 swg (standard wire gauge - UK) material, 1/23 inch rivets for 20 and 18 swg
and 5 / 3 2 for 16 swg.

If rivets of reduced diameter have to be substituted during repair work, the total
number of rlvets must be increased to provide equivalent cross-sectional area.
Where 22 swg and thinner material is used and there are no specific instructions
regarding repair after a rivet failure, the substitution of mushroom head rivets for
snap head rivets could be considered.

When British rivets have to be used in American-built aircraft, rivets of the

material with the nearest equivalent shear strength to the material of the original
American rivets should be used. If the available British rivets have lower shear
strengths than the American rivets either the total number of rivets should be
increased or rivets of larger diameter should be used to make the strength of the
joint in bearing and shear not less than it was originally. However, an increase in
the size of the rivets does not necessarily increase the strength of a join; ~f the
rivet sizes are increased beyond a certain limit, a reduction in strength will result.

NOTE. In all circumstances where the SRM cannot be adhered to, permisszon will be
required -from the chief engineer of the company, or failing that, the munznfoch~rerof
the uirc,rc@ to carry out any "on-stnndurd' work.
Countersinking

When counters1;lnk rivets are to be used, there are two methods of

accommodating the rivet head f o ensure a flush fit. Cut-countersinking is
employed where sheet thickness is greater than the depth of the rivet head, but
for thinner sheets dimpling is necessary. Where sheets of different thicknesses are
joined together it may be found that both methods are used, the thin outer sheet
being dimpled into a courltersurlk thick inner sheet.

Cut-Countersinking

Table 4 shows the minimum sheet thickness which may be countersuslk for
particular rivet diameters and is applicable where 100 or 120" countersunk head
rivets are used.

Where special rivets are used the aircraft manufacturer may specify a differel
minimum sheet thickness and when oversize rivets are being fitted it may be
recommended that the rivet heads are milled in preference to further
countersinking.

Rivet diameter (inch) 118 5/32 3/16 114

Minimum sheet thickness (swg) 18 16 14 12

TABLE 4 MINIMUM SHEET THICKNESS FOR

CUT COUNTERSINKING

Special countersinking tools should be used for cut-countersinking. The tools

should have a centralising spigot and an adjustable depth stop which will limit
the depth of cut. The rivet head should always be slightly proud of the work t 3re
riveting and ideally flush with t.he metal after. This can be set by trial
countersinking and riveting on scrap material prior to carrying out the task ol, ihe
aircraft.

Aircraft manufacturers usually specify a tolerance on head protrusion after

riveting and this is usually of the order of 0.005 inch above the skin surface. The
rivet head should not be below the skin surface.

Dimpling

This is a process for indentlrlg thin sheet material (not normally thicker than 16
swg) around a drilled hole to accommodate a countersunk rivet. If correctly
performed, dimpling has a beneficial effect on the strength of the joint, but the
method of dimpling must be related to the ductility of the material to prevent
overstressing and cracking.
To ensure correct seating, countersunk headed rivets slaould always be installed
in dimples or countersunk holes of the same angle as the rivet head. R~vel-swith
countersunk heads of 70" or 82" i ~ ~ c l u d eangle
d are after1 used in pos~tionswhere
sealing is of primary importance, such as in integral fuel tanks.

When 1hese rivets require replacement care is necessary to ensure that rivets with
the correct angle heads are selected.

Heat Treatment of Rivets

Rivets can only be heat treated when specified in the rivet specification and
should only be SOLUTION-TREATED. Temperatures and methods of cooling are
specified in the rivet specification.

QUESTlON Where would you find the published rivet specification? (2mins)

ANSWER Any good technical (or sometimes non technical library). The rivet
specification will be printed on the packet, a n d armed with this
knowledge, the actual specification can be found in the technical
library. Here it will say exactly what heat treatments (if any) can be
carried out. It will also give a great deal of other technical data about
the rivet - the metal composition - what form it is supplied in (wire for
rivets) etc.

The best way of heating rivets is in a thermostatically controlled electrically

heated oven (sometimes a salt bath is used) - with rivets placed in a wire cage.

The following is an example of the solution treatment of a rivet. Far a specific

case you must consult the rivet specification.

Heat the rivet (in a wire basket if there are several) to a temperature of 4952SiCfor
a period (soaking time) of 1 5 minutes.

Remove the rivets and quench in cool water. Wash thoroughly if heated in a sult
bath. The rivets will commence to 'age-harden' (get stronger and harder) but. can be
used within 2 hours of treatm.ent. Some rivets must be used within 20 minutes
(consult the speczjication).

Age hardening may be delayed by refrigeration eg, ifthe rivets are placed in a
fridge at -20T immediately after treatment they can be kept up to 150 hours hefore
they must be used - or re-heat treated.

If used they must be used within 2 hours of removal from cold storage. If the riz1et.s
are not used within the prese:ribed time they can be re-treated to a mcucimurn o f .3
times.
 BLIND RIVETING SYSTEMS

These are riveting systems that require access to one side of the material only. To
fit solid rivets (described above) two people are required -- one to operate the
riveting hammer and the other to hold the reaction block. With blind riveting only
one person is needed.

They can be used in place of solid rivets only when stated in the AMM.

There is a wide range of blind riveting systems used and each has its own special
advantages and disadvantages. They are identified on the packet by the
manufacturer's name and stores part numbers. They all require special tools
(supplied by the rivet manufacturer) and procedures to fit but the general.
procedure is as follows:

1. Drill the correct size hole (clearance hole).

2. Check total thickness of materials to be joined (Grip range).
3. Select correct size of rivet. The length is related to the grip range of
the rivet as stated in the manufacturer's literature.
4. Select correct forming tool and load rivetlrivet mandrel.
5. Form Pivet in hole.
6. Remove tool and inspect rivet for correct forrrling.

Tucker Pop Rivets

Each rivet is supplied complete with mandrel (which does not look too unlike an
ordinary wood nail). The rivet can be formed using hand operated lazy tongs or
cranked pliers, or may be formed using power tools.

The operation of closing a Tucker Pop rivet is as follows:

(a) Select the correct diameter and length (grip range) of rivet.
(b) Ensure forming tool has correct size jaws and head fitted.
(c) Insert the mandrel into the jaws of the chuck.
(d) Insert the rivet into the hole. Hold the chuck containing the rivet
firmly against the material and square to the surface being riveted
and operate the tool. The head of the mandrel will pull inta the rivet
tail forming the rivet and then break off.

The mandrel can be of two types, break-head or break-stem. The break-stem type
has a waisted shank and breaks below the head, thus the broken head portion is
trapped within the rivet. This type is used where it is impossible to retrieve the
broken off head of the mandrel. A sealed type rivet is supplied for use in pressure
cabin construction.

The head of the break-head type breaks off and falls out.
Note. Broken mandrel sterns, swarf, rivet heads and shanks, etc which we
discarded during the repair operation, must be cleaned u p using a vacuum
cleaner after all work h a s been completed.

The rivet will not be as strong as a solid rivet or the more sophisticated bhnd
rivets, but it is cheap and easy to use. Sealants may be used to weather--proofthe
rivet .

BREAK STEM

WlTH BREAK HEAD

TYPE HEAD BREAKS
AND FALLS AWAY.
RIVET INSERTED WITH BREAX STEM
INTO HOLE TOOL PULLS MANDREL TYPE STEM BREAKS
THROUGH RlVET AND HEAD STAYS IN
FORMING RIVET HEAD THE RIVET.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 47 FORMING A TUCKER POP RIVET

SHORT BREAK

RlVET INSERTED
IN HOLE TOOL PULLS MANDREL a LONG BREAK OR
FORMS RIVET HEAD BREAK STEM TYPE
LEAVING HEAD IN RIVET SHEARS OUTSIDE RlVET

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 48 SEALED TUCKER POP RIVET

Chobert Rivets

Supplied in s n a p or countersunk forni. These rivets are similar to 'I'ucker Pop

rivets, but have a tapered internal hole and are not supplied with a rnandrt.1. ln
Chobert riveting the head of the steel mandrel js pulled through the rivet a ~ l dis
not broken off.
The rivets are closed by a special riveting tool; a magazine type of riveting tool is
available which carries a number of rivets on the mandrel, t h u s avoiding time in
threading rivets individrlally after each closing. This tool can close many rivets
with just the one loading. (See the book in this series on hand power tools).

STEEL
SEALING PIN DRIVEN IN
MANDREL
\ RIVET FROM MANUFACTURERS'
HEAD SIDE

MANUFACTURERS'
HEAD
/
RIVETING TOQL
MANDREL PULLS THROUGH
RIVET EXPANDING SHANK,
FORMING HEAD & PARALLEL
INTERNAL HOLE.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 49 FORMING A CHOBERT RIVET

Chobert rivet.s can have the same strength a s solid rivets a n d the general forming
process is a s follows:

1. Check grip range and size of rivet.

2. Check the steel mandrel that it has not worn beyond limits (GO NOT-
GO gauge).
3. Thread rivet/s on the mandrel - tail first.
4. Insert mandrel into the jaws of the forming tool.
5. Place rivet in hole and operate tool. The mandrel will be pulled
through forming the rivet as shown.
6. To seal the rivet and/or to increase the strength, tap sealing pin ir'?
hole using a hammer,

Avdel Rivets

These rivets are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem
(mandrel). The stem is pulled into the body to close the rivet and a t a
predetermined load, breaks proud of the manufactured head, leaving part of the
stem inside the body in the form of a plug. Excess stem material may be nipped
off a n d milled (in American books called Shaving) flush with the rivet head when
required, eg on external surfaces, but stainless steel and titanium rivet stems
break flush with the rivet head a t the maximum grip range limit and milling is not
necessary. The action of closing an Avdel rivet is shown.
 MANDREL
TOOL PULLS
MANDREL THROUGH
RIVET WHICH
WHICH FORMS HEAD
RIVET PLACED
IN HOLE

EXCESS MANDREL.
SNIPPED OFF, MILLED
FLUSH B PIN TESTED

TOOL

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 50 FORMING AN AVDEL RIVET

?vdel rivets a r e lubricated by the mariufact~rerto facilitate forming and on no

account should the rivets be cleaned in solverlt before use, or re-lubricated 'The
lubricants used are specially prepared for each type to obtain consistent results.

The shear strength of Avdel rivets is similar to that of solid rivets.

To check that the mandrel is a firrn fit in the rivet after milling a spring-loaded pin
tester is used -- if the mandrel pushes out, the rivet must be drilled out and a new
one fitted.

The MHC Avdel rivet is a later version which locks itself into the hole, and breaks
flush with the surface s o no milling is required.

Fig. 5 1 MBC AVDEL RIVET

 RIVETING
TOOL

LOCKING RlNG

-
, RIVET
/
-

THE MANDREL IS PLACED THE TOOL IS OPERATED, PULLING CONTINUES LOCKING RING HOLDS MANDREL
IN THE NOSE OF THE THE JAWS ENGAGE THE UNTIL THE RIVET IS FULLY IN PLACE WITHIN THE RIVET.
TOOL 8 THE RlVET IS MANDREL WHICH IS FORMED 8 THE MANDREL
INSERTED INTO THE HOLE. PULLED THROUGH THE BREAKS. THIS ACTION
A DIFFERNENT NOSE IS RIVET FORMING THE ALSO FORMS THE
REQUIRED FOR EACH HEAD. LOCKING RING ON THE
RlVET SIZE. MANDREL

Fig. 52 FORMING AN MBC AVDEL RIVET

Cherry Rivets

These are rivets of American manufacturer a n d are very similar to Avdel rivets.
C~;lrir:g the final stages of forming a locking collzr, located in a recess in the rivet
head, is forced into a groove in the stem and prevents the stem from further
movement. The action of closing a cherry rivet is shown.

After forming the stem protrudes slightly beyond the rivet head and this excess,
plus part of the locking collar, may be milled off to provide a flush finish.

SERRATED STEM WITH

BREAK NOTCH 8 LOCKING
COLLAR
INTEGRAL DRIVING ANVIL
TO FORM LOCKING
LOCKING COLLAR 8 ENSURES
COLLAR RECESS / FLUSH STEM BREAK

FASTENERSLEEVEOR
RlVET
DEFORMING LOCKING
COLLAR -DEFORMS INTO
LOCKING RINGS IN STEM
8 LOCKING RECESS IN
RlVET

Fig. 53 THE CHERRYMAX RIVET


RIVET PLACED IN HOLE
RIVET COMES COMPLETE
WITH STEM AND ANVIL
PRESSURE OF ANVIL COLD
STEM IS PULLED THROUGH RIVET FORMS LOCKING COLLAR INTO STEM
KEY SYSTEM SECURING STEM IN RIVET.
HEAD' 'OLE a CLAMP
PLATES TOGETHER STEM BFWKES FLUSH 8 REMAINING
STEM & ANVIL ARE REMOVED

Fig. 54 FORMING A CHERRYMAX RIVET

STEM\m
/
SHEAR
GROOVE
LOCKING

LOCKING
COLLAR
LOCKING COLLAR LOCKS
STEM TO SLEEVE & STEM
BREAKS OFF

STEM EXPANDS THE

SLEEVE, FORMS THE
STEM PULLED HEAD 8 PUSHES
THROUGH SLEEVE COLLAR INTO GROOVE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 55 FORMING A CHERRYLOCK RIVET

Cherry rivets are installed using hand or power operated tools and it is important
that the tools are fitted with the correct type of head for the particular size or type
)f rivet. Either the aircraft or tool manufacturer normally supplies details.

Cherry rivets are identified by a four-figure number followed by a figure indicating

the diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch and a further figure indicating the
maximum grip in sixteenths of a n inch. A s a n example, CR 2 162-3-6 refers to a
Cherry rivet in aluminium alloy, with a countersunk head and standard stem,
3/32 inch diameter and a maximum grip of 3/13 inch.
 RIGID PIPES

Used for the moverrlerit of gasses and fluids within the aircraft a n d used in
systems such as:
* Hydraulic systems
* Pneumatic systems
* Fuel systems.
k Oxygen systems.
* Anti-icing systems.
A
Domestic water and waste systems.
X Air conditioning systems.

Pipelines may be made of:

x Alunllrlium 01- aluminium alloy - for low pressure systems.
j, Steel.
+ Stainless steel.
* Copper.
* Tungum - a copper alloy.
k Brass.

When replacing a pipe it is important to replace it with a plpe made of the same
material, diameter, length, shape and gauge. It is also important, of course, that
the end fittings are identical with the old ones.

UNION ADAPTER NUT OR CONE ADAPTOR UNION NUT OR

OUTERSLEEVE
COLLAR
FLARED
E

COMPONENT TO COMPONENT COUPLINGS I

,OUTER SLEEVE
INNER SLEEVE

FLARED PIPE FL.ARED PIPE

/

[IRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 56 TYPICAL HIGH PRESSURE FLAWED COUPLINGS
Somc pipes can be bade up' a t user unit level while others have to he ob!;l~ned
f r o n ~stores using the appropriate stores part number and reference numt)rr

The aircraft manufacturer should design the pipes and their layout in sr4r.h a way
that mis-connection is impossible, either by having different length pipes 111 the
same r u n so that unions, or connections, of one pipe do not occur at the snlrle
place as a pipeline next to it; or by having pipelirles (and unions) of d~ffercnt
diameters so mis-connection is impossible. 'This is riot always done, howevex, and
it is important that all systems are put through a complete functional test after
any pipeline replacement/disconnection/reconnection.

Flared Couplings - Many high pressure couplings have this method of assembly
using a flared pipe, adapter nipple, collar, outer and inner sleeve. Nipples now in
use have a parallel extension (called a skirt) to ensure that they are correctly
aligned in the pipeline - and this should always be inserted into the flared pipe,
which h a s the collar and outer sleeve fitted. Used for high pressure pipes.

Flareless Couplings - Also used for high pressure couplings. A 'preset' of the
correct size is placed over the unflared pipe end. The pipe is pushed fully home
into its union adapter and the union n u t is tightened to a specific torque v iir I ue.
This causes the 'preset' to bend inwards and form a leak proof c o m p r e s s i o ~joint
~
with the pipe. It is important that the correct torque value is used. Used for high
pressure pipes.

UNION
\ - NUT
,SLEEVE

'PIPE

PIL ORRECT PRESET

UNDERTIGHTENED PRESET ,
OVERTIGHTENED PRESET

DRAWING FKOM CAP 562

Fig. 57 FLARELESS PIPE COUPLING
Compressed Rubber Couplirzgs -- lJses a compressed rubber gland and used for low
pressure systems such as F'itot static systems. The pipe end must be hard against
the shoulder of the recess i n the union adapter- before any attempt is made to
tighten the union nut.

Prior to fitting the pipe, the pipe ends should be suitably protected against the
corrosive action of the rubber. Copper pipes should be tinned, whilst stainless
steel and aluminium alloy pipes should be protected with a varnish such a s
RSX17. All sharp edges should be removed from the pipe ends.

UNION NUT
UNION ELASTOMERIC
SEAL

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 58 LOW PRESSURE RUBBER COUPLING

Hose Clips - llsed for low pressure connections of hoses to metal pipeline
attachments. Any hose clips used must be of a n approved type and must fit
correctly in relation to the pipe ends or beading. A clearance of between 0.25in
and 0.50in (6 to 13mm) should be allowed between the ends of the pipes so that
the ends will not make contact should flexure of the pipe occur.

If a new pipe connection proves difficult to fit, it may be lubricated with the fluid
used in the particular system, but for some types of pipe, hot water immersion in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions is recommended.

Couplings are affected by expansion, contraction, vibration and heat and sho- '-1.
be inspected regularly for deterioration and freedom from oil a n d grease. When
connectors are to be removed from pipe ends, it is essential that levering with a
screwdriver or similar tool be avoided, since this could damage the pipe.

Brazed Nipple Couplings - A conical nipple is brazed or silver soldered to the end
of one pipe and a union sleeve is brazed onto the other pipe. A union nut screws
onto the union sleeve to hold both pipes firmly together. Used on high pressure
systerns.

Self-Sealing Couplings - May-be of the screw or bayonet type and allows for quick
release and assembly of the joint without fluid loss or air inlet.
When making or b r e a l n g t h e joint of a self-sealing coupltng, care m u s t t ~ t xtaken
to avoid turning between t h e two halves, otherwise the seating for t h e valve in the
unlon half-coupling may damage the seal jn the fixed half -corlpling.

UNION SLEEVE UNION NUT

BRAZED ON PIPE NIPPLE B W E D
ON PIPE

\
UNFLARED PIPE YYU U N F L A ~ E DPIPE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 59 BRAZED NIPPLE COUPLING

Note. This does not apply to Avimo type self-sealing couplings, which are
connected by a bayonet pin a n d socket arrangement. It is therefore necessary to
rotate this coupling to make or break t h e joint.

HOSE CLIP OR
VALVE 1 OPERATING

Fig. 60 TYPICAL SCREW-ONSELF SEALING COUPLING

When a self-sealing coupling is disconnected, blanks should be fitted to both

halves.

A leaking half-coupling should be replaced.

Banjo llnions - these consist of a n inlet union screw, inlet union a n d two bonded
seals or bonded washers. They are designed to allow a pipe connectiorl to he made
to a cornponent a t right angles to the component. The inlet union screw is drilled
internally to allow for fluid passage as is the inlet union. The bonded washers are
madc u p of a metal plain washer to which is bonded a n elastorneric seal. This is
usually bonded to the inside diameter of the washer and is designed to h r thicker
than tlltt trlc'tal washer.
A s the union screw is tightened down so the elastomeric seaJ will be squeezed a n d
provide a seal. The union screw is usually torque loaded.

INLET UNION SCREW

Screwed into component INLET UNION

BONDED SEALS
OR BONDED
WASHER S E

ELASTOMERIC COMPONE

down of the
union screw

Fig. 6 1 BANJO UNION

Vee Flange Couplings -- a rnethod of joining used or1 larger diameter pipes such as
fuel pipes and low pressure pneumatic pipes. The ends of the pipes to be joined
have a Vee section brazed onto them. The pipes and the two Vee sections are
butted together and retained by a Vee Flange Coupling. I t is important that the
abutment faces of the two Vee flange sections are clean, absolutely flat,
undamaged, not strained and parallel.

This method has three main advantages over the method whereby the flanges are
held together by bolts (or studs) and nuts, namely:

(a) Even distribution of stress around the flanges.

(b) Ease and speed of removal/installation.
(c) The assembly h a s a good strengthlweight ratio a n d is more compact.

Examples of usage of Vee flange couplings are to:

k
Attach the cases of driven comporlents to engine gearboxes.
,+
Join components such as valves to ducts.
Join sections of ducting/pipework in air-conclitioning/fuel systems.
 BOTTOM HALF
CLAMP

Fig. 62 DOUBLE BOLTED VEE CLAMP

Fig. 63 SINGLE BOLTED VEE CLAMP

Such diverse u s e s will demand a variety of designs a n d materials; therefor? t h e

appropriate AMM m u s t be referred to prior to working on any Vee flange coupling.

Note. The torque loading of the clamp bolt(s) on Vee flange couplings js crltical
a n d t h v clamp halves need to be torque tightened slightly then tapped with soft
faced mallet to distribute any tension. The effect of this will reduce the torclue
l o a d ~ n gof t h e clamp bolt, which then requjres re torqueing. This procedure is
continued until the final correct torque value is reached.
Fuel Delivery Pipes (1,P)

Not nornially required to handle pressures over 50psj (345kPa) and are usually
made from alrlminiurn alloy with the dianletrr being large enough to cope with the
high flow rates and typically are about 2%" (64ma1)in diameter.

COUPLING BODY
COUPLING NlJT

FUEL PIPE

O-RING SEAL

O-RING SEAL
COUPLING BODY
COUPLING NUT

Fig. 64 TYPICAL LP RIGID PIPE COUPLING

RINGS

FLEXIBLE FULL COUPLING

FLEXIBLE HALF COUPLING

Fig. 65 TYPICAL LP FLEXIBLE PIPE COUPLINGS

Pipes are thin walled a n d need care when flandling.

Pipes sectlons are fitted with various connectors. These need l o be fuel tight u s ~ r l g
seals capable of withstanding any flexing that may occur (wings tend to flex
considerable during flight and the pipes themselves are not able to take much
flexing). Also, all pipe-work and coupljngs must be electrically bonded because of
the fluid flow inducing static build-up.

Figure 64 shows a typical example of a rigid coupling and figure 65 shows

examples of flexible couplings. There are many types in use and reference should
always be made to the AMM for type and fitting instructions In general:
* Ensure the correct seals are fitted and in the correct way.
* Ensure pipes are un-damaged particularly around the seal mating
surfaces.
* Torque load correctly.
* Ensure correct bonding.
" Carry out leak checks after assembly. This may need a n engine run.
* Some airlines require a duplicate inspection on fuel feed pipelines.

Pipes in Pressurised a n d Fire Risk Areas

Where pipes have to pass through pressurised areas (rare) or fire risk areas
additional precautions are taken to ensure that any leakage does not get outside
the immediate vicinity or to any engine hot sections. These features can include
such things as scuppers and channels to direct the spilt fluid overboard. (Engines
have a fire-proof bulkhead by regulation). Any couplings near the engine would be
enclosed and provided with a n overboard drain,

Pipes also run to the back of the aircraft for tail mounted engines, tail mounted
fuel tanks (aircraft trimming and fuel transfer) or a n APU. Here flexible pipes are
-1sed shrouded by a 'normal' aluminium alloy fuel pipe. Any leakage from the
llexible pipe is transferred into the shroud. The shroud is ported to a drain mast
and any fuel accumulation is drained overboard. A standard 'ramp' check would
include checking the mast for any fuel. If any is present the leak must be found
and rectified.

Pipe Installation

Before pipes are fitted into aircraft they should be inspected for damage,
cleanliness and corrosion. If damage to the pipe is suspected, the pipes shormld he
pressllrc tested and the roundness of the bore checked.

Checks should be made that the pipes are of the specified type and should have
approved certificates identified to the pipe (EASA form 1).
Prior t o assembly, all pipes must bc blown through with clean dry air and, where
applirable, flushed out wlth clc.;in filtered fluid of the type to be used in the
particular system in which t%-repjpe is to be installed.

APU SHROUD

APU SHROUD

CENTRE TANK
SHROUD DRAIN
LlNE CONNECTION

DRAIN MAST OUTLET

APU FUEL SUPPL.Y LINE CONNECTION (LOOKING FORWARD)

Fig. 66 TYPICAL FUSELAGE PIPELINES

For oxygen systems, a final approved degreasing process m u s t be used to ensure

cleanliness, since oil or grease in contact with oxygen under pressure would cause
a n explosion.

If the pipe is not to be installed immediately, its ends must be blanked using ~,,e
correct blanks. Plugs and caps conforming to standards appropriate to the system
pipeline should be used. In instances where standard blanks cannot be fitted, it
must be ensured that the blank is so made that it is impossible for it to be left in
position when the pipe is connected.

Note. 'The rise of rag, tape or paper for blanking off purposes is not allowed.

When installing pipes, they should not be allowed to come into contact with
materials which might cause galvanic corrosion. Some small aluminium alloy
pipes are treated internally and externally with varnish. Pipes so treated must not
bt. used in fuel, oil, pneumatic and oxygen systems, or i n any system where
peeling varnish may cause malfi~nctloningof the system.
Supporting Pipes

Pipes must be supported in accordar~cewith the AMM,

Multiple pipe clamps may be used. These are often made of fibre, al-ilurn~n~~~rr~,
moulded rubber and other ~rlaterials.The two halves of the clamps are ~ l s u a l l y
joined together by bolts, whlch also serve to secure the clamp to the aircraft
structure It is important to ensure that the clamps are of the correct sizr t o
preverit damage to the pipe.

Where packing is required between the pipes and the clamps, the rnater~alused
should be in accordance tvitl.1 the AMM. Typical materials are cork sheet, tinned
copper gauze and various types of tape, but leather must never be used, since this
will cause corrosion.

Some pipe clamps are self-bonding (electrical bonding), but wher-e this is riot
possible, metal gauze or a cork-based material having copper strands intenvoven,
can bc used.

Where single pipes require support, standard clips such as 'P' clips can be used.

Clearance between pipes and structure should be a t least 0 . lin (2.5nlr-n)arid

adequate clearance should be provided between pipes and moving parts, eg
landing gear bays [tyres may 'grow9when rotating by a s much a s %in(51mni) in
diameter and lin (25mm) in width when rotating fast].

Connecting Pipes

Before connecting the pipe union nuts, a check should be made to ensure that the
pipe end is of the correct type and size, that is clean and undamaged.

Two spanners must always be used when tightening (or disconnecting) a pipe
coupling; one to hold the sleeve or adapter and one to turn the union nut. Over-
tightening of couplings must be avoided. Special tightening techniques and
torque's, when specified, must be used.

If lubrication of the threads is specified, it is essential that only the correct

lubricant is used and that it does not enter the bore of the pipe.

For oxygen systems, the following lubricants are suitable: DTL) 900/404%,which
provides a dry self-lubricating film of graphite and which should be applied to a
thoroughly degreased surface and allowed to air dry before being put into scrvice;
and DrJ'D 900/4286 which acts as a sealant a s well a s a lubricant and has a
grease-like corlsistency; a n d YI'FE tape.
Pipes with Standard Couplings

When connecting pipes having standard types of threaded couplings, eg those

corr~plyingwith the A G S series, the following points should be checked:

(a) That flared pipe ends are free from cracks, distortion or other
damage.
(b) That union nuts are free to be withdrawn over their entire length, that
they are not impeded by bends or other obstructions and that they
rot at e freely.
(c) That all loose parts such as adapter nipples, rubber glands, washers,
etc are fitted to the coupling, are of the correct type and are correctly
located.
(d) That the pipe end aligns correctly with its mating part. Pipe ends
must never be forced into position, since this may induce
considerable stress into the pipe and the coupling.
(ej Thai the pipes are never drawn together by their union nuts, sincc
this imposes a strain on the flaring which may cause deformation or
other damage.

Once a standard coupling has been bedded in initially, less torque will be required
on subsequent reassembly to make a leak proof joint However, should a leak
occur, the coupling must not be over tightened in an attempt to stop the leak, but
must be disconnected and the cause of the leak ascertained.

Adapter nipples with skirts have replaced those without skirts but it is important
to check that the nipple sits correctly before assembly of the union. (It h a s been
known for un-skirted nipples to rotate in the assembly prior to tightening thus
causing a weak joint and one that is not pressure proof).

FLEXIBLE HOSE ASSEMBLIES

Fitted in systems where there is some movement between components - for

example: in brake pipelines where there is movement between the retractable
landing gear and the airframe and, further down the line, where there is
rnovement within the shock-absorber and where there is movement between the
wheel bogie and the shock-absorber. In some cases, however, swivel unions may
be fitted instead (eg on the torque links).

From a designer's point of view, the following points should be borne in mind
when selecting a hose assembly for a particular purpose.
k Maximum system pressure.
* Maximum system fluid temperature, particularly soak temperatures
after system shut down when fluid temperatures could increase by a s
m u c h a s 20C.
 * Compatibility of hose materlal and ~ts end fittings with the syst ern
fluid and external environnlerltal conditions. This includes fl uxtf s to
be used in other systems where they may come into c-ontact wrth a
particular hose installatnor1

The general construction of a hose xncludes the following features:

X
A flexible ~mpermeableinrler linixig compatible with thc fluid llsed in
the system. Has little strength.
* A flexible support structure to the lining which usually contairls
reinforcing. Has the strength to resist the forces set u p by the system
pressure.
A
End fittings, usually metal, secured to the flexible part of the )lose
which allows the hose to be secured to components etc. When
secured will provide a leak-proof joint and h a s provision for tightening
(usually a hexagon uriiora nut) and loclting.

Correct Methods of Fitting a Flexible Pipe

Hose assemblies for use in high-pressure fluid systems are usually suppliecl by
the manufacturers complete with end fittings which, in most cases, cannot be
dismantled or repaired in any way. However, there are some types of hose
assernblies on which t h e end fittings may be changed if necessary.

The hose lining is made of a material to withstand the pressure, ternperature and
to be compatible with the fluid in the system.

The hose is strengthened by high tensile steel wire braiding or fabric

reinforcement.

Hose assemblies are generally designed either for specific functions or for a
limited range of functions and it is essential lo ensure that only the hose specified
in the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC) is fitted.

A material which is widely used is polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).This material is

chemically inert, is unaffected by synthetic oils and fluids and operates at high
temperatures a n d normally h a s a n unlimited shelf life. PTFE hose is, howcver,
more susceptible to damage from careless handling than rubber hose and care is
required cluring handling.

Hose assemblies fitted in high temperature areas (eg near engines, brakes etc)
rnay be protected by Gre protective coverings.

Elose assemblies often go through a great deal of flexing. They may also have a
natural ageing process. It is therefore: import ant that lives a s stated in thc AMM
are not exceeded.
 CORRECT INCORRECT

DO NOT BEND OR TWIST

HOSE.
ALLOW ENOUGH SLACK IN
THE HOSE TO PROVIDE FOR
CHANGES IN LENGTH DUE TO
COMPONENT MOVEMENT
AND PRESSURE CHANGES.
LENGTH CAN CHANGE FROM
+2% TO -4% DUE TO
PRESSURE CHANGE.
METAL END FITTINGS ARE NOT
PART OF THE FLEXIBLE
PORTION.
THE USE OF ELBOWS B
ADAPTERS CAN MAKE FOR
EASIER FITTING 8 THE
REMOVAL OF STRAIN FROM
THE ASSEMBLY.
KEEP AL.L BEND RADII AS
LARGE A S POSSIBLE.
AVOID INVERTED "U" BENDS IF
POSSIBLE.
ALWAYS FIT HOSES IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE AMM.

Fig. 67 FITTING HOSES

- LENGTH
-
I-
LENGTH -

Fig. 68 LENGTH OF HOSE ASSEMBLIES

The end fittings on a hose assembly are rnade from steel or light alloy and are
designed to exert a grip on both the tube and wire braids so a s to resist high--
pressure, twisting and vibration loads. They also provide a n electrical bond.

'The length of a hose assembly with straight end fittirlgs is taken a s the distance
hetween the extremities of' the two nipples. In the case of a n elbowed end fitting,
t h e length is taken from the centre of the elbow bore.
Construction of High. Pressure Hose Asseriiblies

A typical high-pressure hose assembly colisists of an inner linlrlg cuverecl by one

or two closely woven wire braids, either rnc,ulded in, or sandwicl-red be-tw~en,the
synthetic rubber of the lining or woven on thy surface of the tube.

UNION NUT
\ REINFORCEMENT

/ \
SLEEVE
NIPPLE HOSE OUTER
(SWAGED ON)
COVER
DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 69 HIGH PRESSUlU3 HOSE ASSEMBLY

The whole assembly may be enclosed by an outer cover, the purpose of which is to
provide protectjon for t.he inner parts of the hose, to resist abrasion and the
effects of weather and external fluids and chemicals, and, in some cases, l o
provide a degree of fire resistance.

Low Pressure Hose Assemblies

These are thin-walled and textile-reinforced. They are used for Pjtot--static
instrument lines especially where they pass between the structure and
instrument panels mounted on anti-vibration mountings. The rubber or canvas
spiral-corrugated hose having a spiral steel spring embedded in the corrugations,
is often used for systems where there are negative pressures.

With low-pressure hose it is important to ensure that bends are not too acute,
since this may result in kinking of the hose at the bend. Where sharp bends
cannot be avoided an internal support coil may be fitted.

RE--USABLE END FITTINGS

Us~mllyconsist of a socket, nipple and union nut. When the nipple is screwed ~ n t o
the hose (and socket), the taper in the nipple causes the hose to be c1ampc.d firmly
bctween nipple and socket - so forming a seal. This is known as a cornpresslon
seal b11t othvr methods of assembly may be used.
Make sure that w h e n a hose is selected it conforms to the specification a s laid
down in the AMM and that it is given a visual examination for any srgns of
damage. When cutting the host. it is important to cut it to the correct length usxng
a fine-toothed hacksaw blade (r-ernoveany debns)

NIPPLE UNION
SOCKET \ NUT

DKAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 70 TYPICAL RE-USABLE END PPILY'ING

Actual assembly of the hose and socket is carried out by holding the socket finnly
in a vice and screwing the hose into the socket until it bottoms. (Some
manufacturers recommend that, after screwing the hose fully into the socket, it
should be unscrewed a quarter turn to allow for expansion when the nipple is
inserted.)

After assembly the hose should be marked with a grease pencil, paint or tape, a t
the point where it enters the socket, in order to provide a means of checking that
the hose is not forced out of the socket during the subsequent insertion of the
nipple. The nipple is then screwed into the socket (and hose), torque loaded and
locked (usually with locking wire).

The assembly should have a metal identification tag attached and be pressurc
tested (see module 7).

PIPE LlNE IL3ENTIFICATIC)N (BS M 2 3 )

All pipes are marked with date of manufacture, drawing or part. number,
inspection stamp, test stamp and name of manufacturer. These markings can be
stencilled on the external surface of the hose or stamped on a rnetal tag or band
(soldered/brazed in a loop to the pipe). The date can be a colour code woven into
the cotton brand.

Flexible hose assemblies are marked along their- length with one or rrlore
continuous thin lines to indicate any twist on installation.
 Rl
FUEL

WARNING
SYMBOL

DIRECTION
OF FLOW

NUMBERS ARE BRITISH STANDARDS COLOUR SERIAL NUMBERS:

1 - BLUE 2 - GREEN 3 -YELLOW 4 - BROWN 5 - ORANGE 6 - RED 7 - GREY

Fig. 71 COLOUR/ SYMBOL PIPELINE IDENTLFICATION

SYSTEM IUEN'I'IFICATION

Systems js)isten~papes may be identified by tape or identiiication labels attached

to each section of pipe Systems irr use include:
* Manufacturer's own system.
* The colour/syrnbol system. This uses words, colours and synlbols to
indicate the contents/ system of the pipe.
k
The ATAlOO code system. Based on the ATAI OC) chapter numbering
system of the A M M and will indicate:

(a) The system -- by a symbol.

(b) The component to which the pipe is fitted.
(c) The subsystem to which the pipe is fitted.
(d) Whether it is suction -- pressure, etc.

'I'he ATA 1 00 Code System

The numbering system (figures 72 and 73) may take the following form (starting
from the end of the pipe):

1s t Par1 , , ~ . "....,.. *... Pipe end identlficatioxl number.

211"Part o..~.,~...,..~.... System symbol.

3rc' Part * . e o . = . . c . . . ~ e . . , ~ ATA chapter number.

4th Part e . o . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . = . Component key number.

Sth Part c . . s s . e . . . . . m . , . . ~ Component. port or connection code.

6th Part e s . . . ~ e . . " s e . e ~ . , . Pipe function and subsystem code.

7th Part .*..-. G o " . . . " . . . . = Flow direction -- if applicable.

PlPE END IDENT A'TA CHAPTER COMPONENT PORT OR

NUMBER :I 1 OR 2 NUYBER CONNECTION
A

,FLOW DIRECTION

INTERNA~IONAL \ PlPE FUNCTION 8

SYSTEM CODE COMPONENT KEY SUB SYSTEM CODE
eg HYDRAULIC NUMBER

Fig. 72 ATAIQO PIPE CODING

RESERVOIR COMPONENT
KEY NUMBER 3100 LANDING GEAR SELECTOR p = PRESSURE LINE
KEY NUMBER 3004

LANDING GEAR CONNECTION L)

END 4 POWER GREEN SYSTEM
/zixGiq pKq

Fig. 73 EXAMPLES
CONTENTS

Page

Aircraft electrical cablcs 1

Requiremerlts 1
lnstallation 4
Types of cable 6
Identification 7
Cable types 13
Crimping 17
Tools 18
Procedure 20
Plugs & sockets 25
Mechanical Flexible Remote Control Systerns 29
Control Cables 29
Terms used 32
Cable specificat ~
' ons 32
End fittings 34
System cornponerits 35
Specialised remote control sys terns 44
Teleflex controls 45
Bowden controls 50
Flexbal! controls 53
 AIRCRAFT E1,ECTRICAL. CABLES

In the early days thy cables used in aircraft were rrianufactured to a sirn~lar
standard to those used in the automobile ~ n d u s t r yIt
. was soon learrlt t h d t
these cables didn't stand up to the severe climatic and e~~vironrnental
cond~tionsencountered during aircraft operation a n d therefore had to tw
designed specifically for alrcraft use. A variety of' cable types have been
developed, the choice of cable for a particular functjon will be governec-l 1)y its
purpose a n d locatron.

Requirements

These are laid down in HCAR's section D, K and G (old system), now EASA25
(large aeroplanes), EASA27 and 29 (helicopters) etc.

Reliability is of prime consideration for aircraft cables since the perforrrlarice

and safety of a n aircraft a n d its occupants is usually dependant on electrically
operated systems. Care, therefore, must be exercised during the manufacture
of cable looms and circuits a n d these must be thoroughly tested on conlpletion.
Listed below are a number of qualities which a n aircraft cable should possess.

Minimum
- - Weight and Dimensions. A large aircraft may require many miles of
electrical wiring and even small reductions in the size and mass of a cable will
result in a considerable weight saving, therefore allowing a n increased payload.

Resistant to Fluids. The likelihood of a n aircraft cable encountering a variety of

aircraft fluids is high. It is therefore important that aircraft cables are able to
withstand the effects of: water, engine oils, hydraulic oils, fuels, solvents, etc.

Non-inflammability. Wiring is necessary in high fire risk areas such as engine

nacelles, a n d APU bays. Such wiring should not cause any fire to spread a n d
for this reason the protective covering should be of self extinguishing material.
There h a s been doubt about Capton wiring in this respect - although it is still
in use.

During flight many cables will experience a large temperature range arld must
remain flexible within this range with the insulation remaining in tact.

Resistance to Abrasion. An aircraft cable must possess a number of 'physical'

--
qualities a n d in particular must have high resistance to abrasion (iritl~lct.tlby
aircraft vibration). Cables should also be physically strong and easily
~vorkable.

Electrical---Recluirerne~B. The conducting element must have a low resistivity

c - o efficient with a low volts drop per unit length and the irisulation r n u t /lave
a s11ff~cic.ntIyhigh resistar~c-evalur, to cope with t hc maxirnllm appl~rclv o l I ugc..
Current Rating

The normal current rating of a cable can be defined as: "The amount of current
~t will carry without sustaisring a temperature rise sufficient to cause the value
of the insulation resistance to deteriorate to an unacceptable level or without
exceeding a specified voltage drop per unit length". Earl~ercables either had
the current rating stamped on the outer sheath or had a colour identification
related to the current ratlnlg.

However, because a cable's current carrying capacity is influenced by a

number of factors other t h a n electrical load current, it is nowadays the practicct
of cable manufacturers to u s e a classification based on the American Wire
Gauge (AWG).

Modern aircraft cables have a wire gauge number stamped 011 the outside. The
electrical systems designer will take into account the factors listed below before
choosing a cable for a particular job:

* The electrical loading of the cable.

* The a m o u n t of heat generated by neighbouring cables (cables in a
bundle or loom for example).
* The number of cables in the loom.
* The ambient temperature of the surrounding air (its locat'ion on
the aircraft - near a n engine for example).
* Whether the cable is er~closedor in free air.
k
The t hermal conductivj ty of the cable.

Deterioration

Aircraft cables are designed to provide the best possible combination of

resistance to deterioration caused by extremes of temperature, mechanical
damage and contamination by fluids, and in general, are suitable for
installation without additional mechanical protection.

Working conditions a n d environment, however, may necessitate the provision

of extra protection (additional support, conduits etc) in those places where the
cables are exposed to the possibilities of local damage or conditions which
colild cause deterioration.

Iicceipt Storage and Handling of Cables

Prior to delivery, cable e r ~ d sare sealed to prevent ingress of moisture. The

cnt)lcs are supplied on d r i ~ r n s ~ ~ i t a blabelled
ly and protected to prevent
clamage during transit anci storage.
Smaller slzes of cable may sometimes by supplied in wrapped coils V ~ s u a I
exammation of cables on receipt, by nature of the packing, is often restr icdted to
the olrter t u r n s . Such a n examination is of little value in checking for taults In
the cable, therefore, if the condition of the packing, as received, gives rlse to
doubt regarding the soundness of the cable, ~t should be returned to thf.
manufacturer.

Note. Check the cable part nurnber/batch number and confirm its
identification against its documentation/stores release certificate (EASA form
11.

Cables should be stored in a clean, well-ventilated store They should not be

stort:cl near chemicals, solvents or oils and, if necessary, protection sho~tlcilbe
provided against accidental damage. Loose coils, whether wrapped or not, m u s t
not btr stored s o t h a t a heavy weight is irnposed on them, since thls rn:Ijr cause
unacceptable distortion of the insulation or damage to the protective coverings.

The ends of cables in store should be sealed against the ingress of moisture by
the u s e of waterproof tape or sealing compound.

It is important that cables are handled carefully a t all times.

When taking long lengths of cable from a drum or reel, the cable should not be
allowed to come in contact with rough or dirty surfaces. Preferably the drum or
reel should be mounted so that it c a n rotate freely.

Care should be taken to remove the twist out of each turn of cable drawri from
loose coils, otherwise kinking, with consequent damage to the cable, m a y
occur.

Before being made u p the cable length should be inspected for any signs of
damage or deterioration a n d given a continuity a n d insulation check.

Made-up Cabling

Cable looms a n d cable r u n s made-up on the bench should be inspected before

installation in the aircraft to check the following:

(a) That all cables, fittings, etc, arc of the correct type, have bi:t.r~
obtained from a n approved source, have been satisfactorily tc-sted
before making u p and have not deteriorated in storage or been
damaged in handling

(b) That all connectors and cable l o o n ~ sconform to the relevant A M M ,

Wiring Diagram Manual or Modification Drawing in respect o f
terminations, length, anglc- of o~ltlets and orientation of c.0111 :~c.t
assemblies, identificat~on,a n d protectioln of connections
 (c) That all crimped joints and soldered joints have been made In
accordance with the relevant AMM,Wir~ngDiagram Mailual or
Modification Ilrawing, are clean and sound, and that insr~lating
materials have not been damaged in any way.

(dl That cable loorrl b i n d ~ n gand strapping is secure.

(e) Carry out continuity, resistance and insulation tests.

(fj Cables should be identified using the correct aircr-aft wiring code
iaw the wiring diagram. Identification marking may be carried out
by printing on sleeves and attaching sleeves a t the end of each
cable run or the cable may be printed on a t regular intervals along
its length. If direct cable marking uses a heat marking system then
the cable m u s t be inspected to check that the insulation h a s not
been damaged a n d a n insulation check carried out. Many looming
shops have special machines that will automatically mark the
cable along its length a t regular intervals with the identificatior.
a t the same time carrying out insulation tests etc.

Installation of Cabling in Aircraft

Guidance on the factors requiring special attention during the installation is

given in the following paragraphs - but always check the AMM.

Contamination. To prevent moisture from running along the cables and seeping
into the associated equipment, the cables should be so routed as to r u n
downwards away from the equipment. Where this is not possible, the cable
should incorporate a descending loop immediately before the connection to the
equipment.

Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they should be installed in such
way t h a t any moisture accumulating in them will be able to drain safely away.
Cables which are routed through such fittings should be capable of
withstanding any such moisture.

Interference.
- - Interfering magnetic fields may be set u p by electrical equipment,
electrical currents in the cabling, or the aircraft structure, and also by
magnetic materials. Cables are required, therefore, to be instalIed so a s to
reduce electrical interference to a minimum and to avoid interaction between
the different electrical services.

Note. Requirements for the avoidance of compass and radio interference are
g ~ v e nin Chapter J 4 - 1 of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements.
(Now EASA 23 - light aircraft, 2 5 -- large aeroplanes, 27 8r, 29 -- helicopters)
Protec.tion
-- of cabling. The cables are required to be protected from abrasion,
mech,inical strain a n d excessive tieat and a g a i n t~the deleterious ef'fect:i of fuel,
oil and other aircraft fluids, water in either liquid or vapour form and thc.
weather. Where aircraft skin temperatures could be a problem (nn hot c-Irniates)
cables should be routed away from the skln of the aircraft. The cables should
not bt: r u n near the hot parts of engines, APUs, exhausts, heat exchar1gi.r~etc
unless a cooled-air space or heat barrier is provided.

Where, cables are routed through metal fittings or bulkheads etc, the edges of
the holes through which they pass must be radiised and smoothed a n d fitted
with a n insulated b u s h or sleeve. Cables which are drawn through holcs or
tubes must be a n easy fit requiring only a moderate, steady pull, care bcing
taken to keep the cables parallel to one another and to avoid the formation of
kinks (which may cause fracture).

C o n d ~ ~ i tdsu, c t s a n d trunking used for carrying cables should have srnooth

internal surfaces.

Cables being fitted through pressure bungs should be fitted into the correct
size holes for the size of cable, to ensure efficient sealing. Only the
recommended cable threading tool should be used for this purpose to avoid
damaging the bung.

Support of Cabling. The cabling m u s t be adequately supported througt-lout ~ t s

length, and a sufficient number of cable clamps must be provided for ear.h run
of cable to ensure t h a t the unsupported lengths will not vibrate unduly Bends
in cabie groups should not be less than eight times the outside diameter of the
cable group. However, a t terminal blocks, where the cable is suitably
supported a t each end of the bend, a minimum radius of three times the
outside diarneter of the cable, or cable bundle, is normally acceptable.

Cables m u s t be fitted a n d clamped so that no tension will be applied in any

circunlstances a n d so t h a t loops or slackness will not occur in any position
where the cables might be caught and strained by normal movement of persons
or controls in the aircraft.

Where it is necessary for cables to flex, eg connections to retractable landing

gear, the a m o u n t a n d disposition of slack must be strictly controlled so that
the c a l ~ l eis not stressed in the extended position, and that the slack will not be
fouletl, chafed, kinked or caught on any projection during movement in either
dire(: tic )n.

Cab1t.s should normally be supported independently of, and with m~axltrrurn

pract~cableseparation from, all fluid and gas carrying pipelines. To prevc.nt
contan~inationor saturation of the cables in the event of leakage, cables should
be rorlced above rather than below licpid carrying pipelines.
Cable Types

The pages a t the back of this section give information on various types of
cables to be found on aircraft. You would not be required to remember the
details b u t you sl-iould understand the inforrrlation that is given.
Cables a n d equipment should meet the requrrements laid down in BCARs and
,JARS to provide electric shock protection to personnel as well as heat
protection - if equipment gets hot during normal operation.

Airframe Cables. Used for r u n s throughout the airframe.

Interconnecting Cables. 'This is used for the interconnection of equipment

within racks, therefore their insulation is thinner than normal airframe
cabling. They are lighter a n d more flexible.

Equipment Wire. Sometimes known as 'wire' it is used within equipment and is

therefore flexible a n d suitable for soldering. It is not designed a s
interconnecting wiring though some aircraft manufacturers do u s e it for tlr,
in protected parts of the airframe.

Fire Resistant Cables. This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of
resistance in certain fire or overheat conditions. The cable is classed as Fire
Resistant if able to withstand 1100C for 5 minutes, and Fire Proof if able to
withstand the same temperature for 15 minutes (EASA 2 5 &, 1 - if close to the
outside of a firewall should not suffer damage if firewall heated to 1 100C for
15 minutes).

F i r e p r o ~ fCables. These a r e required to operate for 15 minutes in a designated

zone defined in BCARs a n d JAR 1 a n d are used in designated fire zones.

Conducting elements on electrical cables are sometimes plated to improve their

ant-corrosive properties. The plating on copper conductors will normally
determine the maximum continuous working temperature, eg
135C Tin plating
200C Silver plating
260C Nickel plating/ cladding

Cable Maintenance

The requirements, laid down by the CAA for the installation of electrical cables,
are laid down in BCAKs section J a n d EASA 23, 25, 27, 29.

Only the cables a s specified in the AMM, or approved equivalents, should be

used. This will ensure that the cables will be capable of taking the
voltages (during operatior1 and testing) and the maximum ulrrent in the most
;idverse conditions, without da~xmgeto the cables. For more information on
maintenance see rnodule 'i in this series.
CABLE IDENTIFICATION

Cables have two identifications, one is carried out by the nlanufacture o f the
cable and the other is carried out by the aircraft manufacturer - to co~rlplvwith
the w~ringdiagrams.

Cable Manufacturer's Identification

Each rnanufacturer will stamp it's identification (:ode on the cable a t regular
intervals along its length. This is done automatically either by an ink printing
process or a heated die process. It rnay i n c l ~ ~ d e :

(a) The cable size.

(b) The manufacturers name.
(c) The manufacturers code, cable name etc

For example:

Minyvin GBx XX X 22
(1) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (4) (5)

(1) Manufacturer's name of the cable.

(2) Country of origin.
(3) Manufacturer's cable code.
(4) Year of manufacture.
(5) Cable size.

These details should be checked against the stores release documents to

ensure they are the same.

Tnstallation Identification

Besides the identification of the cable by the cable manufacturer there is a

requirement to identify the cable in the aircraft installation. During aircraft
manufacture a cable is installed (suitably routed, supported and connected
crimped etc). Prior to assembly the cable is marked with a code that identifies
it and relates it to the aircraft wiring diagram.

The code - made u p of a series of letters and numbers may be printed on

sleeves which are placed on the cable ends prior to being nrade up - or more
likely printed along the cable length itself.

The printing may be carried out by a srnall heated hand operated macl-line. It is
ribbon fed and prior to cable marking is set up with the correct nurnheri and
letters (cable code). These are found by reference to the appropriate airrr-;ift
wiring diagram.
The cable may be marked by being put through a n automatic identification anti
testing machine -- once set u p this will pull the cable through and print the
code on the cable at the required intervals. It will test the cable for continuity
and insulation and any cable faults found will cause the machine to stop and
give a n aural warning. I t will stop automatically a t the end of the cable run.
At any rate it is important that the cable is coded a t both ends and at any point
where it passes through bulkheads, seals, etc.

Always visually check the cable insulation for darnage after heat identing as the
ident may have penetrated the insulation and exposed the conducting core.
(Fires have been caused by this, so it is important to check carefully a n d reject
the cable if found). This is why the automatic identing machines carry out a n
insulation test a t the same time as the identing procedure.

The code will identify s u c h things as:

(a) Cable size.

(b) Circuit.
(c) Circuit function.
(d) Cable number.

The code may be devised by the aircraft manufacturer or may be based on the
ATA 100 specification system. An example of this is shown below.

I EF G B 22 NMSV
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1. Unit number, used where components have identical circuits.

2. Circuit function letter a n d circuit designation letter which indicate
circuit function and the associated system. In figure one there is
only one letter - the letter L indicating a lighting circuit.
3. Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which
not have a common terminal in the same circuit. Generally,
contacts of switches, relays, etc, are not classified as common
terminals. Beginning with the number one, a different number is
given to each cable.
4. Cable segment letter, which identifies the segment of cable
between two terminals or connections, a n d differentiates between
segments of the circuit when the same cable number is used
throughout. Segments are lettered in alphabetical sequence,
excluding the letter I a n d 0. A different letter is used for each of
the cable segments having a common terminal or connection.
5. Cable 9'me.
L

6. Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its
connection fullction. For example code NMS V indicates Nyvin
Metsheath (a BICC cable) ungrounded cable in a single-phase
system.
Tho rec:ommendation is that the cable is cotletl at regular intervals along it's
lengt b and it is most important that it corresponds to the appropriate 31r c.r aft
wiring diagram.

Figure 1 shows a n actual aircraft example of a wiring diagram. It is two ( dbles

(in a bundle) associated with ice formation spot-lights. The drawing shows the
cable code (which should be printed om the cable) io urliquely identify t hii t
cable on the aircraft. Note the change of the third digit a s the cable run
progresses towards the lamp.

I
POWER SUPPLY
CONTROL
JUNCTON
BOX
CONTROL PANEL
LEFT
I
Fig. 1 AIRCRAFT WIRING DIAGRAM - EXAMPLE

When replacing a cable it is important to:

(a) Fit the correct replacement cable.

(b) Correctly route a n d support the cable.
(c) Ensure its correct identification along its length.
(d) Employ the correct terminations.
(e) After replacement carry out appropriate electrical tests followeci
by a functional test.

For certain electrical systems, cables are required to perform a more

spccialised function t h a n that of the cables alreatly referred to. Some ex:irnples
of what are generally termed 'special purpose cables' are described bc.10~~
Ignition Cables (Ignition f-Iarnesses)

'These are used for the t ransrn~ssionof high tension voltages (high voltages) in
bolkr piston a n d turblnr engine ignition systerr~s.They are usually of the single
cor"i-stranded type with a high level of insulatlorl, and screened by metal
braided sheathing to prevent interference.

The number of cables requlred for a system correspond to the number of spark
plugs or igniter plugs as appropriate, and they are generally made u p into a
complete ignition cable harness. Depending on the type of engine installation,
the cables may be enclosed in a metal conduit, which also forms part of the
harness, or they may be routed without conduit.

Cables are connected to the relevant system components by special end fittings
comprising either small springs or contact caps secured to the cable conductor,
insulation, a n d a threaded coupling assembly.

The harness is supported in P clips or similar with rubber packing to help

prevent vibration damage.

'
.
Fig. 2 TYPICAL WIRING HARNESS - R R TRENT

CABLE

RUBBEWTEFLON LINER

Fig. 3 TYPICAL 'P' CLIP INSTA%%ATI[BN

'I'hermocouple Cables

These cables are used for connection of cylinder head temperature ~ntl~c.!ors
and turbine engine exhaust gas temperature (egt) tndicators to their r~spective
thermocouple sensing elements.

The conducting materials are normally the same a s those in the tf-lerrnc,c.ouple
sensnrig element, for example, iron and constantan or copper anti c-onsrantan
for cylinder head thermocouples, a n d chrornel (an alloy of chrom~urrlanti
nickel) a n d alumel (an alloy of aluminium and nickel) for egt therxnocoti1)les.

SMALL I j'

PROBE - -
FWD

ALUMEL

/\\ , / CHROMEL

Fig. 4 EGT LEADS - G E 9 0 ENGINE

In the case of cylinder head temperature indicating systems, only one

thermocouple sensing element is used and the cables between it and a flrewall
connec:tor are normally asbestos covered.

For egt measurement a number of thermocouples are required to be rad~ally

disposed around the jet pipe in the gas stream. The cables are usually
arranged in the form of a harness tailored to suit a specific engine installation.

The insulating material of the harness cables is either silicone rubber or PTFE
impregnated fibreglass. The cables terminate a t an engine or firewall junction
box from which cables extend to the flight deck indicator. The insulating
material of extension cables is normally of the polyvinyl type, since they are
subject to lower ambient temperatures than the engine harness.

In solrre applications extension cables are encased in silicorle paste w i t h ~ na

metal braided flexl ble conduit.
Co-axial Cables (Figures 5 a n d 6)

Co-axial (co-ax)cables contain two or more separate conducting eleme~its- one

inner and one outer. The irirler conductor may be solid or stranded copper
wire, and may be plain, tinned, silver-plated or even gold-plated in some
appllcatlons, depending on the degree of conductivity required.

The outer conductor is made in the form of a circle usually of fine wire braid
inslllated from and surroundirig the inner core. The insulation (dielectric)
between the two is usually polyethylene or Teflon.

COPPER WIRE WEATHTER

BRAID SCREEN PROOF OUTER
INSULATION

DIELECTRIC . INNER
SEPARATOR CONDUCTOR
SIGNAL CARRIER

Fig. 5 CROSS SECTION OF CB-AXIALCABLE

011ter coverings or jackets serve to weatherproof the cables a n d protect them

from fluids, mechanical and electrical damage. The materials used for the
coverings are manufactured to suit operations under varying environmental
corid~Lions.

Co-axial cables are used for the transmission of low power signals, with the
signal line (the inner conductor) protected from unwanted signals (noise) by the
outer wire braid. The outer braid provides a shielded against electrostatic and
magnetic fields.

Any electrostatic field does not extend passed the outer braid a n d the field?
due to current flow in the inner and outer conductors cancel each other. Also,
since co-axial cables do not radiate any fields, then likewise they will not pick
u p any energy, or be influenced by other strong fields.

('0-axial cables are used on radio equipment, for the connection of antennae to
receivers1 transmitters, and capacitance type fuel quantity i~ldicatingsystems
for the interconnection of talnk units to amplifiers.

The construction of a typical co-axial cable and end fittings are shown. For
details of how end fittings are attached the reader is referred to the appropriate
book in module 7, but in general the outer wire braid is c u t back arid folded
onto the inner adapter and the inner conductor is left protruding.
 COPPER BRAID INNER ADAPTER
Turned back to Slides under wire braid, up
fit over inner to screw thread, and
adapter \ screws into plug assembly
/

/ DIELECTRIC
INNER SEPARATOR
CONDUCTOR
\ \ SOLDER HOLES
COUPLING RING
/

INNER PLUG ASSEMB1.Y

Fig. 6 CO-AX CABLE END FITTINGS

The sub-assembly is screwed to the adapter thereby clamping the outer

conductor firmly between the two components.

In some cases the outer conductor may also be soldered to the sub-assembly
through solder holes. Soldering a contact on to the inner conductor a ~ l d
screu~ingthe coupling ring on to the sub-assembly completes the assembly.

CAE31,E TYPES

The following pages give technical data on a selection of cables made by UlCC.
You would not be required to remember the details but you should read and
understand the information.

You should note the performance rating of the cables, the properties and the
identification. You should note the current ratings and how they are affect-ed by
being 'bunched' (bundled or fitted a s part of a loom), and the reasons w11y.

The performance data table is given for one type of cable only -- a s an exaniple.
Each cable will have its own data table.

blank
1lght we~ghtflexible arrframe wiring cable suppl~edin single or multrcored versions screened or sheathed
to spec~ficat~onBS2G222

PVC GLASS BRAID NYLON

TINNED COPPER OR
SILVER PLATED COPPER

Performance. Voltage rating 300V at 1600Hz rms (250V for size 24). Temperature range -75C to t 105C
(-30C for flexible installations).
Properties. Resistant to abrasion, fuels, hydraulic fluids, ester based oils, de-icing fluids, fire
extinguishants, cleaning solvents, fungus and mildew.
Resistant to flame and readily printable for ident purposes.
Identification. Supplied in reels labelled and packaged ready for transportation. Cable is printed with cable
code, country of origin, manufacturer, date code, size code and specification code. Colour white.
w. Tinned copper conductor range 22 to 12. Silver plated copper conductor range 24 only.
Current Ratinqs. The current ratings given in table 1 are based on conductor temperature rise of 40C iri
an ambient temperature of 65C. If the ambient temperature (tC) is continuously above 65C the rat1 ,
must be multiplied by a factor K where:

Similar to Minyvin above but has a voltage range up to 600V, a size range from 22 to 0000 and meets the
requirements of specification RSG177.

PVC GLASS BRAID

\
NYLONOR NYLON
BRAID & LACQUER

EFGLAS

Similar to Nyvin except that its temperature range is -70C t o +260C. Has nickel plated copper conductor
arid is flexible throughout temperature range. Meets specifications BSG222, AIR4524 (GROUP 250.-280).

PTFEIGLASSIPTFE

NICKEL PLATED COPPER

 MAXIMUM RATINGS FOR MiNYVlN CABLES BUNCHED IN FREE AIR

Rating conditions: A = Continuous B = 5 minute rating C; = 1 minute rating

Uninyvirlal = aluminium cored.

* = May apply to a srnaller number of cables as specified,

Cable No Rating Max rating in amperes (cables in bundle)

Uninyviri Uninyvinal condition I 3 7 12

Slmllar to Nyvln except that ~ t snormal temperature range IS -55C to +190"C with ar! ultlmate life of 5
rn~nutesat 1100'C for the operation of essenttal c ~ r c u ~ tColour
s orange and speclflcatlons rneets BSG189
~nterchangeablewlth MIL VJ-5777

SILICON RUBBER

\
NlCKEL PLATED GLASS BRAID
COPPER POLYURETHANE VARNISH

FEPSIL.

Similar to Tersil. Colour green and produced to specif~cationBSG208 interchangeable with MIL-W-8777.

SILICON RUBBER FEP

.
NICKEL PLATED GLASS BRAID
COPPER

Similar to Fepsil with a service life of 50,000 hours at 150C and a temperature range of -65C to .+150aC.
No smoke emission at up to 300C. Single cable white. Multi cores have different colours.

FPA 150

POLYURETHANE
/ POLYMIDE
lNSULATION
TAPE ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L A T E D
\ CONDUCTOR

KPA 150MS

FEP SILVER PLATED

SHEATH COPPER SCREEN

THERMOCOUPLE CABLES

Temperature range -65C to + 260C. 10,000 hours life at the top temperature. Positwe, nickel chromium,
with white insulation. Negative, nickel aluminium with green insulation. Sizes - 20 sheath colour green and
22 sheath colour green with white stripes.

+ve NICKEL CHROMIUM POLYMIDUPTFE

A crimped connection i s one in which a cable corlductor is secured by
compression to a termination so that the metals of both a r e held togetht:r In
close contact. A typical crimp termination h a s two principal sections, c-r-lrnping
barrel a n d tongue, together with, in some types, a p r e - ~ n s u l a t e dcopper sleeve
which mates with the crimping barrel a t one end arltl is formed, during the
crimplng process, so as to grip the cable insulatior~at the other in ordcr to give
a measure of support.

The barrel i s designed to fit closely around the cable conductor so that after
pressure h a s been applied a large number of points of contact are made 'The
pressure is applied with a hand or hydraulically operated crlmping tool fitted
with a die or dies, shaped to give a particular cross-sectional form to thc.
completed joint.

The precise form of the crimp is determined by such factors as the size and
construction of the conductor, the materials, and the dimensions of the
termination. It is, therefore, most important that only the correct type of die
and crimping tool, should be used, depending on the termination a n d that the
necessary calibration checks have been made to the tool.

"'"" (""m) \@
Conductor protrusion

Number of dots 4
' / \I/ I
indicate correct tool ---P CORRECT
used for the j o b DISTANCE

INSULATION CRIMP
) / 11 1 cmw

Fig. 7 TYPICAL CRIMP TERMINATION

There is a considerable range of terminations (and crimping tools) available,

many of which are colour coded and suitable for u s e only with specific types of
aircraft cable/crimp ends. It is, therefore, important that the appropriate
manufacturer's instructions regarding the use of cables and termin a t'ions are
fo1lowc.d.

Only aluminiuni or bimetal (AICu) terrninations should be uscd to terrriit l i l t e

aluminium cables and the cable should be stripped irnmediatcly prior to
rnakiny the joint.
'The barrel o f some aluminlurn tc-rminatlons may contain a qtiantit-y of
inhibiting compound, others not so filled require that inhibiting compound l ~ e
applied before crimping takes place. Sorne specifications also req~lireadditlorla1
sealing after crimping. The compound will also minirriise later oxidation of the
corripleted connection by excluding moisture and air.

TOOLS

These inclttde: wise cutters, sidc cutters, cable strippers and crimping
pliers/crimping tools. They all come in a variety of shapes and sizes and what
follows is a general description of the AMP crimping method.

The special tool used for crimping AMP terminals h a s several features to
ensure a good crimped joint. These include:

1. Crimp ratchet.
2. Locator.
3. Insulation adjusting pins.
4. Colour a n d dot coding.

The crimp ratchet is common to most crimping tools. It ensures the bottoming
of the die jaws before the jaws can be opened again. This rrieans that once the
crimp h a s been started it must be ftllly corripleted (the handles closed to their
fullest extent) before the tool will release a n d be removed frorn the cable/crimp.

This rrleans that a crimp cannot be half completed.

The locator holds the terminal. in the correct position in the die jaws a n d allows
the conductor strands to protrude 0.8 rnm from the terminal barrel when the
wire is fully inserted. Most tools have some form of location device.

The insulation adjusting pins allow for small variations in wire size a n d
ensures o p t i m ~ ~mechanical
m strength of the joint by crimping both the
insulation a n d the conductor. The die head has three levels of adjustment:

1. Tight.
r\
L. Medium.
3. Loose.

Colour and Dot coding. The "dot" coding system is needed to identify the
terminals which have been crimped in the correct AMP hand tool. If a red
terrnirial is crimped in a red handled tool, a single dot impression will be left on
the insulation a t the barrel end.
 Fig. 8 AMP CRIMPING TOOL

Cable Strippers

Used to c u t the insulation away from the conductor a n d come in a variety of

sizes and designs. These may have separate locations on the same tool for
differcnt sizes of cable or there may be one cutting part that is ad.justable for a
particular size of cable.

It is most important that the strippers are set-up first by using them on a spare
piece of cable, adjusting the cutltechnique so as to make a clean c u t of the
insulation without doing any damage to the conductor. This spare piece of
cable (the same size a n d type as the actual cable to be worked on) can also be
used for the practice crimp. After the practice crimp is completed the joint is
inspected to check for security of attachment with no damage or splitting. If all
is well then the settings/technique can be employed on the actual cable to be
crirnpcd. Before carrying out crimping of termination, the following slrlould be
verified:

(4 Correct size and type of wire for the job (AMM).

(t)) Correct size and type of terminal with suitable size crimp t)ar.rel to
accommodate wires and if necessary, the insulation.
(c) Correct crimping tool and associated dies, selected to be
compatible with type of terminal and wire size.
(d) Correct tool being used. Note that the ratchet and pawl harict type
tools will only release on completion of crimping c.ycle.
(eJ Correct ant-oxidant - if required
Preparation of Wire

1 U s ~ n gapproved stripp~ngtool, remove specific length of insulation

2 Inspect stripped end for severed or damaged conductor strands. If
any fc)urid damaged or severed cut cable back anti start again.
3. Insert all conductor st-rands into barrel.
4. Ensure that no insulating materials enter.

Conductor strands must be laying together to allow for 100% insertion. If the
lay of the strands is disturbed they should be re-imposed with a light twisting
action of the fingers. Excessive twisting should be avoided a s this increases the
conductor diameter.

Preparation of Tool

1. Insert insulation adjustment pins into the N o 3 position.

2. Locate terminal in crimping jaws.
3. Insert conductor into barrel and insulation into the insulation grip
portion of the terminal.
4. Close handles until crimp ratchet releases.
5. Remove terminal and check insulation support a s follows. Bend
the wire back and forth once, terminal sleeve should retain grip on
wire insulation.
6. If wire pulls out set insulation adjustment pins in next tighter
position (No 2).
7. Repeat Items 3 to 5.

Crimping AMP Terminals - Example

1. Select the appropriate terminal for the size of wire being

terminated and to suit the stud size of the terminal fitting.
2. Select a tool by reference to the colour of the terminal. Check wire
size range stamped on tool face.
3. Inspect the tool for serviceability and adjust the insulation
crimping adjustment pins.
4. Insert the terminal into the jaws so that the barrel rests against the
locator.
5. Squeeze handles until terminal is lightly gripped by the jaws.
6. Insert prepared wire end into terminal barrel ensuring that all
conductor strands enter. When fully inserted the conductor should
extend beyond the barrel by approximately 0.8 mm.
7 Hold wire in position and crimp by squeezing h;~ndlesuntil ratchet
releases.
8. Remove compleled crimped joint and inspect fol- dot code
impression.
On completion of crimp check:

(i) Correctness of form and locatiox~of crimp.

(ii) Adequate insertion of conductor strands in barrel
(iii) If insulation support is provided, check correctness of Corrn and
location of insular crimp.
(IV) Check any codification by crimp dies is correct in detail ant1
position.
b7) Check joint for freedom from fracture, rough or s h a r p edges a n d
'flash'.
(vi) Carry out a millivolt drop test.

PRE-INSULATED
B + 0.8mm COPPER SLEEVE

CRIMPING BARREL
& TONGUE

B = Barrel length. C = Insulation grip.

Stripping length = barrel length + 0.8mm

Fig. 9 TYPICAL CRIMP TERMINATIONS

Crimping In-line or Butt Splices

1 Select the required Butt Splice and a tool of the sarne colo~lr
coding.
2. Adjust the insulation crimping a d ~ u s t m e n pins
t as detailed above.
3. Insert butt splice into crimping jaws until properly located.
4. Squeeze handles until butt splice is lightly gripped.
5. Insert prepared wire into terminal barrel. When inserted the
conductors should be visible in the inspection window.
6. Hold wire in position and complete crimping operation.
7. Inspect for correct formation of completed crimp.
8. Insert other end of butt splice into jaws until properly lo(-at(-ci.
9. Complete crimping operation by repeatirig Items 4 , 5, 6 ancl ' I .
10. Carry out a millivolt drop test.

Each l~arrelof a connector must carry only one cable uriless specifically
perrnit ted by the air worthiness authority.
In-line crimps must be fitted either horizontal or positioned so that any ingress
of fluid is impossible. Protective sleeves, additional to the crimp insulation, will
not be provided to prevent ingress of fluid - particularly important in exposed
positions such as wheel wells.

Care must be exercised to ensure that in-line crimps are only used in positions
where the operating temperatures do not exceed the specified limits. Specific
approval must be obtained from the airworthiness authority before
incorporating in-line crimps in the following:

(1) Screened cable.

(2) Coaxial cable.
(3) Multicore cable.
(4) Cables in excess of size 10 (35 amp).
(5) Thermocouple cables.
(6) High voltage cables, ie above 2 5 0 V rms (eg igniter- h t leads, aerial
feeders).
(7) Cables used in fire-resistant circuits (fire detector and extingui er
circuits within the protective zone).
(8) Types of cable, totally enclosed in conduits or ducts, which cannot
readily be visually inspected.

Maximum allowable
millivolt drop usually
5mV for 10 amps

CALIBRATED TEST LEAD

INSULATION

INSULATED SUPPORT BLOCK

Fig. 10 MILLIVOLT DROP TEST ON CRIMPED TERMINATIONS

Kepair schemes are restricted to the following:

(a) The minimum distance between joints in any one cable must be 2ft.
(b) Not more t h a n two joints are to be made in any 1Oft length of cable.
(c) Multiplicity of joints in cables must be avoided, if possible, and in no
case must the number exceed the following:

(i) Runs up to L o f t - 3 joints.

(ii) Runs 11p to 200ft - S joints.
( ~ i i ) Kunri over- 200ft - 8 joints.
On 11-1st allation, wherever possible, observe the following:

(a) All joints m u s t be accessible for visual inspection.

( 1 ) Joints m u s t be positiorled so that they do not touch one another or
touch duct cable-retaining straps and other fixtures which may set
u p 'tracking' p a t h s .
jc ) Joints must, if possible, be positioned on the outside of the loorns
unless special fixing attachments are preferable; all fixing
attachments, s u c h as corrugated wrapping strip, m u s t be approved.
(cl) If it is impracticable to accommodate a stagger of joints along a cable
r u n , positive separation, eg using insulation or cable c l ~ p smust
, be
carried out.

Erma I-land-operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine

For large size cables various hydraulic crimping machines are available,
described here is the Erma Crimping Machine.

This machine is supplied a s a kit containing eight sets of dies for cable size
from AWG 6 to AWG 0000, a n d a n Allen key used for fitting t h e dies to the
machine. The crimp formed is a regular hexagon shape and h a s two code
letters impressed on it by the dies during crimping. These code letters are HG,
HH - l-1N (for cable sizes AWG 6, 4 - 0000) and are the same as those marked
on the cable lugs by the manufacturer.

Preparation of Machine

The machine operating handles should be screwed into position a n d the code
letters stamped on the dies checked for size, If the dies are to be changed carry
out the following procedure:

(4 Select the two matched dies bearing the correct code letters for the
size of cable in use. Check that the lugs to be used have the same
code letters marked on the terminal palm.

(1)) Remove the upper die adapter by sliding it from the dovetailed
head of the tool. This leaves the slotted head of the tool open to
allow the lower die to be fitted to the ram. Insert the spigot on the
upper die into the hole in the die adapter until it is held in position
by a spring-loaded steel ball.

Close the hydraulic valve by turning the knob clocktvisc. Pump the
handles a few times to move the ram forwards a n d show the
hexagon socket screws which hold the lower die. Slacken thr-se
screws using the Allen key provided. Fit the lower d ~ into
e the, ram
so that the screws fit into the recesses on cither side of t h t r l l c h
 Tighten t h e screws to hold the die, ensuring that they are below
the surface of the ram body. Open the hydraulic valve to retract
the ram

(4 Slide the u p p e r die adapter, corriplete with die, illto the dovetailed
grooves until i t is located centrally by a spring-loaded steel ball.

\ FIXED HANDLE
RAh HEXAGON ~ ~ Y D R A L J CONTROL
~IC
SOCKET VALVE
SCREW

Fig. 11 ERMA HYDRAULIC CRIMPING MACHINE

Operation

Check that the two-letter code on the cable lugs and on both dies is correct for
the size of the cable to be terminated.

(a) Close the hydraulic valve. Place the lug centrally between the ales
a n d p u m p the handles until the lug is lightly gripped.
(b) Strip the cable insulation so that when it is inserted in the lug the
insulation lies flush against the end of the barrel and the
conductor projects slightly from the other end.
(c) Insert the conductor into the barrel of the lug arld pump the
machine handle until the dies are fully closed. Clperate the handle
until the safety valve operates with a n audible click and pressure
on the p u m p handle reduces.
((j Open the hydraulic valve to allow the ram to retract. The crimped
termination can then be removed from the machine and inspected.
PLUGS A N D SOCKETS

Most wires a r e terminated in a pin or contact which is fitted ~ r l t na plug /socket

along with many other pins/coritacts.

On older aircraft wires/cables were soldered ~ n t osmall 'cups' at the end of

each pinlcontact. In rnost modern systems the method of conncc.tion 1s by
crimping. After the pinlcontact is crimped onto its wire it is Insvrted in to the
correct hole within the plug/socket.

To prevent damage a n d the entry of debris protective caps should be f~ttcdto

plugs/sockets at all times when disconnect from the aircraft and no work is
being carried o u t on them.

Care should be taken when handling and connecting miniature and sub-
miniature connectors. Both plugs and sockets should be checked for any signs
of dirt, bent pins or physical damage to the shells before attempting to connect.
If connectors will not mate, check for the reason, a n d rectify o r renew. O n no
account should force by used to effect mating. Rent pins should be removed
a n d new ones crimped in position.

SHELL
ATTACHMENT
SHFLL SHELL
\ FLANGE
\ SCREWTHREAD

/ \
AUG~MENT
GROOVE
ALIGNMENT
LUG SOCKET
/ MOULDING

CONTACTS

Fig. 12 TYPICAL PLUG & SOCKET

Lubrication

Some ranges of plugs a n d sockets require the engaging threads to be lubricated

with a suitable lubricant to ensure that they can readily be disconncctcd.

Fitmcnt/ Removal of Wired Pins/ Contacts

Each pin/contact is crimped to its respective wire then fitted in to the

plug/socket. To ensure that the wire is corirlected to the correct pin/c:oilt;~ct
and the pinlcontact is fitted into the correct hole in the plug sorket tllcx
followi~~g
location procedure is followetl:
 i Each wire is identified by a unique aircraft wiring diagrarr~
rium txr.
2. When fitting the crimped pin/socket it is located irito a numbered
hole in accordance with the wiring diagram.
3 When the plug is screwed into the socket there is a locator
lug/groove so it can only be orientated one way.

POLARISING OR
PINISOCKET LOCATOR LUG/
CONTACT
NUMBERS

Fig. 1 3 PIN/SOCKET LOCATION IDENTIFICATION

There are two basic types of pin/contact retention used in plug a n d socket
connectors in aircraft, one where the contacts are released for removal from the
rear a n d orie were removal is from the front. The correct insertion/removal tool
is used in each case.

Front release. The contact is removed by pushing from the front of

the connector a n d removing the contact frorn the rear.

Rear release. The extraction tool enters the connector from the rear
of the connector a n d the contact is also removed from
the rear.

Multiway connectors, termlnal junctions, inline single wire connectors,

switches, motors, indicators, instruments and other electrical components may
now be terminated by a rear release system.

Contacts crimped with a standard crimping tool are inserted and removed
using a single fail-safe plastic toc;l for each size of contact.

INSERTION END REMOVAL END

7---
(WHITE)
I-.-.-

Fig. 14 REMOVAL AND INSERTION TOOL

'The Hvllermann Deu tsch 4601450 Series Connectors, t errninal junctior~
modules a n d custom-made component termination modules can be used
All terminations are inserted a n d removed by a single expendable plastic. tool
which is fail-safe in t h a t mis-handling will result in damage to the tool rather
than to the connector o r termination modules.

In figure 15 the spring clips s n a p in behind the shoulder of the contact '['he
removal tool displaces the clips sufficiently to allow the contact to be
withdrawn.

PLUG BODY RETENTION CLlP

RETENTION CLIP \ cY'Mp /

Fig. 15 PIN RETENTION - FRONT RELEASE

RETENTION CLIP

RETENTION CLlP

Fig. 16 PIN RETENTION - REAR RELEASE

Contact Insertion - Typical Procedure

1. Remove t h e backshell or other accessory from the rear of the

connector a n d thread on to the cable loom.

S n a p the coloured end of the appropriate insertion/removal tool on

to the wire. When inserting the wire into the tool, u s e the thumb
a n d not the t h u m b nail as this could damage the insulation
Position the tool on the contact shoulder, except in the case of size
22 contacts, in which case the tool should be positioned on t h c
back of the crimp bucket.

Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, slowly push
the contact straight into the connector. A positive stop will \)e felt
when the contact is locked in by the retention clip.
 ICSEZTIBN
CORRECT Too, INCORRECT

U
+ b
/
SIZE 22 ONLY

ALL OTHER SIZES

INCORRECT
CORRECT

Fig. 17 INSERTION OF PIN INTO SOCKET

Cont.act Removal

1. The removal procedure is virtually the reverse of the insertion

procedure.

2. Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, s n a p the
white end of the appropriate insertion/removal tool over the wire to
be removed.

3. Slowly slide the tool along the wire into the conrlector, until a
positive stop is felt. The retention clip will now be unlocked.

4. Press the wire against the serrations of the central section of the
tool and withdraw both wire and tool together.

A s you can see, tc) release the contact, you must put the extr-actiorr tool over
the front of the contact a n d down between the contact arid clip to release the
clip from behind the front shoulder.
'Thls neth hod h a s wide usage. Some of the connectors you are likely to I lsc w ~ t h
thls ft,ature are Amphenol 246 and 48 serles, Bendlx FYI' SE, Cannon FKF',
KPSE,Flight FH, FC Hellerman~lDeutsch SLPT, DS, Cinch C0909, P y l c
National KPL/FPK, ZZ a n d the AMP/AM series of rack a n d panel conrltxc;tors

In the case of the rear release, the extraction tool enters from the rear of the
connector between the contact a n d the clip to release the contact. The contact
is then pulled out through the rear whilst still in the tool.

MECHANICAL FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

CONTROL CABLES

Aircraft control cables a r e generally fabricated from high tensile carbon steel or
corrosion-resistant steel wire and may be of either a flexible or non-flex~bletype
construction.

Cables are used in tension only a n d used for the control of primary and
secondary flying control systems, engine controls a n d the operation of certain
valves and equipment.

AILERON
\ 1 SERVO TAB

BRAN?

AUTOPILOT

TURNBUCKLES ERCONNECTING
BALANCE CABLES

DISCONNECT

TURNBUCKLES

TURNBUCKL

Fig. 18 TYPICAL A I R C M m CABLE CONTROL RUM - BAe 1146

Where a single cable is used tht. 'return' of the system would be by the use of a
spring at the o e ~ t p uend
t o f t h e cable system. Where corltrol is required in both
directions - as in flying control systems for example - the cable is formed Into a
complete loop with pulleys or quadrants or something s~rrlrlarat both ends.

The cat~lt:itself will almost certainly not be continuous, but be connected in

various lengths by turnbuckles, cable connectors, quadra ri t s etc.

Figure 18 shows a control cable run to operate the servo tabs of the BAe 146
ailerons. I t is typical in that the system uses cable tension regulators (to keep
correct tensions), pulleys (to allow a change in cable direction) and seals (where
the cable passes through the pressure hull).

Legal Requirements for Flying Corltrol Cables

Cables used on aileron, elevator a n d rudder must not be smaller than 0.125
(3.17mm) diameter. Tensions must be kept reasonably constant.

Pulleys must be fitted with guards to prevent cable displacement or fouling.

A cable must not change direction more than 3" after passing through a
fairlead. Specified parts of the cable system must have access for inspection.

Advantages of Cable Systerns

The advantages of a cable system over a rod system include a weight reduction
and a cost saving. Though, of course, the cable system i s heavier than a n
electronic/light data transmission system such a s fly-by-wire.

The structure will change its length as the temperature changes a n d since t'
coefficient of A1 alloy (a = 2 3 x 10-6)is nearly twice that of steel (a -15 x 10
the cable tensions will v a r y considerably.

QUES'I'ION What would happen to the tension of a steel cable system within
a n A1 alloy structure when the aircraft increases altitude --
assuming there are no automatic cable tension adjusters fitted?
(5 mins)

ANSWER A s the aircraft clirribs the ambient temperature drops (down to

-56Ca t 36,000ft) so the structure will get shortcr-. The steel cables
will also shorter1 (assuming they experience the same temperature
drop, which is probably not likely) but will not shorten by the same
arnount - so the cable tensions will decrease.
'To overcome this problem either very high terlslons are used on the g r o ~ l n d
when setting u p ( a s was the case on older aircraft) or use is madc of automatic
cable tension regulators. Most aircraft now use Cable Tension Regulators
whic.11 provide a nearly constant tension a t all times a t all altitudes. This means
lower rigged tensions on the ground with a saving in weight and wear

Components in the system would include

Push/ pull rods.

Pulleys.
Automatic cable tensioning devices.
Fairleads.
Seals - for pressure cabins.
Cable adjusters - turnbuckles.
Cable connectors.
Chains a n d sprockets.
Torque tubes.
Bellcrank levers.

A s well as input levers/mechanisms and output devices to include levers,

valves. powered flying control units etc.

D NON-FLEXIBLE NON-FLEXIBLE
1x7 DIAMETER
IX I 9

STRAND

EXTRA-FLEXIBLE
FLEX'BLE DIAMETER
7x7

Fig. 19 TYPICAL CABLE CONFIGURATIONS

PITCH
-

CABLE
-
STRAND WIRE

Fig. 2 0 CABLE MAKE-UP

'I'erms used a~rcl-aftcontrol cables (figllrc 19).

Wire. A h ~ g ht e n s ~ l esteel small diameter- (about I rnm or less) wire

K ~ n gwire. The centre wlre in a strand around which all the other wires are laid.

Strand.
- - A group of wires twisted together helically forms a strand. Several
strands are laid together to make u p a complete ~:able.

Core strand. The central strand of a cable around which the remaining strands
are helically wound.

--Preformed cable. A cable in which the wires and strands are shaped prior to
wound onto the complete cable. These tend to unravel less tllan un-preformed
cable whcn cut. Un-preformed cable will unravel quickly when cut (using bolt
cutters) so the cable is bound with cord either side of the c u t prior to cutting.

Cable diameter. The diameter of the cable measured across its greatest
thickness.

Lay or Twist. The helical form taken by the wires and strands in the cable. A
cable is said to have a right-hand lay if the wires a n d strands twist in the same
direction as on a right-handed screw thread (most screw threads). If twisted the
other way it is said to have a left-handed lay.

Pitch. The axial distance a strand or wire travels in one complete twist about
the axis of the cable or strand respectivel.y. Similar to pitch on a screw thread.

Cable Specifications

Cable sizes and strength data are given in tables with sizes ranging from
1/ 3 2 n d of a n inch (0.031in) (0.79mm) to 1/2 a n inch (0.5in) (12.7mm) diamt r.
Tables 1, 2 a n d 3 give some examples. Most cables used on British built
aircraft conform to British Standards BS W9, W 1 1, W 12, a n d W 13 or American
specification MIL,-W-83420.

Non preformed cables are used, b u t on systems that not so important.

Preformed cables have the following advantages:

* More flexible.
x Easier to hand splice.
J; Resistant to kinking.
* Does not unravel when cut - for splicing etc.
A
Strands, when broken, tend to lie flal and not stick up - this may
cause jamming of the controls when passing through fairleads and
around pulleys and is also a hazard to personnel.
The construction of the cable is deterxriined by the number of wires n7hlc\hgo to
make up each strand a n d the number of strands that go to make u p the, cable.
For cxample, a cable designated 7 x 19 is made u p of 7 s t r a n d s each having 19
wires For the more common types of cable (those a t the bottorn of figure 19)
each wire is laid around a king wlre in layers and the s t r a n d s are lad ;irc~unda
core strand.

- lx7and 1x
-.1 9-- - - -- -
- 7 x 7, 7 x 19 and 6 x 19 1_1WK?
on-fexlble,--7l Corrosion Flexible, -lFlexihg, c o rosion
~
-
-- c'arbon
~~

MIL - W - 6940
resist= Carbon .
resist
.

/lng
MIL - (: - 5424
-

"pZt I Breaking
Strength
Lbs I per 1 I,G
100 ft 100 ft 100 ft

54
L__-_- _10.20 6,300 10.20 1 6,300 / 8.60 / 5,000
Nite 100 ftl= 30.49m-llb force = 4.448N 1 inch =

TABLE 1 MIL S P E C CABLE DATA - A SELECTION

Pre-formed cable is usually made of galvanised carbon steel (BS W 9 , W 12 and

MIL-W--83420composition A), or corrosion resistant steel (BS W 1 1, W 1 3 and
M I L W-83420 composition B) a n d is impregnated with lubricant during
m:inufacture (reduces internal friction a n d wear). MIL specifications also exist
that provide for a series of nylon covered cables.

Check the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) a n d the Illustrated Parts

Catalogue (IPC) for your aircraft for the actual cable used for any particular
system.

Minimum breaking Construction --. Diarrie er (in)

Load fcwt force) ~
BS W9 ~
BSW11
- - -- ----
0.065 0.065
0.08 0.08
0.12 0.12
7x 19 0.15 0.15
7x 19 0.16 0.16
7x 19 0.18 0 18
7x 19 0.2 1
7 x 19 --
. -.

Note 1 cwt force = 498.176N

TABLE 2 B S CABLE DATA - A SELECTION

 Nominal
Diameter
Construction I
I
Minirnum breaking load

I
-. -.---
...... ... .. ........ -
Carbon steel CR steel
7 - E ~ w - 8 3 4 2 0( A ) ~
MIL-W-84320 (B)
BS W 1 2 lbs
- . -- --- -
lbs - - --
77 480
7 x 7 920
7 x 19 2000

.
7 x 1 19
4200
7000 --

TABLE 3 CABLE CLASSIFICATION BY DIAMETER

- A SELECTION

On some aircraft, control cables are enclosed in a n aluminium tube or cladd' -g

and are called Lockclad cables. Used for straight runs and supplied a s a
complete assembly from the manufacturer.

Cable End Fittings

'To allow the cable to be attached to a component the end of the cable
terminates in either a spliced end fitting, a sleeved crimped end fitting, or a
swaged end fitting.

A spliced eiicl fitting normally takes the form of the cable being placed around a
thimble or similar fitting and the individual strands of the cable woven or
spliced back through the cable (see module 7 for more details).

OVAL SLEEVE CRIMPED

CABLE TENSION
REGULATOR

SPLICED CABLE
SWAGED END AROUND A BOBlN

INSPECTION HOLE

SPLIT PIN HOLE

Fig. 2 f CABLE END FITTINGS

A s tlle individual s t r a n d s a r e spliced back through the cable the nurnbcr of full
tucks are reduced after the third and forth row of tucks to gradually retluce the
diarntlter of the splice. The total number of tucks is 5.

Splicing is a very difficult task and should only be undertaken by propvrlv

trained a n d skilled personnel. This is not allowed to be carried out at user unit
level for some aircraft systems and the person qualified to carry out the control
cable splicing should submit test pieces for destructive testing at regular
intervals.

With :I crimped joint, a sleeve or ferrule is put on thc cable and the cable is
placecl around a thimble a n d back into the slecve. A special crimping or
swaging tool is used to crimp (compress) the sleeve to hold the two parts of the
cable securely. The sleeve h a s to be a special size (as does the thimble) to
match the cable a n d the finished crimp is checked with a GO/NOT GO gauge.

Is a rrquirement that this joining method is not used on certain control

systems on aircraft.

Swaging is carried out by placing the cable in the end fitting a n d the end fitting
squeezed (swaged) in a special tool using special dies. It is similar to electrical
cable crimping but it may take several swaging operations to complete the job
with the finished swage being checked with a GO/NOT GO gauge.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Control Stops

Usually adjustable by the engineer to obtain the correct range of movement

a n d may be fitted to both e n d s of the control system run. Secondary control
stops are fitted a t the cockpit or flight deck end of the system while primary
control stops are fitted a t the output end --the flying control surface for a flying
control system.

JLL ROD

PIVOT ADJUSTABLE
STOPS
BELLCRANK

CABLE

Fig. 22 CONTROL STOPS

On some aircraft the range of rnovernent of the system is changed
autoniatically during flight (sorne flying control systems for example - as thy
aircraft 's speed changes so the range changes - fitted to the BAe 146 for
example to reduce the range of movement of the control surface a s the aircraft
speed in(-reases)

Stops will be fitted so a s to control the range of movement of a component SU(:~I

a s a bell crank lever - a n d hence the range of movement of the whole system.
They \will have provision for lockilzg once adjustment is completed. Locking can
be by locknut, locking wire, locking plate, split pin/cotter pin etc.

PUSH PULL ROD

/

Fig. 23 CHAIN & SPROCKET DETAIL

Chains a n d Sprockets

Cables may go around a pulley or be connected to pulley end fittings. The cable
may terminate a t a chain fitting - usually swaged into a turnbuckle type end
fitting - and t.he chain passed around a sprocket. This provides a positive d e
to the sprocket.

Chains may be of the 'non-reversible type', which means that they are so
designed that they cannot be put on the sprocket the wrong way round.

Cable Support.

Cables can be supported by pulleys and special quadrants where they can
- angular direction. Where little 01- no change in direction is required
change
various types of fairleads are used.
 AIRCRAFT ST STRUCTURE

UBBING STRIP

SPLIT FAIRLEAD SLJPPORT CLIP

Fig. 24 FAIRLEADS

Fairleads

Fairleads (figure 24) are usually made of composite material and must not be
lubricated - unless, of course the AMM says otherwise. They may be split
which aids replacement without disconnecting the cable. The split fairlead
shown in the bottom right hand corner of figure 24 is fitted in two halves and
movecl fonvard into its support clip. The supporting clip is held in place by a
brackct attached to the structure.

Pulleys (figure 25)

Made from composite, plastic or metal and are used to support the cable and
also to give a change of direction to the cable run. Guard pins are fitted to
retain the cable on the pulley should tensions become too low (accidentally)
and some pulleys have debris guards to keep out unwanted small items which
might foul the pulley/ cable.

Quadrants

Not too unlike pulleys in that they support the cable in groves, however the
cable run usually terminates at a quadrant. Can bc used to support a cahle
run and join one cable to another (figure 26 left-hand picture) or to transfer
cable movement to push/pull rod movernent (figure 2 6 right-hand plc t ~ r r c ) .
Turn buckles

These vary in d e s ~ g n(figures 27, 28 and 29),but in general may be of the

Barrel type o r thr Trrlsion Rod type. They all have a left-hand thread at one
end a n d a right hand thread a t the other to allow tension adjustment.

When the centre part is rotated - holding the two cable ends to prevent them
rotating - both threads will screw in or out depending on which way the centre
part is r o t a t r d Thr cable tension will then either increase or decrease. it is
important that, after adjustment and prior to wire locking, that the threads are
in safely (enough are engaged to ensure that they are strong enough to take the
tension loads).

SUPPORT BRACKET

BOLT

Fig. 25 PULLEYS

For the barrel type turnbuckle safety means that. all the threads must be
buried in the barrel.

QUADRANT
QUADRANT

CABLE 2

TORQUE TUBE

Fig. 26 CABLE QUAISRBPJTS

For the tension rod type the threads must be screwed deep enough i r ~ r othe
fork r n d s so that a piece of locking wire will not pass through thr insptl(.tirin
hole The wire should be the same size a s the inspection hole a n d shoul(t not
come out the other side.

BARREL SHACKLE PIN FOR

LOCKING WlRE
\ \ THlMBLElBOBBlN
\ \ ATTACH ME NT 1,

FORK END L H THREAD RH THREAD

F i g . 27 BARREL TYPE TURNBUCKLE

To fit the locking clips to the locking clip barrel type turnbuckle first ensure
that the threads are in safety and align the indicator notch with the barrel
grove. Each clip is then fed into its locking groove with the other end snapped
into place in the centre hole in the barrel. To remove the clip it is first cut using
a pair of wire cutters.

Rernernber to discard the old clips safely in the metal recycle bin.

SWAGED LOCKING CUT HERE TO REMOVE

CABLE END GFKlOVE LOCKING CLIP
RH THREAD

GROOVE INDICATES
LH THREAD
LOCKING CLlP
SLOT INDICATOR
NOTCH INSPECTION HOLE

Fig. 28 BARREL TYPE TURNBUCKLE - LOCKING CLIP TYPE

FORK END RH THREAD LH THREAD

\ \ 1
TENS'0N /

INSPECTION HOLE \
NUT LOCKING WlRE

Fig. 29 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

Cable Connectors

'Thesv are fitted to some cable systems at positions where the cables need to bfa
disc-onnected frequently for maintenance pixrposes

Each half of the connector m a y be keyed in such a way t h a t it can only be

fitted hack to its mating half (Murphy proof) and is used where several cables
run close together and all wlth connectors a t the same airfra~nelocation. Each
keyed pair are unique a t that location.

The connectors allow for quick cable disconnect and re-connect without the
possibility o f connecting two wrong cables together. They usually do not
provide for a n y cable terlsioxl adjustment - but some do.

The two halves may be locked together using a circlip like device with a lock
pin pushed through and secured with locking wire. On other systems the two-
keyed halves are held together using a sleeve, which is placed onto the cablc
before the two-keyed ends are joined then slid into place. It is held in plact y
locking clips.

OCKCLAD FEMALE QUICK

DISCONNECT TERMINAL

LOCKCLAD OCKCLAD MALE QUICK

DISCONNECT TERMINAL

CABLE QUICK DISCONNECT

PIN ASSEMBLY

/ LOCK-WIRE

ASSEMBLED CABLE CONNECTION

Fig. 30 NOM-KEYED CABLE CONNECTOR

 ADJUSTABLE KEYED
CONNECTOR

Fig. 31 KEYED CABLE CONNECTORS

Cable Tension Regulators

'The majority of modern aircraft use cable-operated systems for their flying
controls. This is due, in a large part, to the development of efficient Cable
Tension Regulators.

Fig. 32 QUADRANT TYPE CABLE

TENSION REGULATOR
Cable tension regulators are mechanical devlces and can be rnade 111 rnany
configuratior~s,for exaniple, quadrants, beli crank levers, pulleys etc. Some
systems simply have a spring loaded pulley to maintain tension, but for
clescript~vepurposes we wlll consider the quadrant type cable tension
regulator

The unit conslsts of a pair of spring-loaded quadrants with a pointer scale for
recording the cable tensions. The swaged ends of the cable are inserted
through slots in the recessed ends of the V grooved quadrants and the cable
e n d s are secured at the cable anchorages.

When the cables are tightened equally (as with the fuselage getting longer as
the aircraft descends) the quadrants rotatc about the centre shaft and the linlts
pull the cross-head frecly along the locking shaft, compressillg the springs and,
in effect tensioning the cables.

The springs react against the cross-head a n d when the cables slacken (with 1
increase in altitude), push the cross-head back along the shaft, t h u s tlghtt ng
the cables a n d maintaining them a t the correct tension.

TENSIONER
SPRINGS
\ TO PFCU

CABLES SLACKEN EQUALLY -CABLES TIGHTEN EQUALLY

Fuselage temperature reducing Fuselage temperature increasing
No pilot input No pilot input
Crosshead moves freely with Crosshead moves freely with springs
springs maintaining cable tension maintaining cable tension

QUADRANTS

----a CONTROL INPUT APPLIED

Pilot input (at any time)
Crosshead locks on locking shaft
Quadrants lock and unit behaves as a pulley

Fig. 33 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR - OPERATION

Whelr a control load is applied by the pilot only one q l ~ a d r a n twill tend to rriove
(the orie on the tension side). The link will tend to xrlove, tilting the cross-head
on its locking shaft (by a very small amount) and locklng it to the shaft,
preventing movement of one quadrant relative to the other with the whole
systern now acts as a pulley.

Both quadrants are, therefore, locked together and operate as a solid pulley
until the control load i s released.

Each tension regulator incorporates a scale and pointer, which provides a

visual tension indication of the cable tension. When rigging a regulated cable
system therefore, a tensiometer is not required, the cables being tensioned
until the correct reading is obtained on the regulator scale. The correct reading
depends o n the ambient temperature a n d must be obtained from a special
graph providetl for each regulator in the aircraft.

Pressure Bulkheads

On pressurised aircraft where cable control r u n s p a s s through the pressure

bulkhead special seals a r e provided to help minimise pressure loss. They m u s t
allow freedom of cable movement, be self-aligning, require little or no
maintenance a n d provide a good air seal.

Several types are available - 2 are shown here.

BELLOWS SECURED
TO BUKHEAD
BELLOWS

CABLE

\
AIR TIGHT JOINT PRESSURE
BULKHEAD

Fig. 34 BELLQWS TYPE SEAL

Figurc 34 shows a self-aligning seal Made of a n elastorrleric material, part of

which moves with the control cable. 'This arrangement is used wit 11 control
systerlls using twin cables (one u p and one down). As the cabin pressure acting
on thc bellows causes a load on the c:ontrol cable, which must he balancc~dby
:in t:c]iial a n d opposite load - on the other cable. 'rends to increase the s i n t ~ c
frictio~lin the system, b u t is self-aligning and provides a complete seal.
 Fig. 35 GLAND TYPE SEAL

Alternative methods of sealing include friction type seals. Several types are
available with some relying on packing rings of silicon rubber composite or
similar to provide the airtight joint. Others use a n elastorneric material suc a s
that shown in figure 35. Remember, they should be kept clean and not
lubricated. This is a more popular type of seal, though they do allow some air
seepage a n d wear is a problem. Also they are not self-aligning.

SPECIALISED MECHANICAL REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

These employ a push/pull or pull only cable type system, which is housed
within a conduit (sleeve), which may be rigid or flexible. The 'cable' is of a
special design. The controls are usually manually operated to allow flight
crew/pilot to operate such remote services as:

* Trim tabs.
* Fuel cocks.
-k Brake control valves.
-k Engine controls.
k Cabin air durnp valves.
-h Flying control trirn systems.
k Selector valves for hydraulic, pneurnatic and emergency services.

They can bc used by ground crew for the operation of remote valves such a s
toilet drain valves etc, which are operated from outside the aircraft.

They may also be used to give a n indication of the position o f the landing gear
(back u p system on some aircraft) a n d the position of flaps - though usually on
older/ smaller aircraft.
Types of Cable Systerns

(:ABLE SYSTEMS
-- _---- ---
_.- -1
,/-/-- ---
TENSJON ONLY 'I'ENSION it. (:OMPRESSION

CURVEU
/
WITHOU'T CONDUIT
Example - flying control
systelns. If direction
change is required a
pulley, quatirant, or
similar is used. T ~ v o
cahles are used to glve
pull 111 both directions.
\
\
WI'TtI CONIIUIT RICIDJSEMI RIGlU, CON1)UIT
Usually a flexible
coiiduit n ~ ~ at hsingle
cable and return
being achieved by the
use of a return spring.
Example parking
brakc lever
Will take both a p u s h
and pull input For tllc
operation of such things
a s control valves etc
no spring return 1s
provlcled

The above shows the general categorisation of flexible control systems, b u t

there may be variations that do not fit exactly into the general scheme a s
shown..

t load the system is designed to take will determine what type of

The a ~ n o u n of
system is used. Trim t a b s usually use a light weight high tensile steel cable
and pulley system with chains and sprockets, push/pull rods, torque tubes
etc. Flying control systems have similar cables and components though they
are normally designed to take heavier loads.

Fuel cocks, brake a n d engine controls may use Teleflex and Bowden type
controls. Cabin pressure d u m p valves may use a system not too unlike the trim
tab system. Teleflex a n d Bowden systems are of the cablelconduit type where
the cable moves back and forth within a tube-like structure called a conduit.
The cables a r e usually of high tensile steel while the conduit may be made of
aluminium alloy, steel, copper alloy or even a polymer material.

The cable is fitted a t both ends to suitable end fittings and comparatively light
loads can be transmitted by the cable - enough to operate selector valves for
example. The conduit i s also attached a t both ends to prevent it from moving
a n d to allow for the correct operation of the system.

THE 'TELEFLEX CONTROL SYSTEM

This uses a lightly loaded cable system moving inside a fixed rigid corltlilit that
will transmit both a tensile (pull) load and a corripressjve (push) load. 'I'fiis
means, for example, t h a t a lever in the flight deck can be used to inptlt ; I load
in either direction to operate a remote device such as a l-lydraulic- selectur valve,
engine throttle etc.
There 1s n o s p r ~ n greturn : d s 111 t h e case of Bou7denControls for example
The systrrn uses wheel unrts where the helix winding of the cable engages with
a toothed wheel and a s the cable moves back and forth so the wheel is rotated
Rotation is limited by the arnoulit of linear travel of the cable, which is u p to
about 4 in<-hes(1 02rnm).

Sliding end fittings (with a swivel joint) rnay be used in place of a wheel unit
where a linrar movement is required.

The conduit must be supported a t regular intervals and may have quick release
break units fitted for ease of dismantling.

Figure 36 shows a system set up with a s many comporlents as possible a s a

demonstration of what the system can so.

The c;ontrol cable starts a t the single entry unit and is continuous to the 180"
unit where it will rnove in and out of the spent travel tube. Each of the whec
units (single entry, straight lead, junction box, 90" double entry and 180" L It)
house a toothed wheel which engages with the helix winding of the cable.

From the junction box a second cable engages with the toothed wheel to
transmit the movement to the sliding end fitting.

90DOUBLE
JUNCTION BOX ENTRY UNIT

ROTARY MOVEMENT
NOT EXCEEDING 90'

CLAMP BLOCK

NIPPLE TYPE
CONNECTOR

FITTING

180 DOUBLE SPENT TRAVEL BREAK CONNECTOR

ENTRY UNIT TUBE

Fig. 36 GENERAL LAYOUT O F A TELEFLEX CONTROL

SYSTEM & COMPONENTS
'I'lrest. may be of various designs but shown I n figure 3'7 is a number 2 arid a
rrurnber 380 type cable (See manufacturer's Irterature fbr further types! They
havt: helix windings of opposite hand, are not interchangeable, each h a v ~ n g
(he11own fittings.

COMPRESSION SPACER SPACER WINDING

t HELIX WINDING
WINDING WINDINGS
\ /

/ 'HELIX TENSION WlRE

TENSION WlRE WINDING
pTEK3-1
Fig. 37 TYPES QF CABLE

The cable will take reasonably light tensile and compressive loads with the core
cable taking the tensile load and the compression windings taking the
compressive load (the type 2 suitable for higher compressive loads). The helix
winding is designed to be threaded into a n end fitting.

Made of aluminium alloy, steel or tungum (a copper alloy). The conduit should
be supported every 3ft (0.9m) but clamp supports should not be fitted where
the conduit curves.

Clarrlp Blocks

Fitted on straight sections to support the conduit.

Connectors

Uscd to connect one section of conduit to another. There are several tyjxs:

k
Nipple type -- similar to flare-end hydraulic pige-line cormect ~ o n s
b u t without the olive.
Clamp type - this clamps the two conciuits together a s a butt joint.
 * Quick break tvpe -- these allow for the disconnection of the system
for cornponerlt rernoval etc and the re-assembly of the joint without
having to set--11pthe system again. The cable joining fittings consist
of mac;t-lined rods with interlocking slotted ends attached Lo the
end of each c-able.

Wheel Units

'I'hese consist of a h o u s ~ n gin which a 'threaded' wheel engages with the helix
winding of the cable. They allow for conversion of linear movt:rnent to rotary
~novementa n d vice-versa.

7'hel-e are several types inclutling the:

k Single entry type.

* Straight lead type.
* Junction box type.
* 90" a n d 180" types.

The cable enterslleaves the unit via a conduit connector and in the case of the
single entry unit the cable m u s t have a minimum engagement (at its extreme
end of travel) as laid down by the equipment manufacturer/AMM.

TEETH -rc4

CABLE. 11 &?

ANGLE

Fig. 38 SINGLE ENTRY WHEEL UNIT

Sliding End Fittings

These are used where the linear movement of the cable is not converted to
rotary movement. A sliding end fitting is attached after a swivel joint and the
assernbly is used to move levers etc.
End Fittings

Fitted to the end of the push/pull rod, which is connected to the lever .lrm of a
slidin? end fitting or to a n arm f1ttt.d to the rotating shaft of a control utilt.
Some p u s h / p u l l rods will have a n end fitting a t both ends. They are adjustable
for lcrlgth a n d have ball-end or ball and socket connect~ons

INSPECTION HOLE -
\ SCREWED END SCREWED END
I3AL.L END
FITTING SOCKET END FITTING

Fig. 39 E N D FITTINGS

When adjustment is required it is important that the correct range of

move~nentis achieved a n d that the fitting is in safety (checked by not beillg
able to p a s s a piece of wire the same diameter a s the hole through the
inspection hole). The u n i t should be locked after final adjustment either using
the lock-nut, or a t a b washer, or locking wire (as per the AMM of course).

Figurt: 40 shows how the cable is screwed into a screwed-end fitting, which is
also screwed into the outer sleeve locking the slider tube, cable and complete
end fitting together. When the cable is caused to move it will move slider tube
and end-fitting together. Note - the slider tube is passed through the o ~ r t e r
sleeve a n d over the conduit first with the belled end resting inside the taper of
the o~lter sleeve.

INSPECTION
SCREWED END HO

MINIMUM THREAD SPLIT

FOR CABLE TAPERED
END
Cable screwed into screwed end to
minimum depth at inspection hole.
Outer sleeve locks slider tube and cable
THREAD TO SUIT
as it is tighted onto tapered split end.
THREAD IN FITTING
\ Lock-nut tightened onto outer sleeve.

Fig. $0 CONNECTION OF GABLE TO END FITTING

Split C:ollvt Type End Fitting

These are fitted direct to the cable for the operatio11 of slidlng erid fittings.

THE BOWDEN CABLE CON'TMOL SYSTEM

T l ~ esystem is used for lightly loaded controls (selector valve operation, parking
brake operating cable etc) a n d relies on the cable working in tension only, with
return being by a spring usually fitted a t the componerit end.

The flexible conduit is fixed a t both ends, which means that the cable system
can be routed around bends (so long as they are not too sharp).

Cable

Made of non-corrodible high tensile steel wire not too unlike cables fitted t~
flying control systems - though much smaller.

Conduit

The conduit consists of a close coiled wire designed to keep the cable system
stiff a n d takes mainly compressive loads. This is covered with cotton braiding
followed by a waterproof polymer coating. To give support a t the ends and to
prevent fraying, metal end -caps are fitted. On some installations rigid metal
conduit is used on straight r u n s .

STEEL WlRE FLEXIBLE CONDUIT

/ /
SWAGED END BALL END FITTING
FITTING

Fig. 41 BOWDEN CABLE - GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

METAL END CAP MATERIAL BRAIDING COILED COMPRESSION

\ \ WlRE

\
WATER PROOFING

Fig. 42 BOWDEN CABLE - END DETAIL

These may be various types of soldered nipples or swaged end fitt~rigs'The
swaged end fittings may be threaded, eye end or any design s u ~ t n b l ef o r the
conlpor~entto which ~t is to be attached.

Nipples are made of brass a n d soldered onto the cable end. To fit therrl t h e
conduit a n d cable is made u p to the correct length (the cable end is tinned to
prevent unravelling) and the metal end-caps are fitted over the cable :in(j onto
the conduit.

'The nlpple recess is tinned, the cable is thcn passed through the nipple so that
the end shows level with the top surface of the recessed end of the nipplc. The
strands of the cable a r e then unravelled as far a s possible within the r-ccess
and the recess filled with molten solder. When the solder hardens the nipple is
firmly attached to the cable.

SPHERICAL TYPE TRUNNION TYPE PLAIN TYPE

Fig. 43 NIPPLES

In some cases the cable may be swaged into the nipple using a special nipple
a n d swaging machine.

End Fjttings

These are usually levers a n d handles. They may be fitted with adjustable stops
s o that the range of movement can be set to those specified in the AMM. To fit
the cable to a n end fitting the AMM must be consulted, b u t in general terms
the following applies to systems that employ nipple type connections to Imth
ends:

Adjust both end fittings to glve the greatest range of moven~t>nt

to
each.
 O n those conduits that are adjustable for length, adjust thlern to
their shortest length. (Some conduits have a turnbuckle type
adjuster part way down thelr length, which wlll adjust the length of
the conduit but not the cable The cable passes straight through
the adjuster). T h ~ means
s that there is more slack in the system in
this condition than wotlld otherwise be the case. I t will allow easier
fitting of the nipples.
Align the cable so that the nipple will pass into the fitting hole and
the cable will pass through the cable slot (cable rotated to 90" to
its normal position).
Move the control cable through 90" so that the control cable is now
laylng in its correct orientation with the metal end fitting of the
conduit resting on the fixed part of the end fitting.
Carry out the same procedure a t the other end of the systeln. This
may require a higher level of motor skills because there is less
slack in the cable system because the other end has taken up
some of the free play between the cable and the conduit.
Adjust the conduit length adjuster to take u p the slack in the
conduit, which means increasing its length. Make sure the
adjuster is in safety and correctly locked.
Ensure that both conduit metal end-caps are firmly in place a t
their respective ends - input end and component end.
Check for correct sense of movement, eg if it is a throttle system,
pushing the throttle forward increases engine power.
Adjust the stops a t the input end and the component end to give
the correct range of movement (check the AMM). It is usual to
adjust the stops at the input end so that they control the range of
movement - but check the AMM.
Check for free movement.
Check the lay of the cable assembly.
Ensure all adjusters are in safety and correctly locked.
Carry out a full functional check.
Record all the work done and sign.

Figure 44 shows a typical use of a Rowden control. The nipple is firmly located
in its recess in the brake handle and the conduit is firmly located in the
adjustable end fitting. When the brake lever is pulled it will pivot and pull on
the Rowden corltrol cable. This will give a pull output a t the other end to
operate a brake lever on the brake control valve. When the lever is released a
return spring at the brake control valve end will pull the cable to release the
brakes arid return the hand brake lever to the upright position.
 With plenty o f slack in the
cable the nipple is fed into the
hole in the lever with the cable
PARKING passing through the slot. The
LEVER nipple is then rotated t o the
vertical through a vertical slot
t o lay as shown. The end
fitting is adjusted t o remove
all slack from the cable.

ADJUSTABLE END

METAL END C:AP

PARKING BRAKE
LEVER CATCH

CONTROL COLUMN

Fig. 44 BOWDEN CABLE CONNECTION TO

PARKING BRAKE LEVER

FLEXRALL CONTROLS

A flexible control system fitted to some aircraft to provide control to take light
tensile a n d compressive loads. Example - the tail rotor control system of the
Eurocopter EC135 were it is used to transmit the control inputs from the
pilot's yaw pedals to the yaw actuator a t the tail rotor.

The system is made u p of two outer stainless steel rails a n d stainless steel
balls located either side of a stainless steel centre rail. The balls are spaced a t
intervals a n d located within a stainless steel cage (can be YTFE). The centre rail
slides back a n d forth between the balls to transmit both tensile and
compressive loads.

PROTECTIVE

OUTER
RAIL

Fig. 45 CROSS SECTION OF FLEXBALL SYSTEM

 -
/
PVC COVER

Fig. 46 FLESBALL SYSTEM

'I'he assembly is housed in a semi flexible steel casing weather proofed by an

outer PVC protective cover.

long a n d 5 different sizes.

Lengths supplied up to 6Sft (19.81~1)

Moving end fittings are directly at.tached to the centre rail whilst the outer case
is attached to the non-moving part of the component.
 Revision Questions

1. Exhaust systenrs a r e usually made from stainless steel which is susceptible to

a) filiform corrosion
b) intergranular corrosion
C) surface corrosion

2. Fabric seams a r e preferable

a) spanwise to the line of flight
b) parallel to the line of flight
c) oblique to the line of flight

3. Drive planes on an epicyclic gear a r e

a) at different angles to the plane
b) at right angles to the plane
c) around a common axis of the plane

4. 'The doubler used to support a scarfed patch plywood repair should be made from
plywood of a minimum
a) 318 inch thick
b) 114 inch thick
c) 118 inch thick

5. Oxide on exposed silver plated wires is

a) non corrosive
b) an insulator
c) a conductor

6. A clevis bolt in a control cable fork end would be loaded in

a) tension
b) both tension and shear
c) shear

7. To check the interior of tubular members for corrosion attack

a) dye penetrant testing should be used
b) ultra sonic testing is necessary
c) any form of test is acceptable

8. Nickel coated cables temperature range is

a) 150 to 200C
b) 100 to 150C
c) 200 to 250C
9. Phosphating of steels is carried out by immersing the steel in ta a solution of
a) nitric acid and sulphur
b) phosphoric acid and metal phosphates
c) metal phosphates and sulphuric acid

10. Monel metal consists of approximately

a) 66% Nickel and 33% Copper
b) 66% Copper and 33% Nickel
c) 66% Chroiniun~and 33% Copper

1 I. Exfoliation corrosion is sometimes referred to as

a) sub-surface corrosion
b) filifonn corrosion
c) layer corrosion

12. 'Turnbuckles a r e correctly fitted when

a) both rods are seen to touch in the ~nspectionhole
b) both rods enter the barrel by the same amount
c) the inspection hole is blind or the required number of threads are showing

13. 'The length and time that a catalyzed resin will remain in a workable state i s
called the
a) service life
b) shelf life
c) pot life

14. Fatigue failure may be defined as

a) reduction in strength due to alternating loads
b) failure caused by stress in excess of the material U.T.S
c) failure due to impact

15. Fabrics may be fitted to airframe structures by

a) wood nails
b) always riveting
c) tying on with string

16. In the galvanic series, the most noble metal mill, if joined to another metal
a) always be at the top of the table
b) allow the less noblc metal to corrode first
c) corrode before the less noblc metal

17. The British system of heat treatment codes is

a) a series of numbers
b) numbers and letters
c) a series if letters
I$. In an autoclave, to apply pressure
a) a vacuum bag is used
b) weights are used
c) clamps are used

1 9 , A non-electrolytic chemical treatment for aluminium alloys to increase corrosiorr

resistance and paint bonding qualities is called
a) alodizing
b) anodizing
c) dichromating

20. \Vhat is an advantage of a double flare on aluminium tubing?

a) Ease of construction
b) It is less resistant to the shearing effect of torque
c) It is more resistant to the shearing effect of torque

21. A washer having both twisted teeth and spring actions is

a) AN936 shake-proof lock washer
b) AN935 split-ring lock washer
c) AN970 large-area flat washer

22. Composite inspections by means of acoustic emissions monitoring

a) pick up the 'noise' of corrosion or other deterioration taking place
b) analyse ultrasonic signals transmitted into the parts being inspected
c) create sonogram pictures af the areas being inspected

23, The markings on the head of a Dzus fastener identify the

a) body diameter, type of head and length of the fastener
b) body type, head diameter and type of material
c) manufacturer and type of material

24- Bubbles are removed from a wet composite lay-up by

a) application of pressure
b) application of vacuum
c) use of a roller

25. A splayed patch repair may be used on plywood damage which does not exceed
a) 15 times the skin thickness
b) 20 times the skin thickness
c) 10 times the skin thickness

26. In an airtoclave what pressure would the vacuum alarm be set at?
a) Operating pressure
b) Lower than operating pressure
c) Higher than operating pressure
27. Arrstenitic stainless steels are
a) magnet~c
b) non-magnetic
c) hardened by heat treatment

28. Adapter nipples a r e not required on

3) pipe to internally coned adapter
b) pipe to extenlally coned adapter
c) pipe to pipe coupling

29. Which of these materials is the most cathodic?

3) Zinc
b) 2024 aluminium alloy
C) Stainless steel

30, What type of material would hydraulic pipes on an undercarriage leg o r bay be
n ~ a d efrom?
a) 7075, H14
b) Stainless steel, annealed, 14H
c) 1 100, 2024, in half hard state

3 1. Direct removal connector pins are fitted from the rear

a) and removed from the rear
R) are fitted from the front but removed from the rear
c) and removed from the front

32. If a material is found to be in the tertiary phase of creep the following procedure
should be implemented:
a) The crack should be stop drill, condition monitoring should be applied
b) The component should under go dye penetrant process and condition
monitored
C) The component should be replaced immediately

33. Cast iron is

a) heavy and brittle
b) very malleable
c) tough

34. What is used for marking out steels?

a) Copper sulphate
b) Engineers blue
c) Wax crayon
35. Cobalt steel tested on the Brinell test would have a BHN number between
a) 300 to 400
b) l 0 0 t o 175
c) 600 to 700

36. What type of test involves using a weighted pendulum to strike a material until
fracture?
a) Fatigue Testing
b) Impact Resistance Test
c) Hardness Test

37. The dope applied to an aircraft's fabric covering causes shrinkage

a) on the first coat only
b) on all coats
c) on the last coat only

38. Which can be re-used'?

a) Shake proof washer, spring washer, locking plate
b) Tab washer, circlip, locking plate
c) Locking plate, circlip, spring washer

39. Cable current ratings a r e based on a conductor temperature rise of 40C and if
the milximum design ambient temperature is continuously exceeded they should be
a) divide by the 'M'factor
b) ~nultipliedby the 'K' factor.
c) halved

40. Tempering of hardened steel is carried out to

a) retain core hardness, but soften the surface
b) significantly reduce the brittleness without suffering a major drop in its
strength
C) retain surface hardness, but soften the core

41. The pitch of a screw thread is

a) 2 x crest to root
b) crest to root
c) crest to crest

42. Elow is the diameter of a cable measured?

a) Diameter of one wire only
b) Overall diameter
c) Diameter of one wire lnultiplied by the number of wires
4.3. Titanium can be identified by placing it on a grinding wheel and looking for
a) White Sparks
b) Red Sparks
C) Yellow Sparks

44. Which statement about Military Standard QMS) flareless fittings is correct?
a) MS flareless fittings should not be lubricated prior to assembly
b) MS flareless fittings must be tightened to a specific torque
c) During installatiorn, MS flareless fittings are norrnally tightened by turning
the nut a specified amount after the sleeve and fitting sealing surface have
~ n a d econtact, rather than being torqued

45. What two components of a three part polyester resin a r e dangerous to mix
together directly?
a) Accelerator and free catalyst
b) Accelerator and resin
c) Catalyst and resin

46. When using a spring washer, the plain washer would be fitted
a) between spring and part
b) between head and spring
c) under the nut

47. Fabric to be hand sewn must be doubled under a t the edge to a minimum
distance of
a) 3/8 inch
b) 112 inch
c) 114 inch

48. Flexible hose used in aircraft systems is classified in size according to the
a) inside diameter
b) outside diameter
c) wall thickness

49, The normal moisture content in the wood of a wooden aircraft structure is
a) 20-30%
b) 10-12%
c) 0-2%

50. Adhesives containing phenol-formaldehyde, to cure, requires

a) high temperature
b) low temperature
c) room temperature
51. What is meant by the term Pitch Ratio?
a) The distance between the hole and the edge of the material
b) 'The area of contact between the two sheets of metal when joining by rivet\
c) The distance between two holes

52. Kccovering o r repairing of an aircraft with a fabric other than the original
fabric type is
a) a major modification and requires approval
b) a minor modification, providing the fabric is the same strength as the
original
c) prohibited

53. Fork cnd fittings on control rod ends should have

a) anti vibration compound
b) bolt heads fitted upwards
c) 0.002 inch axial movement

54. What is the purpose of the guard, where a control chain goes around a sprocket?
a) Stops the chain coming off if it goes slack
b) Protects personnel when carrying out maintenance
c) Prevents entry of foreign bodies

55. The effect of a lower temperature than ambient during the curing period of a
resin, will cause the curing time to
a) remain unchanged
b) decrease
c) increase

56. Shrinkage of wood is

a) negligible in the longitudinal direction
b) greatest in the longitudinal direction
c) negligible in the radial direction

57. Re-treatment of aluminium alloys can be performed by

a) selenious acid treatment
b) alocrom treatment
c) brushing on phosphate treatment followed by paint

58. A worm drive creates

a) a drive in 2 planes but transmits I direction only
b) a drive in 1 plane but transmits both directions
c) a drive in 2 planes and transmits both directions
59-During construction, sharp internal corners and inaccessible places should he
avoided to reduce
a) crevice corrosion
b) fretting corrosion
c) lil~formcorrosion

60. Colour identification o f an aluminium rivet is

a) black
b) violet
c) green

6 1. Rivnuts were originally used for

a) securing structural parts
b) securing rubber de-icing boots
c) securing cabin floorings

62. Aircraft fabric lacing cord is reinforced with

a) wax
b) epoxy
c) lanolin

63. What amperage is an 18 swg cable'?

a> 10 amp
b) 1 amp
c) 5 amp

64. An alumiriiunl alloy L37 rivet identification is

a) e~nbossed
b) D embossed
C) 0 embossed

65. The vacuum connections on a fibreglass repair must be placed onto the
a) peel P ~ Y
b) top layer of glass fabric directly
c) breather mat

66. An alliminium oxide layer on a conductor will do what when the temperature is
increased?
a) Become thicker
b) Remain the same
c) Become thinner

67. The main reason why crimped joints are preferable to soldered joints is
a) no flux is needed
b) the quality of crinlped joints wrll be constant
c) there is no heat required
68. In a sheet metal store the following is marked on a sheet of aluminium alloy:

The following is true:

a) Sheet one has a shinier surface than sheet 2
b) Sheet two is of a thicker gauge than sheet 1
c) Sheet one is more ductile than sheet 2

69. 'The critical process of heat treatment is

a) method of heating only
b) temperature, method of heating and cooling
c) temperature and method of heating only

78. /\ press fit requires

a) some sort of driving force
b) the shaft to be shrunk by cooling
c) the hole to be expanded by heat

71. The oxide film on the surface of aluminium is

a) nonporous
b) hard and porous
c) porous

72. 'The teeth of a gear would normally be

a) tempered
b) nitrided
c) case hardened

73. A co-axial cable is better than a normal cable because

a) it has less resistance
b) weight for weight it can carry more signal
c) there is an electrostatic field around it which helps to reduce the
electromagnetic field

74. Aircraft sheet plywood skins a r e

a) covered in fabric
b) sealed and doped
c) sealed and varnished or painted

75. What material would be used where a high temperature application is required,
e.g. a firemall?
a) Ceramic fibres
b) CarbonJgraphite fibres
c) Aramid (Kevlar) fibres
70. Heavy corrosion deposits on clad aluminium alloys should be removed
a) chemically by use of trichloroethylene
b) mechanically using a pneumatic vibrator
C) chemically by use of phosphoric acid

77. When using a hot bonder to effect a composite repair, you use
a) synthetic resin adhesives
b) inorganic resin adhesives
c) organic resin adhesives

78. lntergrannular corrosion in structural alunlinium alloy parts

a) may be detected by the white, powdery deposit formed on the surface of
the metal
b) cannot always be detected by surface indications
c) are not likely to occur in parts fabricated from heat-treated sheet
aluminium

79. A spring should be inspected for correct

a) width, length and strength
b) length, strength and squareness
c) width, strength and squareness

80. Recovering o r repairing of an aircraft with a fabric other than the original
fabric type is
a) a major modification and requires approval
h) a minor modification, providing the fabric is the same strength as the
original
c) prohibited

81. An AN steel bolt is identified by what marking on the head?

a) 14E
b) An 'x'
c) A dash

82. What metal is suitable for riveting alloy steel?

a) Monel metal
b) Mild steel
c) Aluminium alloy

83. What action should be taken on finding intergrannular corrosion?

a) Replace complete component part
b) De-corrode and reprotect
c) Renew corroded area by patching
84. 'rhe strength classification of fabric used in aircraft covering is based upon
a) tensile strength
b) shear strength
c) bearing strength

85. Bolt holes through wooden structures should be

a) sealed with varnish and wet-assembled with the bolt before the varnish has
dried
b) sealed, and the sealant allowed to dry before fitting the bolt
c) left unsealed and unvarnished inside the hole

86. Which of these is a common cause of corrosion?

a) Spilled battery acid
b) Water in h e 1
C) Untreated metal

87. What is Alumina?

a) An alloy of aluminium
b) Aluminium ore
c) A ceramic oxide of aluminium

88. Evcept where specified by the manufacturer, a wooden spar may be spliced
a) at no point
b) at any point except under the wing attachment fittings
c) at any point

89. In the anodic film inspection and sealing test, if a good seal has been
accorilplished
a) the dye mark will rub off
b) the dye mark has no importance
c) the dye mark will not rub off

90. If a sheet of aluminium alloy of 0.032 and 0.064 is to be joined together the rivet
should be
a) 0.064 plus ID
b) 0.032 plus 2D
c) 0.096 plus 1.5 D

91. A self aligning bearing is a

a) angular bearing
b) precision bearing
c) radial bearing
92. How would you test a hydraulic hose?
a) Pressure test 2.0 x working pressure
b) Pressure test I .5 x working pressure
c) Pressure test 1.0 x working pressure

93. When buffing surface of Alun~iniumAlloy, what material are you removing?
a) Aluminium
b) Alloy
c) Oxide layer

04. A material's yield strength is the ability to

a) resist deformation
b) withstand a crushing fbrce
c) resist side loads

95. Aircraft fabric covering is made from

a) polyester
b) silk
c) nylon

96. A factor which determines the. minimum space between rivets is the
a) thickness of the material being riveted
b) diameter of the rivets being used
c) length of the rivets being used

97. Cable stops a r e manufactured from

a) magnesium alloy
b) stainless steel
c) copper

98. To assist the bending of plywood, a heated bending former must be heated to a
temperature of
a) 100C
b) 150C
c) 300C

99. Corrosion may be regarded as the destruction of metal by

a) hydroelectric action
b) electromechanical action
c) electrochemical action
100. l'he stecpest slope permitted on the scarf of a scarfed plywood repair is
a) 1 in4
b) I in 12
c) 1 in 20

101. Spherical roller bearings resist what loads?

a) Large radial but no thrust
b) Large thrust and moderate radial
c) Large radial and moderate thrust

102. 'l'he pin section of an AN/MS connector is normally installed on

a) either side of a circuit (makes no difference)
b) the ground side of the circuit
c) the power supply side of the circuit

103. Where would you find the inspection interval for chains?
a) Overhaul manual
b) Maintenance manual
c) Maintenance schedule

104. %
\ h'at load a r e spring hooks subjected to?
a) Compressive
b) Bending
c) Tension

105. In a Telefles flexible control system, the Teleflex cable consists of

a) multi strand steel wires and is used primarily as a single one way device
operated from a control lever
b) a flexible seven or nineteen strand steel cable used for the operation of
manual flying controls
c) a high tensile steel wire with a right or left hand helix wire wound on to it.
The system can operate in two directions

106. From the following list of metals, which is most cathodic?

a) Magnesium
b) Nickel
c) Stainless steel

107. \i pre-load indicating washer is correctly loaded when

a) the inner ring is gripped
b) the outer ring is gripped
c) the inner ring rotates
108. What a r e the signs of fretting corrosion on steel?
a) Dark staining around area
b) Surface cracking as corrosion breaks through to surface of component
c) Rust on surface

109. Plug pins are numbered

a) from the outside in clockwise
-

b) from the inside out clockwise

-

c) from the inside out - anticlockwise

I 10. Galvanic corrosiorl is most likely to be most rapid and severe when
a) the surface area of the anodic metal is smaller than the surface area of the
cathodic material
b) the surface area of the cathodic metal and the anodic material are
approxi~natelythe same
c) the surface area of the cathodic metal is smaller than the surface area of
the anodic material

1 I I. Which of the following is the definition of cure time?

a) The time taken for the mixed compound to reach a final rubbery state
b) The time required for the mixed compound to reach an initial rubbery state
c) The period after which the surface of the compound no longer exhibits
adhesive properties

1 12. Pure aluminium is

a) highly resistant to corrosion
b) reasonably resistant to corrosion
C) not resistant to corrosion

113. A faint line running across the grain of a wood spar generally indicates
a) compression failure
b) shear failure
c) decay

114" Which methods can be used to inspect fibreglasslhoneycomb structures for

cn trapped water?
a) Xray and back-lighting
b) Acoustic cn~issionand Xray
c) Acoustic emission and back-lighting

115, What is stress corrosion'?

a) Corrosion in an area under cycIic loading
b) Corrosion due to fretting
c) Corrosion in an area under continuous loading
i 16, Identification of British aluminium alloy rivets is with
a) a colour and number stamped on the head
b) a part number on the head
C) a letter and number code

1IT. A wire thread insert tap is

a) supplied in a fitting kit
b) slightly larger than the hole
c) slightly smaller than the hole

118. \i splayed patch repair may be used on plywood damage which does not exceed
a) 10 times the skin thickness
b) 20 times the skin thickness
c) 15 times the skin thickness

119. Jointing compound is used for what reason'?

a) To bond the components together
b) To prevent dissimilar metal corrosion
c) To make the components easier to disassemble

120. " on a n electrical cable indicates

a) control system
b) emergency power
c) AC power

121. An S-N c u w e is useful in the design evaluation process for testing

a) shear force
b) tension
c) fatigue life

122. A crankshaft would be fitted with a

a) spherical roller bearing
b) cylindrical roller bearing
c) taper roller bearing

123. Which of the following is a temporary protective measure?

a) Sacrificial protection
b) Chromating
c) Paint finish

124. When a steel part is welded, corrosion occurs because

a) the strip has become anodic
b) it is affected by spatter
c) the paint has been removed
125. What type loads cause the most rivet failures?
a) Head
b) Shear
c) Bearing

126. \.Vhat does the 0 in 2024-'r3 mean?

a) The percentage of impurities In the alloy
b) The alloy has been nlodified
c) 'I'he alloy has not been inodified

127.14 thermosetting adhesive

a) can be re-formed when hot
b) undergoes a chemical transformation and creates an insoluble substance
c) will be resistant to heat

128. Grain size will effect the mechanical properties of metal. Which of the following
is true'?
a) Materials with large grain size are more prone to creep
b) Small grain size is normally attributed to rapid cooling rates and will give
less tensile strength
c) Large grain size is attributed to slow cooling rates and will give less
tensile strength

129. 'The general rule for finding the proper rivet diameter is
a) two times the rivet length
b) three times the thickness of the rnaterial to be joined
c) three times the thickness of the thickest sheet

130. A material containing approximately 66% nickel and 33% copper is known as
a) Invar
b) Nimonic
c) Monel metal

131, The impact testing technique is used on a material to test for

a) toughness
b) hardness
c) shear strain

132. The difference between annealing and normalizing is

a) both are heated below the LJC'I', cool in air to anneal, cool slowly to
normalize
b) both are heated above the UC'T, cool slowly to anneal, cool in air to
normalize
c) both are heated above the UCT, cool in air to anneal, cool slowly to
normali~e
133. ('orrosion will spread more rapidly when metals are exposed to
a) high temperatures
b) dry climates
c) cold climates

134. What action is taken to protect integral tanks from corrosion due tu micro-
biological growth?
a) A biocidal additive is used in the fuel
b) Rubber liners are installed in the tank
c) The inside of the tank is coated with yellow chromate

135. R,laximum temperature of tin coated copper cable is

a) 260C
b) 105C
c) 200C

136. What is the indication of fretting corrosion on aluminium alloy?

a) Black powder
b) Brown powder
c) White powder

137. Hand sewn stitch must be locked a t a minimum of

a) the end of the stitch only
b) 20 stitch intervals
c) 10 stitch intervals

138. Iligh speed steel relies heavily on the following metallic element for its ability lo
cut other metals, even when it is heated to a dull red colour
a) Tungsten
b) Vanadium
c) Nickel

139. ?'he Alocrom 1200 process was designed to treat

a) surfaces too large for dip treatment
b) chromium plating
c) small surfaces

140. 'J'he maximum permissible grain deviation in wood is

a) 1 :20
b) 1:15
c) 1:8