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Toby Ware
Naylors Chartered Surveyors, Hadrian House, Higham Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8AF, UK.
Tel: +44 (0)191 2327030; e-mail: tobyware@naylors.co.uk; website: www.naylors.co.uk
Toby Ware has been building surveying for eight a scarce and a relatively forgotten material
years following a passion for construction, while after the collapse of the Roman empire, until
assisting on building sites during his spare time. the technology was reinvented by the use of
Toby was recruited to Naylors to establish a a new form of cement, Portland cement,
building consultancy and project management which is how we know it today.
department and there are now four members of The Romans used possolanic cement,
staff serving this discipline. He has a claim to where they added volcanic ash to a normal
fame of providing professional building survey- lime-based concrete, producing a much
Toby Ware
ing advice on a popular BBC television stronger material. Portland cement is an arti-
programme. ficial cement, which contains similar materi-
als and is made by heating limestone, a source
Abstract of calcium, with clay and grinding this prod-
This paper concentrates on the carbonation of con uct (called clinker) with a source of sulphate,
crete, but also provides a brief synopsis of varying most commonly gypsum. The burning pro-
defects in concrete when used as a building mat cess was required to change the chemical
erial. It outlines the different defects that can arise properties of the materials and create an even
with concrete, discusses the cause of these defects, stronger cement.
and puts forward industry-recommended remedial In 1756, British engineer, John Smeaton
action. It also uses live case study examples of the made the first modern concrete (hydraulic
solutions to prolonging the life expectancy of exter cement) by adding pebbles as a coarse aggre-
nal concrete facades. gate and mixing powdered brick into the
cement. Portland cement was invented in
Keywords: concrete, carbonation, HAC, 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, who was an English
corrosion, aggregates, curing, admix, masonry worker. Reinforced concrete was
passive layer invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier, who
received a patent in 1867.
An example where Roman concrete has
HISTORY OF CONCRETE been used and still stands today is in the con-
The word concrete comes from the Latin crete dome of the Roman Pantheon. It was
word concretus, which means compact or rebuilt in 126 AD and is still the largest unre-
condensed. Concrete was an important con- inforced concrete dome in the world. The
struction material in Roman times and was height to the oculus and the diameter of the
widely used in their buildings. There is, interior circle are the same, 43.3m (142ft).
Journal of Building Survey,
Appraisal & Valuation
however, evidence that concrete was used Concrete is now extensively used
Vol. 1, No. 4, 2013, pp. 338344 well before the Roman era, with suggestions throughout the world on a large variety of
Henry Stewart Publications
2046-9594 of it having been laid in 5600 BC. It became different constructions, including the worlds
Page 338
Ware
tallest building, Burj Khalifas in Dubai. It is cover is met, attention to detail and care
constructed of reinforced concrete and in during the execution of the works
May 2008, it was pumped to a then world achieved, and sufficient time is given for it
record height of 606m (1,988ft), the 156th to cure. This also reduces the overall main-
floor. Construction used 330,000m3 tenance requirements and ongoing repair
(431,600 cu yd) of concrete and 55,000 costs.
tonnes of steel rebar. The foundations are Environmentally-friendly: Some may not
constructed of a high density and low per- think so but concrete is actually environ-
meability concrete. mentally-friendly right from its manufac-
ture through to its final use, and even
beyond this. It contains naturally occur-
WHY USE CONCRETE? ring materials, does not produce any
Concrete has relatively high compressive emissions, and needs no toxic preserva-
strength, but much lower tensile strength, ie tives. Designers and end users can utilise
it can take a great weight crushing down on its thermal mass and omit the need to
it but does not perform so well when pulled install air conditioning units, and on some
or deflected. For this reason, it is usually occasions even heating systems. Concrete
reinforced with materials that are strong in can also be recycled when a building
tension, often steel, and it can then be used is demolished and an ever-increasing
in a multitude of applications. amount of recycled materials are used in
The main factors when considering con- its manufacture.
crete are: Fire-resistant: Concrete provides the best
fire resistance of any building material. It
Adaptable: The proportions of the natural does not need additional fire protection,
ingredients can be altered, or different itdoes not burn and cannot be set on fire.
materials used in the mix to enable it to It does not emit any toxic fumes or smoke,
be manufactured to a variety of specifica- or drip molten particles when exposed to
tions to suit all locations, conditions and fire. Concrete receives the highest fire
applications. resistance classification (class A1) under
Architectural: It can be used as an architec- EN 13501-1.
tural feature, either left in its raw form or Sound protection: Concretes inherent
finished to any specification. It also pro- properties contribute to good sound insu-
vides an excellent framework for a variety lation which is required to give adequate
of surface finishes, which can be applied levels of privacy to the occupiers.
when the concrete is wet or once it has
hardened.
Styled: The fluidity of concrete allows it CARBONATION OF CONCRETE
to be moulded into almost any shape con- As soon as concrete is poured, it is under
ceivable. By using appropriate formwork, attack from pollutants in the atmosphere and
bespoke designs and architectural styles naturally occurring gases such as carbon
can be created. These can be used as the monoxide. It can also be damaged by many
finished surface, which will reduce the processes such as collisions with vehicles and
need for further fixings. from the freeze thaw action of trapped water.
Durable: Concrete is extremely durable
and it can be serviceable for hundreds of Concretes passive layer
years if it is well designed and well placed. Concrete is an alkaline, and when it has just
It is therefore imperative that the m
inimum been poured its alkalinity approaches pH 13.
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Diagnosing and repairing carbonation in concrete structures
It is this high alkalinity that protects the steel the breakdown of the passive layer, oxygen
from oxygen and water by forming a thin and moisture are the other components
oxide layer on the steel, thus preventing the required for corrosion of embedded steel.
metal atoms from dissolving, ie corroding. Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a natural
This protection is known as the passive layer. gas present in the air, and sulphur dioxide
This passive layer does not actually stop (SO2), which is increased by industrial pro-
corrosion; it reduces the corrosion rate to an duction, combine with the moisture (CO2)
insignificant level. For steel in concrete, the in the atmosphere and react with the calcium
passive corrosion rate is typically 0.1m per hydroxide in the concrete producing calcium
year. Without the passive film, the steel carbonate and calcium sulphate (gypsum).
would corrode at rates at least 1,000 times This chemical process and the reaction of
higher. the material attacks the concrete and reduces
Rust has a lower density than metal, so it the natural alkalinity. The layer of affected
expands as it forms. As it does, it cracks and concrete is known as the carbonated layer,
damages the surrounding concrete, further and when the steel reinforcement falls within
damaging the surrounding passive layer. this, it loses its passive layer. The oxygen and
Corrosion can still occur however, when moisture then penetrate the concrete and
the passive layer breaks down and becomes react with the steel causing it to corrode.
compromised. The deterioration of the pro- In actual practice, CO2 present in the
tection occurs when the alkalinity of the atmosphere, permeates into concrete and
concrete is reduced or when the chloride carbonates it naturally, reducing the alkalin-
concentration in concrete is increased to a ity of the concrete. The pH value of pore
certain level. This is mainly caused by the water in the hardened cement paste, which
natural process of the gases in the air. was around pH 13, will be reduced to around
pH 9.0. When all the Ca(OH)2 has become
Carbonation process carbonated, the pH value will reduce to
The carbonation of concrete (Figure 1) is about pH 8.3, at which level the passive film
one of the main defects in concrete, causing on the steel is not stable. The loss of the
the reinforcement to corrode. Along with passivity usually occurs around pH 11.
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Ware
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Diagnosing and repairing carbonation in concrete structures
carbon dioxide by applying a coating to the the reinforcement. The de-icing slats are
concrete that will act as a protective barrier. probably one of the primary causes of the
The coating should prevent the ingress of failure of the reinforcement in highway
liquid water, but allow water vapour to pass constructions.
through. There are various products on the Seawater can also migrate into the capil-
market specifically designed for this laries, and it was once used to mix the con-
purpose. crete. This had an adverse effect and it is
The necessary surface preparation has to often why more serious corrosion occurs at
be undertaken, which will usually consist of the coast. It is therefore important that fresh
cleaning the surface back to a sound finish. water or potable water is used; the coarse
The coating treatment should then be and fine aggregates do not contain chlorides;
checked for its compatibility with the con- and admixtures that contain chlorides are
crete, and the number of coats and total not used.
thickness required also considered. Cathode protection, along with epoxy-
It also provides the opportunity to pro- coated reinforcing bars can be used to miti-
vide a facelift to the building, and these gate the problem. Cathode protection is an
systems usually carry a guarantee with a
electronic process that makes the metal
recoating required at given times. structure of the building more negative in
order to decrease corrosion. When a con-
crete mix is properly designed from the out-
set and given sufficient time to cure, it will
OVERVIEW OF OTHER DEFECTS TO effectively become impervious to the effects
BE AWARE OF of de-icing salts.
Chlorides
Calcium chloride was once used as an Alkali silica reaction
admixture in the manufacturing process of This reaction and subsequent defect is often
concrete. It was included in the mix, as it referred to as concrete cancer. It occurs on
would promote rapid set-up of the concrete large concrete structures without the pres-
and it was believed to prevent freezing. ence of reinforcement bars.
During the 1960s and 1970s magnesite, a The situation occurs when elements
chloride-rich carbonate mineral was used as sometimes present in the aggregates react
a floor screed providing sound attenuation with the cement pore solution to form a
and a level surface. When this chemical highly expansive solution that causes local-
reacts with moisture, it produces a weak ised swelling. The three conditions required
hydrochloric acid. for this reaction are:
In high enough concentration, the chlo-
ride breaks down the passive film in local- (1) aggregate containing an alkali-reactive
ised areas rather than the widespread constituent (amorphous silica);
deterioration seen in carbonation. This (2) sufficient availability of hydroxyl ions in
results in rapid corrosion of the metal at the the pour solution;
anode, which leads to the formation of a pit (3) sufficient moisture, above 75 per centrel-
in the bar surface and significant loss of ative humidity within the concrete.
cross-sectional area. There are occasions
where the bar is seen to be completely Therefore, to prevent this from occurring, the
eaten through. alkali metal content of the cement and reac-
Chlorides from de-icing salts can migrate tive silica content of the aggregate should be
into the capillaries of the concrete and affect limited during its manufacture. Alternatively,
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Ware
admixes can be included to neutralise the any project involving concrete in contact
excessive alkalinity of cement. Care should be with the soil to check for the presence of
taken though, so as not to induce the accel- sulphates. If the concentrations are found to
eration of carbonation if reinforcement is be aggressive, various protective coatings can
present. be used.
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Diagnosing and repairing carbonation in concrete structures
every batch put through checks to ensure it is concrete now realised. This is definitely
consistent and can withstand the pressures. something keeping the building surveyor
An additive is not always required, as there busy in terms of regular maintenance and
can be simple solutions that ensure the con- complete repairs.
crete sets correctly. When constructing in Although concrete is a major contributor
countries where the temperate can reach 50C to greenhouse gases, it is now seen to be an
(122F) ice can be added, and it is usually ideal building product, as it insulates against
poured during the night when the air is cooler the cold and retains the heat. More and
and humidity higher. A cooler concrete mix- more buildings are therefore constructed
ture cures evenly throughout and is therefore from concrete, and it is becoming ever-
less likely to set too quickly and crack. increasingly popular with designers and end
users.
The other important factor is that struc-
CONCLUSION/ONGOING ISSUES tures made of concrete can have a long
WITH CONCRETE service life as long as it is designed cor-
Concrete has advanced somewhat since rectly, placed well, and allowed to cure
Roman times, with poor practices in earlier properly.
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