THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL

SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

RESEARCH PROJECT

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FOOD

INSECURITY IN SIAVONGA: THE CASE
STUDY OF LUSITU
SEPTEMBER, 2013

NAME : KANENGA HAGGAI

COMPUTER : 29012856

COURSE : DS 402

LECTURER : MR. ELEMU, D.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ITEM PAGE NUMBER

Declaration .i
Dedication .ii
Acknowledgement .iii
Acronyms .iv
Tables .v
Graphs .vi
Abstract .vii
introduction 1
Literature Review 3
Theoretical Review 3
Empirical Review 4
Definitions of concepts 5
Food insecurity 7
Statement of the problem 8
Objectives 9
Rationale 9
Research methodology 9
Challenges/limitations 13
Research findings 13
Section A: Household demographic
information 13
Section B: Causes of food insecurity 17
Section C: Effects of food insecurity 22
Section D: Coping strategies 24
Section E: Ways of reducing food insecurity in
Lusitu 26
Recommendations 28
Conclusions 28
References 31
Appendix 1: Field images 33
Appendix 2: Data collection instruments 34

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DECLARATION
KANENGA HAGGAI
I .................................................................................. do hereby declare that this work (report)

herein submitted for the partial fulfilment of the Bachelor of Arts (BA) Degree at the University

of Zambia, is exclusively my own original work. I therefore, declare that all sources cited or

quoted are acknowledged. This report should not be published or reproduced in any way without

permission from the author.

06/09/2013
Sign.date.

Witnesss name.

Signdate.

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 DEDICATION

So fine and genuine

So true and committed to the desires and dreams of your children

So missed and loved!

This piece of work is dedicated to my late mother, LMK;

And

Auntie Moonga BG and Uncle Kanenga C for sponsoring my University education-you

sacrificed to ensure that I attained this education!

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 Acknowledgements

I would like to profoundly acknowledge my Supervisor and course coordinator, Mr. Elemu for

his technical support he rendered to me. I further acknowledge the staff from; Harvest Help

Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Siavonga District office; Ministry of

Community Development, Mother and Child Health, Siavonga District Office; Siavonga

Nutrition Group and Lusitu Agricultural Camp Officer, and all those who participated in this

study for the facilitation of data gathering, analysis and report preparation. I am particularly

grateful for the assistance rend to me from numerous friends.

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 ACRONYMS

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

FAD Food Availability Decline

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

HH Household

HIV Human Immune Virus

LDC Less Developed Countries

MDG Millennium Development Goal

UNDP United Nations Development Program

ZDHS Zambia Demographic Health Survey

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TABLES

Table Page numbers

Table 1: age range for respondents 15
Table 2: rainfall pattern for 2012/2013 18
Table 3: effects of food insecurity 22

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GRAPHS

Graph Page number

Graph 1: sex of respondents 13
Graph 2: household heads 14
Graph 3: women: men 14
Graph 4: educational levels 16
Graph 5: causes of food insecurity 19
Graph 6: coping strategies 26
Images 1: fruits eaten in Lusitu 25

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 ABSTRACT
Both chronic and transitory food insecurity are prevalent in Lusitu. Insufficient food production
capacity, lack of income diversification and unfavorable climatic conditions are therefore, the
main causes of food insecurity Lusitu. Lusitu has been experiencing some problems such as
droughts, malnutrition, soil erosion, low agricultural productivity, poor infrastructure, and high
vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. The pattern of rainfall is unreliable, making rain-
fed agriculture a hazardous operation. Drought periods are common. This study was conducted
in Lusitu using a qualitative approach that used one-on-one interviews for key informants and
unstructured interviews for primary targets. The study found out that there is chronic food
insecurity and that the main cause is poor and unreliable rainfall (100% rate) compounded by
attacks by insects and animals, unemployment, poor soils, lack of knowledge, inputs and high
temperatures. The study also found out that food insecurity immensely contributes to the poverty
situation in Lusitu, manifesting in malnutrition, disease, unproductivity and underdevelopment.
The development of irrigation schemes, social safety nets, and provision of farming inputs,
creation of employment and business opportunities can reduce food insecurity. Lusitu specific
strategies need to be designed these may include; promotion of conservation farming,
introduction of field schools, introduction of appropriate, cost-effective and sustainable
technologies in irrigation, and livestock management. However, it is necessary to not only
alleviate poverty but also create wealth for the target population. The key lies in mutual honest
intention from multi-stakeholders to ensure that all is done for the sole purpose of fighting food
insecurity

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

Current development pathways have left 1.4 billion in extreme poverty, 925 million hungry and
many more malnourished and food insecure. Unsustainable models of development are
degrading the natural environment, threatening the ecosystems and biodiversity on which
livelihoods and food and nutrition security depend. Globally, risks are increasing-erratic weather
patterns, natural disasters, price volatility and market risks are all increasing uncertainty for food
security. About 3 billion people in LDCs live in rural areas, including 75%of the poor (FAO,
2011).

In 2010, 16% of the population in LDCs were undernourished down from 18% in 2009 but still
well above the target set by MDG 1C to halve to 10% the proportion of undernourished between
1990 and 2015. Most of the worlds 925 million hungry people (62% of the total) live in Asia
and pacific, followed by sub-Saharan African, home to 26% of the worlds undernourished
population (FAO, 2011).

Sub-Saharan Africa is rich in land and water resources, yet hunger and starvation are widespread.
This contradiction stems less from the continental availability of food and more from glaringly
uneven local production and access and chronically deficient nutrition, especially among the
poorest. Measured by agricultural production, food availability has gradually improved, but
agricultural productivity remains lowmuch lower than in other regions. Most sub-Saharan
African countries are net food importers, and many depend on food aid during all too frequent
humanitarian crises. Even where food is available, millions cannot afford it or cannot acquire it
because of underdeveloped markets and weak physical infrastructure. Insufficient access to safe
water, energy and sanitation conspires with diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria to
perpetuate food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa (Africa Human Development Report, 2012).

The Zambia demographic health survey (ZDHS) conducted in 2001/02 established that only 36%
of households in Zambia always have enough food to eat and 19% seldom have enough and are
food insecure (ZDHS, 2002). In Zambia a high proportion of both rural and urban households are
vulnerable to food insecurity. Both chronic and transitory food insecurity is prevalent. For rural
households, food entitlement is linked to agriculture, while crop production risk is a primary
determinant of food insecurity. Insufficient food production capacity, lack of income

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diversification and unfavorable climatic conditions are therefore, the main causes of food
insecurity for rural households (The Right to Food Security Report, 2010).

Zambias food security situation is serious despite the occasional surpluses the country produces
during good crop years. The main sources of Zambias food insecurity at household level are an
inability to produce enough food due to lack of agricultural service support and technical
exigencies such as unfavorable climatic conditions, disease and insect attacks; inadequate
incomes and inability to purchase food; inadequate market and transport systems to take food
from surplus to deficit areas within the country; and the impact of HIV/AIDs on the productive
capacity of households (Zambia Food security issues paper, 2003).

Siavonga district, Lusitu in particular, has been experiencing some problems such as droughts,
malnutrition, soil erosion, low agricultural productivity, poor infrastructure, wrong farming
techniques and high vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. The pattern of rainfall is
unreliable, making rain-fed agriculture a hazardous operation. Drought periods are common,
forcing people to depend on social welfare, food-for-work programs and food deliveries by
donors. Most of the extreme poor depend on agriculture and related activities for a significant
part of their livelihoods (FAO, 2012).

The study endeavored to find out the causes and effects of food insecurity in Lusitu, Siavonga
using qualitative methods. Insightful information was discovered underlining the deep rooted
food insecurity situation in Lusitu. One-on-one interviews were used for this study for both
primary targets-households and key informants.

STRUCTURE OR THE REPORT

The first part introduces the research problem, followed by the literature review, statement of the
problem, objectives, rationale and research methodology. The part which follows looks at the
challenges and limitations faced during the development of this paper. Research findings are
presented here with section A presenting household demographic information, section B
presenting causes and effects of food insecurity, C presenting effects of food security, followed
by D-coping strategies and E presenting ways of reducing food insecurity. Further,
recommendations and conclusions follow.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical review

There is no single theory that can fully explain the phenomenon of food insecurity. Various
scholars have attempted to explain the problem of food insecurity with varying depth. Usually
the attempts have been accompanied by some sort of criticism; and this has led to the
development of other theories. On the choice of which theory to use, this depends on the end of
the author. Literature indicates that there are two widely accepted sets of theories on this subject;
supply side theories and demand side theories. For the purpose of this work, the focus, however,
will only be on the supply side theories.

2.1.1 Supply side theories (FAD theories)

The supply side theories are further split into two;

2.1.2 Climate
According to literature, this theory stresses on the role of climatic factors in the occurrence of
famine, where, famine is regarded as the consequence of crop failure due to serious
climatological changes like droughts or foods (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000). According to this
theory, a drought or flood can cause food shortages as it reduces food production. This theory,
however, has been criticized on the ground that a drought or flood may only disrupt production
and not the distribution of food. It is seen as short sighted because food can be transported from a
surplus area to a deficit area and that it assumes equal access to food. It is rubbished on the basis
that people in prone areas have various coping strategies (ibid). In trying to apply it to the Lusitu
situation, this theory however, to some extent is applicable. It holds true for poor and vulnerable
communities, where even if food is transported from a surplus area (food availability but
different from access and utilization), poor people cannot even afford to access it on the market.
They have diminished purchasing power.

For example, The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has established that
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased markedly since the Industrial
Revolution. The everyday life of poor and vulnerable people will be severely affected by climate
change. Increased warming reduces the growing season, with implications for all three

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components of food security-availability, access and utilization (Africa Human Development
Report, 2012).

2.1.3 Demographic
This second FAD theory is actually the Malthusian theory in nature. It explains famine in terms
of population figures and emphasizes that the demand for food due to population increases will
eventually outstrip any potential food production (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000). However, this
theory has been criticized for it being short sighted that it did not foresee technological
innovations in the agricultural sector that have the potential to greatly increase production. It did
not foresee the transport revolution which improved food distribution (ibid). But one thing must
be made clear-availability and access are two different things! The theory, however, holds true to
some extent-for example the local people of Lusitu were resettled there during the construction
of the Kariba dam. The area which they were given, after some time, exceeded its carrying
capacity and this led to land degradation-this reduced agricultural productivity (SSDDP, 2011).

For example, a study by UNDP indicates that Sub-Saharan Africas profound demographic
transition is already severely challenging its food security and human development and will do
so for years to come. The continents population has expanded at a staggering 2.5% average
annual rate for the past six decades, from 186 million people in 1950 to 856 million in 2010,
while the growth rate has slowed (Africa Human Development Report, 2012).

2.2 Empirical Review

2.2.1 Food Security

Food security, or its converse food insecurity, is a very general idea, which embodies a wide
range of concepts and concerns as to the underlying causes of the food problem in developing
countries. In many countries the problem manifests itself in the form of endemic hunger and
malnutrition and this hidden hunger affects millions of people in the world economy. Food
insecurity is in part a problem of the lack of effective demand among the poor, which in its
extreme form results in a famine situation where access to the means of subsistence is denied to a
population. The ideas and policies that underlie food security discussions can be considered
separately from those questions applying to famine situations. Although famine can be regarded

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as an extreme form of food insecurity, more often this situation signifies the complete
breakdown of the social, political and economic system in a country or region (Clark, 2006).

2.2.2 The origins of the concept of food security

The concern with food insecurity issues arises from the agricultural policy changes in the world
economy in the 1970s and the focus on the causes of the so-called, world food crisis of that
decade. Increasingly it was recognized that the problem of world hunger and the associated
causes of that hunger constituted a number of different problems with interconnecting causes. In
the context of Sub-Saharan Africa the agricultural and food supply problem was considered as
the major development priority for the continent as a whole. The complexity of the causes has
indeed increased. Food insecurity can be caused by government policy failure or market failure,
or indeed natural causes including HIV/AIDS. In Sub-Saharan Africa some 35 million people are
affected by HIV/AIDS which has serious consequences for food security (Clark, 2006).

2.2.3 Definitions of the concepts

Food security and insecurity are terms used to describe whether or not people have access to
sufficient quality and quantity of food. They are affected by factors such as poverty, health, food
production, political stability, infrastructure, access to markets, and natural hazards. Improved
food security is important for global reduction of hunger and poverty, and for economic
development. One aim of the Millennium Development Goals is to reduce by half the proportion
of people suffering from hunger by 2015 (Postnote, 2006).

Food security is interpreted in many ways but the World Banks definition of food security
namely access of all people at all times to enough food to have an active, healthy life is well
known and is widely accepted (Bernstein in De Beer, 2000). Many literatures focus essentially
on the potential access of households to food. This definition however, focuses exclusively on
food consumption and does not demonstrate or emphasize the relation between food insecurity,
poverty, vulnerability and malnutrition (De Beer, 2000). Maxwell (1991), however, defined food
security and explained that a country and its people can be regarded as being food secure if the
existing food system functions well enough to remove the fear of food insecurities. Food security
is achieved when the poor and vulnerable groups, especially women and children, have definite
access to secure food (ibid).

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Many literatures emphasize the availability of food, and the capacity to obtain it as the essential
elements of food security. Food security has four dimensions:

1. Food availability: the availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality,

supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid).
2. Food access: access by individuals to adequate resources (entitlements) for acquiring
appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Entitlements are defined as the set of all
commodity bundles over which a person can establish a command given legal, political,
economic and social arrangements in which they live (including traditional rights such as
access to common resources) (FAO, 2011).
3. Utilization: utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and
healthcare to reach a state of nutritional well-being, where all physiological needs are
met. This brings out the importance of non-food inputs in food security (ibid).
4. Stability: to be secure, a population, household or individual must have access to
adequate food at all times. They should not risk losing access to food as a consequence of
sudden shocks (e.g. economic or climatic crisis) or cyclical events (e.g. seasonal food
insecurity). The concept of stability can therefore refer to both the availability and access
dimensions of food security (op cit).
People are said to be food secure either through own production or income received from labor.
It is described as sustained and assured access by all social groups and individuals to food
adequate in quantity and quality to meet nutritional needs. A well-functioning food system-
relationship through which people obtain food ensures and protects the food security of each
individual. There is a distinction between food security and food self-sufficiency-implies that a
country or household produces enough for own use. A high degree of self-sufficiency is not
necessarily a prerequisite for food security (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000).

Since the 1970s, the focus has shifted from a global, national perspective to entitlement to
adequate food on the household level. In contrast with food security, food insecurity is the lack
of access to adequate food supplies and can be chronic or temporary in nature (ibid). Chronic
food insecurity is a sustained inadequate diet caused by the lack of resources to produce or
acquire food-it is caused by poverty, while transitory food insecurity is the result of a temporary

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decline in the access of a household to adequate food. It is a result of instability in food
production and prices (op cit).

2.2.4 Levels of food security

According to literature, food security can exist at three levels; household level, sub-national and
national levels. At a household level, a household is said to be food secure if it has enough food
to ensure a minimum intake to all its members-this however depends on many variables like net
food production, land, labor, social production relations, technology and others. Any changes to
these factors affect the food security of the household. At the sub-national level, this refers to the
assurance that food is available to individual households to meet their minimum consumption
requirements. And at the national level, this refers to the adequate food production and or
imports (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000).

Food insecurity is the absence of food security and applies to a wide range of phenomena, from
famine to periodic hunger to uncertain food supply. Hunger can be experienced temporarily by
people who are not food insecure, as well as those who are. In the literature, hunger is often used
to refer in general terms to MDG1 and food insecurity. 10% of world hunger is acute, when lack
of food is short term, and is often caused when shocks such as drought or war affect vulnerable
populations (Postnote, 2006). Hunger, poverty and disease are interlinked, with each other
contributing to the occurrence of the other two. Hunger reduces natural defenses against most
diseases, and is the main risk factor for illness worldwide. People living in poverty often cannot
produce or buy enough food to eat and so are more susceptible to disease. Sick people are less
able to work or produce food. This leaves them vulnerable to food insecurity. Food insecurity is
determined by the immediate causes of hunger, underlying determinants of conditions in a
community (affecting poverty, food production, and ability to respond to shocks), and the impact
of shocks (ibid).

Studies show that food insecurity is linked more to issues like: poverty, low income, poor
infrastructure, and inequitable access to land, water, credit and markets, rather than a failure in
food production techniques. The problems of inequity are further exacerbated by internal conflict
and war which can dislocate rural and farming communities. Vulnerability is also increased due
to natural (or human- induced) disasters, such as floods and droughts. Food sovereignty is a pre-

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condition for establishing genuine food security. This is the right of each nation and its peoples
to maintain and develop its own capacity to produce people's basic food, whilst respecting
environmental, productive and cultural diversity. Participation by producers and consumers in
decision-making is another key issue (Food Security Briefing Paper, 2002).

3.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Despite a dramatic increase in national and global food availability and substantial progress in
poverty reduction, hunger, food insecurity and undernourishment remain at unacceptably high
levels and progress in addressing this dimension of poverty has been disappointingly poor.
Almost 850 million people do not have enough to eat and, alarmingly, in many parts of the
world, the number is on the increase (FAO, 2011).

Since the 1970s, Zambia has been experiencing economic and social problems leaving most
people especially rural poor, food insure-Lusitu is no exception. Studies indicate that food
insecurity in Lusitu is caused by droughts, poor soils (terrain and infertility), soil erosion, low
agricultural productivity, poor infrastructure, and high vulnerability to the impacts of climate
change (MACO, 2005). In response to some of the problems rural people have been
experiencing, the government, non-governmental organizations and other institutions have
developed some intervention mechanisms to address these issues. Some mechanisms include but
not limited to the poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP), National support program-
input/fertilizer support program and the food security pack and other projects implemented by
NGOs.

Despite all these intervention mechanisms, no significant changes have been recorded in
ensuring that everyone has physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
for an active and health life. It is with support from this background, where food insecurity is
prevalent in Lusitu that this study endeavored to find out the causes and effects of food
insecurity, and various ways through which food insecurity can be reduced in Lusitu (ibid).

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4.0 OBJECTIVES

4.1 General objective

The general objective of this study was to find out the causes and effects of food insecurity in
Lusitu, Siavonga.

4.2 Specific objectives

To determine internal and external causes of food insecurity in Lusitu

To find out the effects of food insecurity on the socio-economic lives of local people in
Lusitu
To explore coping strategies for the local people of Lusitu
To probe the various ways for reducing food insecurity

5.0 RATIONALE

The purpose of this research was to provide an alternative and insight on the potential causes and
effects of food insecurity in Lusitu and its relevance in policy planning and poverty reduction
strategies towards the attainment of the MDGs for the district authorities and the nation at large.
This study was an attempt to find alternative ways and strategies for reducing food insecurity in
Lusitu. It provides an understanding on the various coping strategies for local people in Lusitu.
Further, the study provided an understanding on the subject and contributed to the existing body
of knowledge. It provoked rational debate among the academia and policy experts on the subject.
Importantly, this study served as a partial fulfillment for the award of a BA degree in
Development studies at the University of Zambia.

6.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6.1 Data collection

The study will use both methods of data collection as elaborated below;

6.2 Secondary data

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Secondary sources of data were used for this study. The secondary data used for this study were
obtained from publications of local and international authorities and institutions such as ACF,
FAO, WFP, UN, CSPR, District Agricultural Office, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Livestock Development and local libraries like UNZA main library as well as the internet.
Further, reports from Harvest Help, and Siavonga Nutrition Group were also reviewed and
assessed.

6.3 Primary data

The collection of primary data involved getting raw data from the field by the researcher. Data
was collected from villagers-households in Lusitu, Lusitu camp officer and Siavonga District
Agricultural office as well as Harvest Help-a non-governmental organization. This involved the
use of one-on-one interviews for the key informants and semi-structured interviews for the
villagers-households.

6.4 Study site

The study confined itself within Lusitu area which is a political ward in Siavonga district.
Important to note however, is the new development-Lusitu is now part of Chirundu, a newly
created district. According to the 2010 census of population, Siavonga District has an estimated
population of about 89 787 with an annual growth rate of 4.3%. In particular, Lusitu ward has
about 1 559 households with a population of about 8 519 (CSO, 2010). The study site was
purposively chosen as the site has attracted both national and some regional attention due to its
historical and cultural backgrounds. Further, a baseline survey was done to assess the suitability
of the topic in the area.

6.5 Target groups and sampling methods

6.5.1 Village households

The main target group were village households. These served as the core primary targets because
they are the ones affected by food insecurity. The method which was implied here is also
purposive as this exercise was limited by time and financial resources. Therefore, the study only
focused on Harvest Help operational areas. Targeted households were chosen, in consultation
with community stakeholders-organizations operational in Lusitu and from local authorities like

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the area councillor, and the agricultural camp officer; taking into account soil, ecological and
socio-economic characteristics. For the purpose of this study, the method was appropriate to
facilitate for the inclusion of those specifically affected by food insecurity because it took care of
groups of peculiar characteristics. The study targeted household heads. The study targeted to
reach 30-50 households. This was to allow for replacements for non-Response. Only 30
households were reached. It came to the attention of the researcher that the knowledge level of
the community was exhausted, however, 30 was still within the targeted range.

6.5.2 Key Informants

The secondary target group under consideration included key officials from the ministry of
Agriculture (District Office and Lusitu Camp Officer), Siavonga Nutrition Group and Harvest
Help. These were key informants for the study. These were purposively selected because they
were strategically important to the study as they are largely involved through some interventions
in the area of interest. As for the ministry of Agriculture, they are mandated to foresee
agricultural development including fostering food security. They are knowledgeable about the
subject and are valuable in the provision of critical information. These people are critical
because they provided insight into the investigations on the causes and effects of food insecurity
in Lusitu.

6.6 Data collection tools

The data collection was done using one-on-one interviews for key informants (purposively
chosen from two NGOs working on agriculture, food security and Nutrition as well as the district
agricultural office) and semi-structured interviews for villagers-households. A judgement based
approach (intelligent observation) was also used to ascertain and validate the responses gathered
using the above mentioned tools.

6.6.1 Interview Guide

Data from key informants was collected using a one on one interview. This tool was more
appropriate for this study because it generated great insight into the topic under consideration.
The target respondents were very literate and are experts in agriculture, Food security and

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Nutrition, therefore an interview allowed for more probing for in-depth expert and reliable data
that was very useful in analysing the food insecurity situation in Lusitu.

6.6.2 Semi-structured interviews

Data from core primary respondents-village household heads was collected using semi-structured
interviews. This tool was appropriate for this study because the target group are rural, and mostly
illiterate. For example, one study suggested that about 60% of the rural population in Siavonga
are poor and illiterate (Hamoonga, 2009). This tool was skilfully chosen as it allowed for
continuity because responses from one respondent were compared to the responses for other
respondents. For this study, this tool was very useful for gaining insight and context into the
topic under investigation as it allowed respondents to freely express their views and experiences;
it allowed respondents to describe what is important to them-it allowed for enhanced validity of
responses. Further, it gave a high response rate and it was very flexible. It helped in acquiring in-
depth data and it develops rapport (close and harmonious relationship)-which is one of the
critical elements in qualitative researches.

7.0 Data analysis

Data analysis was done manually by the use of tally tables, thematic analysis or content analysis
and indices. This was done by grouping similar responses together to get a general view from
respondents. Tables and graphs were then drawn with the help of Microsoft excel (computer
software). For both instruments (for key informants and primary targets), methods such as
memoing-writing memos as you get insights from your data, categorization-putting the responses
in categories and enumeration-counting the number of times a word appears as well as
legitimization/corroboration by evaluating alternative explanations to use.

8.0 Ethical Considerations

The research project was purely and exclusively academic and any consequent result would also
be treated as such. Therefore, the contents and findings will not be used in any way for any other
purposes than academics. Further, maximum code of ethics was followed. This means that
consent was sought for all respondents. There was no coercion or influence to participate in the
study. Rights and confidentiality of all participants were strictly observed by ensuring anonymity

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in the interviews and only codes for the analysis of all information; no information will be traced
back to an individual respondent. However, some household heads (males) refused to participate
demanding to know if certain individuals were also reached. Nonetheless, such people were not
influenced to participate in any way.

9.0 CHALLENGES/LIMITATIONS

i. Securing appointments for key informants presented some difficulties. In some cases, the
appointments were rescheduled several times and even unsuccessful resulting in delays
which also resulted in more costs incurred during the execution of the assignment. In
most cases, there was no existing documentation.

ii. I had limited time and financial resources to adequately carry out the study. At the time
when this report was prepared, the government through the bursaries committee had not
yet released project allowances for students.

10.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS

10.1 Section A: Household demographic information/characteristics

This section presents the demographic characteristics of household heads in Lusitu as captured
by data collection tools used in the study. These characteristics are core in analyzing the food
insecurity situation in Lusitu, particularly in finding out underlying elements and the reasons and
other correlations based either on sex, educational level, age and other such characteristics.

10.1.1 Sex of the respondents

This part presents findings from the reached participants based on sex. Sex is very critical in
social science research because it helps in understating gender relations and dynamics in a given
society and its relationship to food insecurity. The total number of primary targets-households
reached was 30. Out of the total, 11 were men representing about 37% as compared to their
female counterparts who were 19, representing 63%. The graph below represents these findings;

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Graph 1: sex of respondents

Sex
Men
37%

Women
63%

Of the 11 men reached, 10 were married representing 91% and 1 was single representing 9%. Of
the 19 women interviewed, 11 were married (58%), 6 were widowed (32%) and 2 were divorced
(10%).

The graph below indicates the percentages of heads of households reached;

Graph 2: household heads

Household Heads Female

headed
27%

Male
headed
73%

The graph below represents the percentages of women and men that were reached from the total
number of households reached;

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Graph 3: women: Men

Divorced Women Men

10% single
9%
Marrie
Widowe
Married d 91%
d
32% 58%

10.1.1 Age of the respondents

This part presents the age distribution of household heads. The importance of age cannot be over
emphasized. Many studies indicate that mostly, it is the elderly and children that feel the greater
impacts of food insecurity. This was intelligently observed, in many households reached,
children showed some signs of malnutrition. Most men could not be found home at the time of
the study. Therefore age plays a critical role in understating food insecurity as this involves some
sort of entitlements. The table below presents the age distribution of household heads in Lusitu
area;

Table 1: Age range for respondents

Age Range Number

21-24 2
25-28 2
29-32 3
33-36 3
37-40 5
41-44 1
45-48 1
49-52 1
53-56 4
57-60 0
61-64 1
65-68 0
69-72 1
73-76 1
77-80 0
81-84 1
85-88 1
6 respondents did not know their age
Total 30

Page | 24
As seen from the table above, those who fell between 37-40 years had the highest frequency
followed by those who fell between 53-56 years and then none fell between the ages of 57-60,
65-68 and 77-80 years respectively. This implies that a good number of them were between the
ages of 24 and 56 though with the exception of a few. The youngest household head had 21 years
and the oldest had 88 years.

10.1.2 Educational levels of the Household heads

Education is key to sustainable development and the reduction of food insecurity. Studies have
stressed on the importance of education in development. The human development indicators of
the UNDP use education as one of the key indicators. The graph below presents the educational
level of household heads;

Graph 4: educational levels

educational levels

14
12
10
Axis Title

8
6
4
2
0
Primary Secondary No education
Series1 12 4 14

From the graph above, out of the total 30 households reached, 14 household heads had no single
education representing about 47%. This figure is significant to attract attention. Education is very
important in health and agriculture as well as business. 4 out of the total household heads had
secondary education (1 Grade 11 and the other 3 Grade 9) representing 13% and lastly only 12
had primary education representing 40%.

Page | 25
10.1.3 Primary activities done by Households

Most of the households reached said they are in subsistence farming with primary activities
ranging from the production of maize, sorghum, and tobacco to gardening along the Lusitu
River. Other primary activities included charcoal burning and selling, wild fruit gathering
(busika, mabuyu) as they call them in Tonga as well as piece works and business.

10.2 SECTION B: Causes of Food Insecurity in Lusitu

Objective 1: To determine causes of food insecurity in Lusitu
When asked if there was food insecurity in Lusitu, all respondents were quick to agree in
affirmation. They all stated that there was chronic food insecurity in Lusitu. Their responses
were validated by interviews done with key informants who argued that the situation needed
urgent attention. Various reasons were given as the cause of food insecurity. But among the other
many reasons given, poor rainfall pattern was mentioned by everyone, including key informants.
Lusitu is in the ecological zone III which receives insufficient rainfall. It was found out that the
rainfall period is short, starting in December and ending in February, providing insufficient
moisture required for the growth of crops. One woman said this kuli nzala kuno nkaambo invula
tayiwi; bantu bakacileka biya kulima nkaambo olo bacita oobo, nvula ilafwambaana kuunka.
Meaning there is hunger here because the rain doesnt fall; people have even stopped cultivating
because even if they were to do so, the rains go early. This problem is compounded by the
traditional sorghum variety planted in the area which takes long to mature. Another woman said
that it has been three consecutive farming seasons without planting anything for fear of losing
seeds and fertilizer.

Preliminary data from the district agricultural office indicated that the area had harvested 927-
50kg bags (maize) only as compared to another area called Chikanzaya. Note that Lusitu is a
ward and Chikanzaya is just an area in a ward. This is due to poor rainfall records in Lusitu
especially during the 2012/2013 farming season. Data from the Lusitu agricultural camp office
indicated that the area receives far less than 800mm of rain fall, worse still; this pattern is not
stable and reliable.

The table below depicts the poor rainfall pattern in Lusitu. Lusitu only recorded about 364.5mm
rainfall for 2012/2013 farming season with only 26 rain days. From the table below, it can be

Page | 26
deduced that the month of January recorded the highest number of rainfall activity 14 times
while November and February recorded 4 times being the least. It is evident that this kind of
rainfall activity is not sufficient to guarantee any successful cultivation of crops.

Table 2: Rainfall pattern for 2012/2013 farming season

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
days
1
2
3
4 31.9
5 43.7 21 1.8
6 5.5
7
8 3.7 19.6
9 13.0 4.7
10 1.9 32.0
11 3.6 30.8 11.0
12 11.3 13.4 2.3
13 60.4
14 20.8
15 26.8
16 57.6
17
18
19 14.0 3.5
20 16.9 11.0
21 1.0 2.5
22
23
24
25 4.0
26 3.5 8.8
27 2.9 13.5
28
29
30
31
Source: Lusitu Agricultural Camp Office, 2013.

The causes of food insecurity as brought out by participants are given in the graph below. As
stated above, poor rainfall was mentioned 30 times (100% rate), meaning by all households
reached including key informants. This was followed by poor soils, which was mentioned 5
times. Soils are not fertile; the land is hilly and does not hold water for long. We cannot afford

Page | 27
to be buying fertilizers every farming season with high uncertainties surrounding rainfall one
participant stressed, this is the reason why some people have stopped cultivating. This has over
the years, exacerbated the food insecurity situation in Lusitu. Unemployment, one of the current
problems affecting Zambia was also mentioned 2 times alongside with attack by pests (2) (pests
and other insects attack crops leading to crop failure worsened by poor rains) and hot
temperatures. Lack of inputs and destruction of crops by animals like hippos and elephants were
mentioned thrice. Lack of knowledge (1) was the least mentioned cause of food insecurity in
Lusitu.

When asked what they thought was the main cause of food insecurity in Lusitu, everyone was
very quick to mention the poor rainfall pattern the area records. One respondent had this to say
taiwi kuno nvwula meaning it doesnt rain here.

Graph 5: Causes of food insecurity in Lusitu

35 30
30
25
20
15
10 3 5 3
5 2 2 1 2
0

Series1

When the above information was validated with key informants, captivating insights were
discovered as the main cause of the food insecurity situation in Lusitu. These when categorized,
included unstable social environments that preclude sustainable economic growth,
macroeconomic imbalances in trade practices, natural resource constraints, poor human resource
base, gender inequality, inadequate education, poor health, natural disasters such as droughts,
and insect infestation. These factors contribute to either insufficient food availability or
insufficient access to food by households and individuals. Availability and access are key
elements in food security.

Page | 28
10.2.1 Insufficient production: This is the major challenge of food security in Lusitu. The
underdevelopment of agriculture in the area as a result of over reliance on primary traditional
crops like the one cultivated in Lusitu called longo. Respondents claimed that it was left to
them by their valley ancestors. This variety is low yielding and matures late. This problem, as
stated earlier above, is compounded by poor and low fertility soils, minimal use of external farm
inputs and environmental degradation (Lusitu is almost turning into a desert).

10.2.2 Lack of adequate storage facilities: lack of adequate storage facilities in Lusitu and the
country at large for food items like cereals, automatically leads to wastage there by plugging the
poor into acute hunger. Therefore, more storage facilities should be built to ensure availability
and access of food.

10.2.3 Climate change and natural disasters: natural disasters and climate variability are major
sources of vulnerability to food insecurity. These include erratic weather conditions (high
temperatures), droughts, water stress, agricultural failure, and fragile ecosystems. Lusitu is
particularly affected by this factor because residents heavily depend on rain-fed farming. As
such, due to high poverty levels in the area, people are less able to cope with impacts of climate
shocks and variability. For example, The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has
established that atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased markedly since
the Industrial Revolution. The everyday life of poor and vulnerable people will be severely
affected by climate change. Increased warming reduces the growing season, with implications
for all three components of food security-availability, access and utilization (Africa Human
Development Report, 2012). Supply side theories of food security try to link food insecurity to
climatic and weather changes as the main cause of food insecurity.

Climatic and natural disasters result in massive crop losses, loss of stored food and damage to the
poor and inadequate infrastructure and consequent increases in food prices. All reached
households indicated that food prices are very high in the area and that most local residents
cannot afford. Almost everyone asserted that the prices for a tin of maize and sorghum, for
example, ranged between K20 and K35.

10.2.4 HIV and AIDS: While a range of diseases (such as malaria) affect food security, HIV has
had the biggest impact in recent years. Poverty increases vulnerability to risk of infection (due to

Page | 29
more risky behaviors such as transactional sex), as well as the impact of the disease. HIV/AIDS
mainly affects economically active adults, and so contributes to worsening and widespread food
insecurity by undermining the capacity of households to work and so produce or buy food,
increasing the number of orphans and children with little or no care, and reducing social support
mechanisms.

10.2.5 Traditional inclination of the people: The Dam led to the inundation of a large area.
Actual figures indicate that the rising waters displaced about 57,000 locals, which constitutes a
significant cost. The great resistance showed the extent of the unexpected impact by the people
of the Zambezi valley who felt they would and indeed lost in a number of ways notably: Loss of
flat arable lands on which they grew various crops including maize under the drawn-down
system of cultivation, inability to grow crops twice annually due to absence of drawdown system
referred to above, submerging of pastoral lands for their cattle, goats and sheep, and loss of
ancestral lands and shrines causing a breakdown in cultural and economic ties.

The Valley Tonga were thus particularly vulnerable to the impact of resettlement because of their
land tenure system. They were also faced with the reorganization of their methods of land usage.
The various Tonga groups who had always communicated and intermarried across the river,
were resettled on land further away from the river on both sides, disrupting the social unity of the
community.

The Valley Tonga were promised that their new settlements would be electrified, provided with
tap water, and that would be given farming inputs. However, no provisions were made to enable
the displaced communities to benefit from the new resources like electricity and water, and the
provision of social infrastructure was completely inadequate. These promises never materialized.
People have developed a very bad habit of waiting for handouts from government and other
organization; some have given up on farming as a result of this.

In general, food insecurity in Siavonga is complex. It is caused by poor rainfall patterns, poverty,
unemployment, diseases like HIV/AIDS, agricultural unproductivity, inadequate farming inputs
and other implements, high vulnerability to climatic changes, poor and infertile soils, and low
literacy levels.

Page | 30
10.3 SECTION C: Effects of food insecurity
Objective 2: To find out the effects of food insecurity on the lives of local people in Lusitu
This section presents the effects of food insecurity on individuals, households, and entire
community of Lusitu. The table below depicts responses from household heads reached.

Table 3: Effects of food insecurity

Cause Frequency Percentage
Poverty 15 23%
Malnutrition 12 19%
Disease 11 17%
Theft 6 9%
Death 6 9%
Depression/stress 6 9%
Unproductivity 2 3%
Marital disputes 2 3%
underdevelopment 1 2%
People eat seeds 1 2%
Stop schooling 1 2%
Land degradation 1 2%
100%

From the table above, 23 % indicated that food security causes poverty. Those of this view
strongly stressed their food insecurity position as a direct result of poverty. When you are
hungry, cannot do anything, as a result you continue being poor and hungry. One respondent
stressed. Hunger, poverty and disease are interlinked, with each contributing to the occurrence of
the other two. Hunger reduces natural defenses against most diseases, and is the main risk factor
for illness. People living in poverty often cannot produce or buy enough food to eat and so are
more susceptible to disease. Sick people are less able to work or produce food. This erases the
economic gains of the past decades, while putting at risk the recent investments in public health
and education as well as community development. Without action to reverse these trends,
Zambia could see a disabled generation.

Page | 31
Malnutrition as the direct effect of food insecurity was mentioned 12 times out 30 households
that were reached representing a percentage point of 19%. Children in most households could
vividly seen exhibiting some signs of poor diet. This has a devastating effect on children, in
particular, who face life-long physical and cognitive disabilities. The nutritional status of
women, who are the main farmers and carers of families, is also a grave concern. As a result of
this People on ART die due to poor diet or inadequate food. Disease was mentioned 11 times
representing 17% followed by theft, depression and death standing at 6 times representing 9%.
Unproductivity as a result of inadequate dietary energy required to perform is one of the effects
of food insecurity mentioned by some respondents represented by 3% along with marital
disputes as the husband is unable to provide for the family.

Worthy to note however is the undercover of underdevelopment resulting from unattainable

strategies adopted during crises. Resources are devoted for survival purposes and not on
sustainable livelihoods. People, during food shortages in Lusitu resort to eating their seeds (2%)
for the following planting season leaving them vulnerable. Children have withdrawn from school
(2%) because parents cannot afford paying for their basic school requirements at the expense of
food. This contributed to the high illiteracy rates in Lusitu. Further, the land is degraded (2%) as
a result of unsustainable agricultural practices like monoculture. The land people were given
after the resettlement is no longer adequate for both people and their livestock. The land has been
overgrazed; the cover has been washed away. People have resorted to charcoal burning as one of
their coping strategies at the expense of the ecosystem-some believe that Lusitu will turn into a
desert.

10.4 SECTION D: Coping strategies

Objective 3: To explore coping strategies for the local people of Lusitu

Consumption strategies include borrowing food, borrowing money to buy food on credit, relying
on less preferred foods as a substitute for maize, regularly reducing the number of meals eaten
per day, regularly eating of vegetables only and eating unusual types of wild food that are not
normally eaten.

In understanding coping strategies, labor is a main asset for all households. There was
recognition from participants that HIV/AIDS has had a deteriorating effect on household labor

Page | 32
capacity. The very poor not only lack meager assets, they also lack some of the basic necessities
of life. They have no store grain; in addition, they do not have adequate clothing. Most of the
households reached have no identifiable source of income and most of them rely on sporadically
available casual work (piece works). The identified coping strategies employed in Lusitu are
discussed below;

10.4.1 Selling off assets: selling of assets, especially by those who own some assets (cattle,
goats, pigs, chickens and ducks) was cited as one of the coping strategies people employ in
Lusitu-The sale of livestock was prominently mentioned as the asset they sell during food
shortages. The poorest households may be forced to sell assets that are difficulty to regain such
as household items or breeding livestock in order to obtain food, send children to school or buy
other basic household necessities.

10.4.2 Engaging in casual labor: after a shock especially droughts in Lusitu, people are forced
to engage in casual work, those who can manage, that is. This leaves those involved unable to
cultivate their own fields, forcing them to fall back in the same hunger traps thereby perpetrating
food insecurity.

10.4.3 Seeking assistance/remittances: households reached cited borrowing form relatives and
neighbors in times of shortages. Some further indicated soliciting help from their churches as one
of the strategy they use.

10.4.4 Charcoal burning: during times of drought and crop failure, poor households turn to
common resources like forests, to cutting down trees to burn charcoal. This practice as others is
not sustainable and contributed to climate change.

10.4.5 Wild fruits gathering: this is the mostly used strategy in Lusitu, more especially poorer
households. Around June to August, villagers shift and spent their day time in bushes gathering
fruits, which are later dried for later use, some sold and yet some for immediate consumption.
Amazingly, households own trees in bushes and they build shelters around these trees. This
shows how cute the food crisis is in Lusitu. Fruits found in Lusitu are mabuyu (baobab fruits),
busika, muchinga-chinga and masau.

Page | 33
Images 1: Fruits eaten in Lusitu as a coping strategy

masau Mabuyu (baobab Masau tree

Courtesy of Kanenga Haggai, 2013

10.4.6 Venturous activities: some however, engage in venturous activities which are sustainable
and commendable. Such activities include gardening and the sale of vegetables, business
activities like retail shops and fuel deals and piece works. Unfortunately, some fail to cope up
with any of the mentioned strategies above, the only option they have is migrating to other
places. There is no adequate research on the trends of such people in terms of how they cope up
or do where they migrate to.

The graph below represents findings from the participants on how they cope of up with food
insecurity or food shortage in Lusitu;

Graph 6: coping strategies

migrate
3% coping strategies
charcoal wild fruits
small business
burning gathering
6%
3% 26%
begging
11%

sale of casual work gardening

livestock 26% 11%
14%

Page | 34
Form the graph above, 26% mentioned casual work and wild fruits gathering, followed by sale of
livestock (14%). About 11% mentioned gardening and begging out the total 30 households
reached. 6% mentioned small businesses and 3% mentioned migration and charcoal burning.

10.5 SECTION E: Ways of reducing food insecurity in Lusitu

Objective 4: To probe the various ways for reducing food insecurity
The solution to food insecurity in Lusitu lies in increasing food availability, food access and food
adequacy for all. The food insecurity situation in Lusitu is particularly correlated directly to
poverty. Therefore, it is necessary to not only alleviate poverty but also create wealth for the
target population. The key lies in mutual honest intention from multi-stakeholders to ensure that
all is done for the sole purpose of fighting food insecurity. Participation of local people at the
grassroots is very cardinal in development discourse, as such, participants were asked what they
thought could reduce food insecurity and promote sustainable human development. The
following strategies were suggested by Lusitu residents;

10.5.1 Development of irrigation schemes: the fact that Lusitu is in the ecological zone III, an
ecological zone area which receives insufficient rainfall, this point can be validated by the earlier
data presented on the rainfall pattern. Participants felt that the major thing or way which can
improve on agricultural production and availability of food is the development of an efficient,
effective and cost effective irrigation technology in the area to empower them. However, some
attempts have been made by some organizations which provided residents with triddle pumps.
The scheme failed because there was no sustainability mechanisms developed to ensure that
people continued benefiting even when such organizations pulled out. This can be facilitated by
constructing dams for livestock and other farming activities.

10.5.2 Development of government assistance schemes: such schemes as social security and
other safety nets as an urgent help is cardinal. This however is not sustainable. The position of
this paper is that people should be empowered with sustainable livelihoods to promote resiliency,
ecological integrity and social equity.

10.5.3 Employment creation and the promotion of business opportunities: poverty reduction
(food insecurity) requires not just the promotion of employment but employment and sustainable
livelihoods. Adjustment strategies that seek to bring about realignment of resources and a

Page | 35
reorientation in resource use by individual households. These can only be promoted if deliberate
policies that promote employment and other business opportunities are developed. Most
respondents held this view. One respondent said this if there were employment opportunities, I
think would have been better

10.5.4 Livestock development: most respondents felt that livestock could reduce food
insecurity. Government should empower residents with livestock and strengthen veterinary
services to control diseases and development breeds that disease resistant. Extension services
need to be scaled up to improve on management of livestock. Livestock can serve as a source of
nutritious food; milk and meat, draft power, can provide manure instead of depending of
fertilizers. One man said this if the government can give us cattle or goats, the problem can be
reduced.

10.5.5 Development of local markets and the provision of accessible financial services:
infrastructure development is key to the reduction of food insecurity. Food systems depend to a
large extent on the kind of infrastructure and systems in effect. Local markets should be
developed to ensure incomes for those who may decide to venture into livestock production or
business or irrigation and other farming activities. we dont have customers to buy our
vegetables, sometimes they just go bad stressed one respondent.

10.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Policy

1. Government needs to provide smallholders with a range of pre-and post-harvest services that
include:
i. Finance schemes
ii. Extension advice
iii. Input market systems
iv. Market information and linkages

2. Policies and programs should be designed to support agricultural and entrepreneurial

activities that include specific strategies to strengthen the position of women
Practice

3. Increasing participation: Increased capacity building and efforts to involve local

communities and especially the poor, in designing, implementing and monitoring projects
should be promoted to empower local people to own development initiates

Page | 36
 4. Lusitu specific strategies should be designed that can include sensitization, skills
development, promotion of conservation farming, introduction of field schools,
introduction of appropriate, cost-effective and sustainable technologies in irrigation,
livestock management, and farming techniques should urgently be developed and
implemented

Further Research

5. Further research using participatory poverty assessment methods should be conducted in

Lusitu to find local driven strategies of fighting food insecurity as an empowering
process

11.0 CONCLUSIONS

Both chronic and transitory food insecurity is prevalent in Lusitu. For rural households, food
entitlement is linked to agriculture, while crop production risk is a primary determinant of food
insecurity. Insufficient food production capacity, lack of income diversification and unfavorable
climatic conditions are therefore, the main causes of food insecurity for rural households. Lusitu
has been experiencing some problems such as droughts, malnutrition, soil erosion, low
agricultural productivity, poor infrastructure, wrong farming techniques and high vulnerability to
the impacts of climate change. The pattern of rainfall is unreliable, making rain-fed agriculture a
hazardous operation. Drought periods are common, forcing people to depend on social welfare,
food-for-work programs and food deliveries by donors. Most of the extreme poor depend on
agriculture and related activities for a significant part of their livelihood.

This study presented findings on the causes and effects of food insecurity from a study done in
Lusitu. This study found out that there is chronic food insecurity in the area. All reached
respondents, including key informants and an informed observation and that the problem is
urgent. Of the total reached households, 63% were females and 37% were men. Out of the total,
73% were male headed households as compared to 27% their female counterparts. Among the
females, 10% were divorced, 32% were widowed and the other 58% were married. For men,
91% were married and 9% represented those that were single. Household heads ranged between

Page | 37
the ages of 21 and 88; 21 being the youngest and 88 being the oldest. Most of the household
heads fell between the years of 37-40.

The study found out that there are high rates of illiteracy in the area. 14 out of the total 30
participants had no single education. 12 had at least primary education and only 4 out of the total
30 had secondary education though only one (1) with G11 and the other 3 G9.

Poor and unreliable rainfall pattern was found to be the major cause of food insecurity. All
participants, including key informants agreed. The area only had 26 rainfall activities the whole
entire rain season, the maximum activity having recorded 60.4mm and the least being 1.0mm. in
addition to this, the study found out that attacks by insects (2) and animals (3), unemployment
(2), poor soils (5), lack of knowledge (1) and lack of farming inputs and implements (3) as well
as hot temperatures (2) compound the food insecurity situation. These are categorized under
insufficient production, lack of adequate agricultural facilities and services, climate change and
natural disasters, HIV/AIDS and traditional inclinations of the people as the main causes of food
insecurity.

The study found out that food insecurity contributes to poverty (15 out of the total respondents),
malnutrition (12), disease (11), theft (6), depression (6), unproductivity (2), marital disputes (2)
and underdevelopment as well land degradation. Further, children spot schooling because parents
can longer afford to send them to school. When households are hit by a crisis, the resort to
selling off them assets or engage in casual labor. Some seek assistance from relatives as some
resort to charcoal burning, gardening and the gathering of wild fruits.

Finally, the food insecurity problem can be fought or at least reduced the following can be
considered; development of irrigation schemes, development of assistance schemes by the
government as well as the creation of sustainable employment and the promotion of business
opportunities and the development of local markets and provision of accessible credit facilities.
Livestock is particularly important. The solution to food insecurity in Lusitu lies in increasing
food availability, food access and food adequacy for all. The food insecurity situation in Lusitu is
particularly correlated directly to poverty. Therefore, it is necessary to not only alleviate poverty
but also create wealth for the target population. The key lies in mutual honest intention from
multi-stakeholders to ensure that all is done for the sole purpose of fighting food insecurity.

Page | 38
 REFERENCES
Chizuni, J. M. (1994). Food Policies and food security in zambia. Lusaka: MACO.
Clark, D. A. (2006). The Elgar Companion to Development Studies. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar
Publishing Limited.
Cross, R. (2006). Southern Africa Food Security interim Final Report. Red Cross.
CSO. (1999). Lusaka: CSO.
Davis, B. (2003). food, Agriculture and rural development; current and emeging issues for
economic analysis and policy research. Rome: FAO.
DDMU. (2011). Review of the national Disaster Mnagement Policy and Operational Manual;
Siavonga Checklist Review.
De Beer, F. &. (2000). Introduction To Development Studies. New York: Oxford University
Press.
FAO. (2006). food security and agricultural development in Sub-Saharan Africa; Building a
case for more Supoort. Rome: FAO.
FAO. (2010). Global Hunger. Rome: FAO.
FAO. (2011). FAO in the 21st Century;ensuring food security in a changing world. Rome:
FAO.
FAO. (2011). The State of Food Security in the world. Rome: FAO.
FAO. (2012). Statistical Year Book 2012. FAO.
FAO. (2012). The state of food insecurity in the world. Rome: FAO.
FFSSA. (2003). Zambia Food Security Issues Paper. FFSSA.
MACO. (2005). Alternative food policies. Lusaka: MACO.
Moorhead, A. (2009). Climate, Agriculture and Fodd Security; A strategy for change. CGIAR.
POST. (2006). Food Security in Developing Countries. Postnote.
The Right to food security; A case study Report on Zambia. (2010).
UNDP. (2012). Africa Human Development Report; Towards a food secure future. New York:
UNDP.
UNEP. (2002). Towards Global food security: Fighting Against hunger. UNEP.
Wise, A. T. (2012). The Continuing Food Crisis; Policy Reforms Lag. Economic and Political
Weekly, 39-44.

Page | 39
APPENDIX 1: Field images

Page | 40
 APPENDIX 1: WORK PLAN

SN ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION DURATION

1 LITERATURE The reviewing and examination of secondary
REVIEW data sources on the topic. This includes articles, 15th Aug-3rd Oct,
books, journals, magazines, reports and 2012 (50 days)
internet, etc.
2 PROPOSAL This is the systematic classification and
WRITING organization of all necessary information useful 25th Oct-23rd
for the writing and completion of a research Nov,2012 (30
proposal. Actual writing of the proposal. days)
3 PREPARATION Designing, creation and construction of
OF DATA questionnaires and interview guides which are 25th -27th
COLLECTION the data collection tools Nov,2012 (3
TOOLS days)

4 PRE-TESTING Testing the effectiveness of the data collection 10th -12th

DATA tools to ensure reliability, validity and April,2013(3
COLLECTION effectiveness of findings. days)
TOOLS
5 REVISING THE Making final changes and alteration to the tools June 25-27 2013
DATA based on new issues raised during the pre-test. (2 days)
COLLECTION
TOOLS IN
READINESS FOR
THE FIELD
6 ACTUAL FIELD The actual collection of raw primary data in the 1st-5th July 2013
WORK field using the approved tools (5 days)

7 DATA ANALYSIS This involves the evaluation and interpretation 19th-24th August,
of all data collected from the field. 2013 (6 days)

8 REPORT Systematic compilation of data analysis, results 2nd -5th

WRITING and findings into a report September,2013
(4days)
9 REPORT Handing in the report for assessment and 6th September,
SUBMISSION marking 2013

NOTE; the dates are subject to change due to uncertainty in semester session dates!

Page | 41
 APPENDIX 2.0 BUDGET

DESCRIPTION OF ITEMS QUANTITY UNIT COST TOTAL (K)

(K)
Secondary Data Collection
Transport to and from sources of data 10, 000
Internet 5, 000

SUB-TOTAL 15, 000

Preparation of Draft Proposal
Paper 1 ream 30, 000
Pens and Pencils 2, 000

SUB-TOATL 32, 000

Preparation/ Printing
Questionnaire
Printing proposal and binding 20, 000
Printing Questionnaire and Interview Guide
Photocopying Questionnaires 1, 500
4, 000

SUB-TOTAL 25, 500

Data Collection
Transport to and from the site 125, 000
Sundry expenses during data collection 50, 000
food 50, 000
SUB-TOTAL 225, 000
Preparation of Final Report
Printing Final Report 20, 000
Binding 5, 000
SUB-TOTAL 25, 000
GRAND TOTAL 322, 500

Page | 42
 APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HOUSEHOLDS-PRIMARY TARGETS
SN THEMES
1 Household demographic information
Food insecurity
2 Household access to resources
3 Livelihood activities
4 Household livelihood outcomes
5 Ways of reducing food insecurity
INDICATORS
1. Sex
2. Name
3. Age
4. Educational level
5. Status of the household head
6. Primary and secondary activities of individual
members in the household (occupation)
7. Is there food insecurity in Lusitu?
8. Causes of food insecurity-internal &external
9. Effects of food insecurity
10. Ownership and value of household
assets(endowments and entitlements )
11. Access to land
12. Ownership of livestock
13. Exchange conditions (prices of food and non-food
products and other services)
14. Activities engaged last year-including agricultural
production and sales
15. Other sources of cash income-has the HH benefited
from any food aid/distribution-past one year?
16. Estimates of food consumption (utilization) and
supply (availability)
17. Sources of household water
18. Coping strategies
19. Are there ways you think food insecurity can be
reduced?
20. If any, explain how?
21. Suggest what you think can be done
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APPENDIX 4: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANTS

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

NAME KANENGA HAGGAI

COMP NO. 29012856
LECTURER MR ELEMU, D.
COURSE RESEARCH PROJECT (DS 402)
TASK RESEARCH PROJECT-INTERVIEW GUIDE

TITLE: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FOOD INSECURITY IN SIAVONGA: THE

CASE STUDY OF LUSITU

Dear respondent,
This is an academic research project; I am expected to practically conduct a research as a partial
fulfillment to the award of the BA degree in Development Studies. The project is purely and
exclusively academic and any consequent result will also be treated as such. Therefore, the
contents and findings thereof will not be used in any way for any other purposes than academics.
Further, note that maximum code of ethics will strictly be followed, as such, you are free to
choose whether to participate or not.

Your participation in this study is very important, therefore, will greatly be appreciated.

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THEMES
Back ground information
Causes of food insecurity
Effects of food insecurity
Coping strategies and ways to
reduce food insecurity
QUESTIONS
1. Name
2. Sex
3. Position
4. Organization
5. Is there food insecurity in Lusitu?
6. Intensity of the problem
7. From your work experiences, what do you think
could be the causes of food insecurity (internal and
external)?
8. Do the geographical features of the area affect the
food security of the residents in any way? Identify
these features.
9. Is there any correlation between the traditional
beliefs of the people and their food situation?
10. What could be some of the effects of food
insecurity on the lives of local people in Lusitu?
11. Which age group is most hit and why?
12. In times of food shortages, what are the coping
strategies for local people?
13. What intervention mechanisms has your
organization been involved in to help cushion the
impacts of food insecurity?
14. Suggest various ways that can help reduce
problems of food insecurity.
15. What are your recommendations?
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