ANTENNAS AND TRANSMISSION LIDTable of Contents smecermeremneiai Prefa Acknowledginen General Inteoduction steno AGH POLE ANTENNA EXPERIMENT THE BASIC Introduction Radio Spectrum The Eleetrie Field : ) ia the Magnetic Fiek ) gnotie Fi sa i . ! 1 1 1 1 6 Sky and Ground Waves Lee mad $ Antenna Resistance . Antenna Reciprocit 9 9 Locher Lines > i y 10 SSSveeeseevevevvestetteties ° Summ EXPERIMENT 2 VERTICAL AND FOLDED DIPOLES Inteoduction Tsotropic: Antenna Characteristics 19 Antenna Directivity and Gain Beamwidth (BW) and Rad Antenna Bandwidth and "Q' Vervical Ground Plane Antennas 22 Folded Dipole Antennas 25 Long-Wire Antennas 25 Summary 26 1 3 bn Pawern: EXPERIMENT 3 DRIVEN (YAGI) ANTENNAS Introduction B Element Length Calculations 4 Feed Impedance 35 Beamwidth 33 Yagi Gain 36 Summary 38 tae a. wre _ See ee Ve VVeVUVVUVUEeYSECTION EXPERIMENT 4 DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS Colinear Beam Antennas Driven Tower Array: : 43 Rhombic Anteanas—— 44 Log-Periodic Antennas 4s Corner Reflectors 46 Helical Antennas 47 Microwave Antennas -> The Parabolic Dish 48 Summary TRANSMISSION LINES 34 General Principles 52 ¥elocity (Propagation Factors) 53 Transmission Lines, Standing Waves, VSWR 34 Open and Closed Lines $5 Lecher Lines 36 Impedance Matching of Line to Load 5.7 Transmission Line Spacing 38 Coaxial Lines 39 Tuning Stubs 5.10 The Balun’ 5.11 Summary EXPERIMENT ¢ PROPAGATION OF AF ENERGY IN THE ATMOSPHERE 61 Introduction 6.2 Atmospheric Propagation 63 Radio Wave Formation 64 65 The lonosphere Critical Frequency 6.6 Angle of Incidence 67 Structure of the Ionosph 68 Absorption in the Ionosphere 69 Fading 6.10 Tonospheric Propagation Paths 6.11 Variations in the Ionosphere 6.12 Transmission Losses 6.13 Radio Frequency Band Charactrist 6.14 Summary e APPENDIX Bibliography® Communication Terms Systems of Measurement Electronic Quantities - Conversioa Table Characteristics of Radio Waves Radio Line of Sight Tables of:Anienna Types Plotting ChartsEy OOOO UVC COCO eS Preface Deen a Prior t iS camara. Antena a8 & ‘ory manual covering basic an ations series. An antenna is an important par ‘of fiber optics cables, communication methods were lim ommunications By electromagnetic waves, Fequency electrical ene inthis laboratory manual nsduser, used to convert jes back into ag altersating curren will be 1d. Emphasis will be given to dipole types of antennas as compared to long e treated in one of two ways namely Tn this manual we have ( programs, as, as taught in most technic thet Iighly. mathematical or the course is given a lick and a promize cathe excitement inte the study of Surses offered by the Si ennas and Transmission Lines course is one of two antenna wits Company. This course was designed for use after the teaching of basic receivers an sideband (SSB), The later is an optional also covers the same three major areas of which may by all schools. A course in transmit ate in the 860 to 900 ME mited space, and new a © Antennas and Transmission Lines equipment supplied is designed to 00% fange, At these frequencies antennas are small, can be worked with in a very Ii fenea dasigns can be easily accomplished. A negative aspect, however, is that snd hence some care must be exercised in the making of measurements te in the same fr ish to design their own antennas to operat ‘components kit, Model No. $341-C. This kit capable of telescoping one into, the other. Pi are also provided. A precut, folded dipole is in are provided since the material» de the instructor and students who ‘age, the company offers an antenna types of metallic rods, some of which are the making of a boom or antenaa support, cluded along with peripheral hardware. No operating instructions pend upon the creativity of the student stic materials, used hasis on the use study of ‘owaves, satellites, radar, or a higher level of a 3. The Microwave Antennas course plages emp! ‘Also included in the Microwave Antennis course ‘The advenced antenna course can be off 1g with @ higher level microwave For students who choose to study micr vanced course is offered, namely, SIC36: of antenna horns and parabolic dishes. pathway loss, noise, and feedhorns for parabolic dishes. ee add-on to this course, of it can be offered, at a future date, alon: 1 included in the Microwave Antennas course since such devices are a Microwave plumbing is not jourse, SIP365M. gral part of the Microwave Communications ‘The antenna panel provided is designed for insertion into a Master Builder or Posse Supply Base. The panel will operate over a voliage range of 7 t0 16 V. It is susgested that the panel be operated ia the 10 pane V region, As will be noticed at the left-hand insertion plug of the panel, only & negative voltage is Specified. The Power Supply Base or Master Builder should have its negative voltage adjusted to the sPefred operating voltage after the panel has teen inserted. ‘The higher the voltase uused, the greater is the radiation power.he uhrowah d thany of the fot (WIHPV) ang the contri The o f Me, William Hi 1 G. ol mentation, ae well as the wl was initintly prepared in 1982 ‘Annette Klein and Mr Me. Yvette Mable Word provessing of the Inborniory tm newer version was prepared by both Mi the work of Mr. Joseph Werner, Mr, Paul Bhatfer, an by Mr. Rogan Haryeki and the firl technics! eit fetsional broadcast engineer anda pioneer in the brawdenst field The course, first published: jn 1982, was revised In J vised in April 1988 Moris TH wsKs0 Dye, AriworkAntenna Antenna Mast, with Balun Horizontal Dipole Antenna, Halfwave Vertical Ground Plane Antenna Yagi Array Antenna Reflector Wand Field-Strength Meter, Mast and Base Cable, RG-S8, 12" (30 om), BNC/ANC Components Kit, in Plastic Bag Resistors, 47 ohm, 1/4W, 5% Resistors, 100 ohm, 1/4W, 5% Resistors, 180 ohm, 1/4, 5% Resistors, 270 ohm, 1/4WW, 5% Polar Mast Plotting Scale Cloth Tape Measure, 150 em BNC “T™ Connector, UG274 B/U, anel with Lecher Line and Detector Materials List Cable, 10°, miniature plug to banana plugs (for DMM) Laboratory Manual Designed for use with: Power Supply Base, or Master Builder Optional: For instructor demonstrations, the Overhead Demonstratin Meter is reci mmended Nee st S1P360-! + $1P360-2 SIP360-3 SIP360-4 + SIP360-5 SIP360-6 SIP360-7 1P360-8 1P360-9 S1P360-10 S1P360-11 + SIP360-12 - SIP360-AM s300PS8 ~ $3008 <$300-18-General Introduction a can be thought of as a “transducer,” a device that either converts electrical energy into © waves or vice-versa, depending on whether the antenna is transmitting or receiving el nna can also be considered as a “coupling” device since the impedance of a transr phere is matched to the input impedance of a receiver. the atmosphere or the atm while am antenna is either emitting or receiving energy, the transmission line or lines which connect the aseana to the transmitter inhibit the radiation of energy, Transmission lines are constructed to effec~ sively radiate energy from the antenna and to confine the movement of high-frequency energy co within sssion line. The radiation of energy from the antenna is a result of rapidly moving charges in de antenna wire Or metal rods. The movement of electrons into the antenna is accompanied by a vary- og magnetic (H) field as well asa varying electtic (E) field, The two fields, E and H, constiture the magnatic wave that moves away from or towards the antenna at the speed of light. Between the years 1946 and 1957 the author built a number of transmitters and field-strength meters for ing the principles of antenaas. The early transmitting antennas operated on 30 MHz. The antenna ected ia the middie of a football field and the student(s), holding tall pole with a dipole attached Od, made measurements on a microammeter as he/she/they walked around the radiating antenna. ‘The course was interesting; however, during the winter season the snow with its feiated cold weather created major problems for the student's activity iter Frequency was raised to 300 MHz and the antenna became manage- AS the years passed. the trans ted or able, Measurements could be made in the laboratory, although the 616 vacuum tube often ove: the radiation interfered with television and other communications equipment. ‘The current system operates between 860 and 900 MHz. The circuit diagram of the transmitter is shown im Figure 1. The transistor. 2NS108, can be operated between 7 and 1$ V; however, a range of 10 t0 15 ¥ is adequate. [t i suggested that the measurements ce made with the least amount of voltage since this reduces the radiated power. The de power input to the transistor is: approximately 0.1 W. ‘On the side of the transmitter there are two trimmer capacitors for tuning the frequency of the transmit- ter and for making the best antenna match. In the factory the transmitter is tuned to 860 MHz by ca~ pacttor Cl Capacitor C2 is adjusted for maximum RF output by the antenna, This capacitor also af- fects the frequency. Both capacitors, therefore, must be adjusted for both frequency and maximum RF ‘eutpat. . The transmitter contzins 2 stripline circuit composed of two major impedances, ZI and Z2. The RF ‘eutput of the transmitter is fed to the antenna via a coaxial cable within the mast. Three different types Gf antenats are supplied. namely, a horizontal dipole, a vertical dipole, and a Yagi. The impedance of Sail three antennas is significantly different, however, the transmitter is arranged for broad base-band op-ar 2N5108 UNF Transmitter Cirewit Figure 1In Figure 2A is shown 2 sketch of a dipole and reflector used for receiving the transmitted energy. The Teceiving dipole is broadly tuned and the current of this antenna is connected to two diodes and a $0 HA_ esx. The radiated electromagnetic fields from the various types of dipoles are observed on the field- sereogth antenna meter. The current flow through the 50 2A meter depends upon the polarization of the ‘receiving dipole as well as the closeness of the receiving dipole to the radiating transmitter antenna. "A pickup ~ ‘Shows is Figure 2B is the loop detector on pane! B, which is connected to a 200 A metér. probe slides across 2 Lecher line and detects standing waves (VSWR). ‘A siiniature jack availeble on the field-strength meter and also on the panel is for connection’ to an ‘overhead projection meter (OHM) or digital multimeter (DMM), ‘The instructor cas demonstrate the characteristics of antennas with the field-strength meter and/or the Lecher line detector and overhead projection meter. The overhead projection meter is connected in par- allel to the field-streagth or VSWR meter. An Antenna Componedts course (S361C) is available for use by the instructor and/or students. ‘This an- fens components kit enables the students or instructor to design and build other types of dipole anten- sas. For example, materials for a corner bracket antenna are provided. Another interesting antenna is the Aelical. The design of such antennas is left to the student and the instructor. (Materials for this azignna are not included.) A Lecher line is located on the back of the laboratory panel (SIP360A). The maximum and minimum points can be located by means of the detector and meter circuitry. A finer degree of measurement can be made by connecting a digital multimeter to the miniature jack made available beneath the panel meter ‘ané potentiometer. "In the experiments, each type of antenna is evaluated in a practical manner.Field-Strength Meter Figure 2and on a Lecher li OBJECTIVES f this experiment, the ion of a dipole an- ference between the E and H ibe how a field-strength meter can be used for evaluating the performance of a ipote antenna. 4. Discuss the meaning of the electromagnetic spectrum and the difference between the terms wavelength and frequency BACKGROUND DISCUSSION SECTION 1,1 INTRODUCTION ‘An antenna is a form of transducer through which electric current, moving at a high frequency, is converted into an electromagnetic wave, or an approaching electromagnetic wave is converted into a flow of alternating current. An antenna san be used for transmitting energy into space or the same type of antenna design can be used for receiving energy from space. ‘The study of antennas is usually offered with ex- tensive use of mathematical equations. In this ex- periment abd the experiments to follow, a con- ‘septual understanding of how antennas operate will be developed and mathematics will be mini- mized. pling dev ied the atmospher the mateh to. the medium ion line interfaces the antesna to its ment, The input to the transmi impedance matched to the radio tran Whereas the tfansmitting antenna must radiate or receive energy. Transmiseion lines are it radin- designed to trarkfer energy and to inhi in during the transfer. process From the basic study of alternating known that do current tends to center of a conductor while alternating cur: flows along the surface or skin of the conductor. ‘The higher the alternating frequency, the greater the-surface energy, It is also known that ev flow of electrons is accompanied by a surrounding magnetic field which is perpendicular to the flow of électrons. If the direction of the electron flow changes direction by 180", the magnetic field will also change direction by an equal number of de- ares. In the study of capacitors, it was found that an electric field (E) existed between the plates of the capacitor, If the charge on the capacitor was re- verted in polarity, the electric field would atso teverse. An antenna acty very much like a ca- pacitor and both a magnetic field (H) and an elec- tric field (E) are present. The two fields, E and H, constitute an electromagnetic wave that moves ‘away from the antenna at the speed of light. ‘The electrical and magnetic fields radiated by an antenna are responsible for tranimission and re- ception of energy through free-space, The term free-space means that no objects on earth or flying through space are nearby or will interfere with the energy’s motion,sever vis ert ot Gir 10" meters/second). The. mee tht ena a ee Lee : a-1 T A = wavelength in meters = frequency in Hertz LF SSeda'ar Tighe (200 « 10% meters/sec.) or 186,000 siles/se. Example 1-1: Solution 1-1: 300 x 108 a= = 85.7 meters 35x 10" ‘The length of an antenna is usually expréssed in meters, however, in the United States its length may also be expressed in yards, feet, and inches. It is not unssual for an amateur radio operator to say that he is working on 80 meters, 20 meters, or 6 meters. The term meters is used in liew of the term frequency. SECTION 1.2 RADIO SPECTRUM |The sate of change of current in a wire is referred to as frequency, and it is measured in cycles per , cond (cps). The term hertz (Hz) is more com- used than cycies-per-stcond, Frequency, ver, is not restricted to turrent flow in = since it ean also be extended"to radio waves a Geasign Faseecey See nigh Foeeeree = came igh Pecweny SF Federal Communics- S. and the Interna— os Union, outside the communication bands gancert Sosscac Sere Cone Emangency Scaceast Sac Accatest Brondeaet Bande Portal eg ‘Tatevaion Seondcast Sands, WHEThe Electric Field Around a Dipote Figure 1-1 I should be noted that an electrostatic field is formed between the two plates (wires). Another important feature is that on the outer edges of the capacitor the electric-field lines form an angie between the plates. If one slowly separates the nwo conductors, the electrie-field lines bend be- tween the two plates, as shown in Sketch C. Sketch D illustrates a dipole antenna where an electric field, whose polarity reverses at every half cycle, exists between the two poles. SECTION 1.4 THE MAGNETIC FIELD ‘The RF current in an antenna produces not only an electric field, but a magnetic field is also gen- erated. (See Skeich A of Figure 1-2.) Known as an induction field, it is composed of the familiar magnetic lines of flux. The induction field varies directly with the varying RF current applied to the antenna, The magnetic lines of flux travel in a direction defined by the left-hand rule for magnetism, which states that when the thumb points in the direction of the current flow. the fingers placed around the conductor will indicate the direction of the magnetic lines of flux. (See Sketch B.) (Ry 8 Magnetic Flux Figure 1-2 You will recall from your studies of magnetism that the magnetic lines of flux have the capability for storing potential enecgy, which they will dis- charge when the field surrounding the conductor collapses. Of importance is the fact that the mag- netic lines of flux can neither be removed from, nor emitted by, the antenna, The magnitude of the induction field decreases the associated elec tron flow quite rapidly as it moves outward, away from the field of the antenna conductor. In fact, the strength of the magnetic flus vasies inversely ‘as the square of the distance from the antenna The magretic lines of flux surrounding the con- ductor considerably affect its strength and must be considered when making antenna field meas~ urements. However, beyond a distance of « few Experiment 3he E and H fields as vectors ¢ electromagnetic b is the right-hand ng in he ind voltage. AS previously indicated, the Remus socinaicc ac electric fied (E) and a magnetie field (H), which we motwally derendept. Im alll stustions, both (RECTION OF PROPAGATION WAVET wall $e peeseat and each will susrain the other The E and H felts are perpendicular to each Electromagnetic Field, Right-Hand | ther and also perpendicular zo the direction of an er ee ma n “elegtromagnetic ¥2ve traveling through space. Figure 1-4 petra9 time, bet 90° dat the speed of light, and the distance be- tween any two corresponding points os the tarization of the wave. Figure 1-3 shows a verti- cally polarized wave. If the E and H components are rotated 90", ix cam be said that the wave is horizontally polarized. The intensity of the waveRefraction of an Incident Wave by the Ionosphere Figure 1-6 Since low-frequency waves are much more easily bent than high-frequency waves, 2 radio wave may tevel many different paths between. the transmitter and the receiver. The distance trav- eled by 2 ground wave depends on transmitter power and frequeacy, as well 25 the atsorptive qualities of the earth. The skip distance, the minimum amount of separation postible between the transmitter and receiver sites, depends om the frequency of the radio waves and the height and Gensity of the ionized layer from which the waves are transmitted by means of reflection. When the skip distance falls within the raage of the ground wave, the reflected wave and the ground wave may have the same inteasity but arrive with dif- fecent phases. In this instance the reflective wave may successfully reinforce and cancel the ground wave, 2 process called fading. The difference be- tween the skip distance and the range of the ~ §rOund wave is called the skip zone. Reception is “wreatly affected by the reflected wave. tarization it it a av a hetts-type an enna. Figure 1-7A shows the orientation of the dipole with its major power (major lobe) being in rafed into the shape of a figure-eight with or no radiation emanating from the ends of 7B shows a th ole, looking at it f ead view ‘The dipole can be made out of aluminum or brass rod or tubing, oF a length of copper wire. Figure 1-8 shows a half-wave dipole made from two lengths of wire strung between three insulators Each section is approximately a quarter wave: length, The actual length of an antenna is slightly less than the ted length. The computed length is based on free-space transmission from an an- renna of infinitesmal diameter. Since the wire has a physical radius, its physical length is approxi= mately $% of its calculated length Example 1-2: Compute the physical length of a half-wave dipole designed to operate on 14 MHz (20 meter band, Table 1-2). Solution 1-2A: Initially compute the wavelength of a 14 MHz signal. ay where: Ais the wavelength in meters _ © is the speed of light, 300 x 10* meters/em fis the operating frequency, in Hertz or MHz a 300 x 10* (.95) 14 x 10° 2 10.178 ue é Solution 1-2B: The calculation can By converting "Cine feet of can also be madea MINIMAL RADIATION Two and Three-Dimensions ee a a a a a ae oe ae a we Figure 1-7 Half-Waye Horizontal Dipote Figure 1-8 okie ———From so- sete: aquals a fore, the 10.178 m x 3.333. NOTE: One Fall-Wave Dipole Produces Four Lobes Figure 1-94 Haif-Wave Dipate Produces Two Lobes Figure 1-98 The voltage and half-wave antenna is should be noted that the current is at a mix y whigh-resistance at one end and & ANT. CURRENT 0) oe $2 441 Ns f, = ni. VOLTAGE} Bi Voltage and Current Distribution, — Figure 1-10 SECTION 1.7 ANTENNA RESISTANCE The resistance at the feed point (called radiation resistance) of a dipole is approximately 73 2. The radiation resistance of an antenna is actually = fictitious unit. Resistance converts electrical en- ergy into heat and there is very little heat pro- duced by an antenna, The radiation resistance of an antenna is shown in equation (1-3). (3) P s the power of the electromagnetic waves (radiated powe I is the antenna current (rms value) R, is the antenna resistance Example 1-3: A low-power transmitter has an RF current flow into its antenna of 0.1 amp (rms). How much power is being radiated? a db A AAALECHER LINES A Lecher line is 2 paralie! th can be measured, and from the meas- he oscillator or trans A Lecher line is a The length of the wave l erement, the frequency miter can be determ calibrated. transmissiotLoop Detection of Current Points Figure 1-12 cones he anteana panel, SIP360A, is provided with two paraliel lines located on the rear of the panel. ‘These lines can be easily observed. A slider with ‘Sire loop (on the rear of the prote), s, 2 capacitor and con- panel meter. This arrangement to determipe points of maxi- current. The Lecher tine means of a coazial tory experiment that follows, a free- spate wavelength will be determined and from this the will be com- pated. In addition, the basic polarization of a horizontal dipole will be observed. : SECTION 1.10 SUMMARY ‘The antenna is a transducer which converts 69.06 Cae cnt into a radiated. wave gt MiERgintell Wi An electromagnetic inte an ex through the aimosphere at the speed Oriighe and the wavelength of a radio ways 1 fad at the sxxio of the speed of requency of the radio waVe, ‘The polarization of a dipole refers the electe field of the dipole which radiates slong the carths's surface, called a ground wave, or into the Stmosphere, Sky waves are reflected or refracted ack to earth or go off into space, If they return, a skip zone is produced, and the signal can be heard at distant points te is called a Hertz A horizontally polarized dipol 1 ausenna, anda vertically polarized dipol ferred to as @ Marconi antenne, The feed resistance (impedance) of a horizontal dipole is : the range of 73-75 ohms, ‘A Lecher line can be used to observe standing waves, and to compute the wavelength or the op~ erating frequency,What function is played by a transmittin reeoiving antenna? a the dip field parallel or perpendic used for both transmis la 8. tuansmision fine, the we yeneratly found to be it is in Fy Wh ¥ mit tength wha ngth, in feet, of Which antenna ier, one de for He or one for 30 Mi Experiment unLaboratory Experimentation Leeann ee enamel RIALS REQUIRED pane! ito its base and set the minus voltage MATER Conuol to -10 V (may be varied between -5 Rae sce! and -16 V for RF power output) S00PSB pan At a distance of approximately 1-2 meters oon from the Gansmitting antenna, Rold. the Patong OPO eae fielesuength aneana so. tht he dipole ee ee eer See he so rode le ates ar sae See oe el w the transmitting antenna. The meter Cable, RG-38 (30 em), BNC/BNC SIP360-7 an the field-stength anenna should be Seca pe tcaingwuteeen half ed flrs, Ents Poa Menes Rae tssary, move the field-strength meter closer notes the Saas tr further away from the transmiting an- Ronee tenga to obiain'a half stale readine., A@Just the meter sensitivity control ab necessary Best ANB IBESSUREMENTS POLARIZATION MEASUREMENT In the laboratory experimentation the free-toace wavelength of a mdlating dipole antenna will be evaluated. The polarization and pattern of the dipole will also be evalusted 3. While the field-strength antenna is parallet to the transmitting antenna and the meter is reading half-scale, verify the polarization of the (fansmitting antenna by rotaiing the field-strength meter such that it is perpen EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES dicular to the floor. in this position, with the transmitting antenna parallel to the floor NOTE: In the foliowing measurements, the trans- and the field-stiength antenna perpendicu~ fhiting antenna should be placid on a table away fhe te chi figes, the Cialeracigh etey from instetiments that cause ragio wave reflection, should be reading zero, Return the field ‘An oscilloscope, for example, should be at least 3 Strength meter 10 the parallel position and of 4 feet away from the antenna, Any metal ob- iry moving it closer and closer toward and ject rear the antenna will change the radiation above the transmitting antenna as well as Aitets and the antenna measurements will show ~; near the ends of the transmitting antesna. fitte resemblance to the theoretical free-space oie that when the field-strength meter is values ‘ parallel to the transmitting satenna, a strong : transmitting signal canbe received. Try The Overhead Projection meter, for classroom making the measurement on both the front Gemonsiration, can be connecied by its cable to and back sides of the transmitting antenna, the jack provided on the field-strength meter. A and observe that conditions are similar similar jack is also available for the Lecher Line Mater (Whes cwo jacks tte avitiaSte, in. parallel, Check the polarization by rotating the field- ae fercconmecting 2 OMIA strength antenna so that it is perpendicular to the transmitting antenna, The end of the field-strength antenna should be pointing directly towards the center of the transmit- ting dipole, Observe the meter reading Connect the antenna mast to the antenna panel in the space provided. Attach the horigomtal dipole antenna to the top of the mast. Assemble the field-strength meter (when it i initially received), Insert the Experian 1