Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Page 1 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
Again, the drawback was that they were made of iron.
For removing sand and rock, wooden wheelbarrows were used.
For lifting, the most common tool was the crowbar (a lever).
It was cheap and strong, but difficult to use when required to lift a load more than a
short distance. The load would have to be lifted, and then packed with a wedge so that
it could not move. The crowbar was then removed and a spacer was placed below it.
Then the load was again lifted a short distance. The whole procedure would have to be
repeated many times.
A lifting trestle was developed to advance the use of the lever. This simple machine
allowed the crowbar height to be adjusted without having to keep packing it and the
load.
An improvement that was used to lift loads was the screwjack. Made of wood, the
thread and nut was used to easily lift loads. The drawback of this tool was the material
that it was made from. Some jacks were made with worm gears, which allowed easy
movement in one direction (lifting) but difficulty in moving the opposite direction,
thereby preventing the load from slipping back
.
Wooden wheelbarrows were used for moving sand and stone.
The screw principle was used to clamp and press, as well as lift.
Grapes could be pressed to make wine and olives pressed to make oil.
Wooden differential pulley blocks were also invented around this time.
The top block contained two sheaves of different diameters, mounted together so to
form one piece. The bottom block contained one sheave only. A rope passed first round
the larger top sheave, then round the bottom sheave and then round the smaller top
Page 2 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
sheave. When raising or lowering the load, the loose chain passing from the larger top
sheave was pulled.
The wooden wheel and hub of earlier wagons and trailers caused high friction making
them difficult to move.
To transport loads, rollers and wagons were used extensively. Timber rollers have been
used since ancient times. Some had slots cut in their ends. A lever could then be
inserted and a considerable propelling force could be exerted.
Simple wagons and trailers were also used. They had a huge drawback due to the high
friction created between the wheel and hub. This was caused by wood rubbing on
wood, which can produce a high resistance to movement.
Tall scaffolds with winches were used to lift columns into position.
The scaffolds were made of timber. To dig the hole for the column to fit into, pile
drivers were used. A pointed weight, attached to a rope so that it could be raised, was
dropped from these tall scaffolds. The constant dropping of the weight eventually
created a deep hole.
Solid steel rollers were used to compact earth for road building. Some had a mass in
excess of 600kg.
Surveying instruments were also used extensively and worked similarly to those used
today.
Page 3 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
High productivity keeps costs down. This, in turn, makes manufacturing cheaper.
Cheaper manufacturing increases the market, enabling a larger number of people to
afford a product.
This principle also applies to the construction industry. The cheaper that a contractor,
such as a plumber, can carry out work, the more competitive he or she can become.
Keeping the above in mind, any type of work must be carried out as quickly and
cheaply as possible, without sacrificing quality.
The advent of tool mechanisation and the easy availability of specialised equipment has
had an enormous effect on productivity.
Work is now less labour intensive. This has led to many social problems, because
machines now carry out tasks that previously employed numerous people to carry out.
Other than productivity benefits, people also have to be trained to use specialised
equipment.
The purpose of any tool is to assist a worker to perform a task. Over the last few
decades, great technical progress has been made, especially with regard to tools and
equipment. The advent of the computer and specialized programs resulted in enormous
increases in productivity. In the construction industry, design and architectural
computer programs are used every day, making drawing and design quick and
accurate. The days of the drawing board are definitely over. Nowadays, even dayto-
day scheduling and production planning are done on computers.
Furthermore, laser equipment is now used in surveying and levelling on construction
sites. This equipment is also used to align objects easily and is taking over from the
more conventional measuring equipment. A small laser tape measure can easily
measure up to a 40m distance in ideal conditions. The amount of surrounding light
affects the distance it can measure. The distance laser can be used in place of a tape
measure. It is highly accurate and simple to use.
Some of the better models have a memory in which the first measurement is stored.
When the second measurement is taken, it can be subtracted from, added to or
multiplied with the first. This makes it the construction industry. Stronger, more
powerful and more versatile heavy-duty machines are easily available, either to buy or
to hire.
Bulldozers, cranes, mobile cranes and earth-moving equipment are seen every day on
building sites. Ready-mixed concrete is delivered even to smaller sites, making for
higher productivity.
Nowadays, for example, the breaking of a concrete floor is not done by means of a
hammer and chisel, but rather by means of jack hammers that are pneumatically
powered. For laying concrete, small batches of concrete are mixed in a compact
concrete mixer. When placed, there are vibrators available to compact and remove any
air from the concrete.
These days, controlled explosions are used to demolish large structures. A few years
ago, demolition would have been carried out by other time-consuming methods.
Of course, new materials are also being used. This, in turn, requires different types of
tools and equipment.
Page 4 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
A few years ago, all plumbing was done by means of galvanized pipe, which was hard
to work with. Threading machines were needed, so that two pipes could be joined
together. Nowadays, the plumber uses either copper or plastic pipes, and even
aluminium is being used more and more.
The use of these materials has meant that work can be carried out much faster and is
less labour intensive.
With modern machinery and the variety of tools available these days, it is very
important for us to select the correct tools for the job that needs to be done.
Page 5 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
The equipment must also be available at the correct time. This involves careful
planning. A bulldozer should not be made available long before or after a site is ready
to be cleared.
Large pieces of equipment and machinery must be able to access the site that they are
meant to service. For example, if access to a site is just a narrow lane, a large bulldozer
may not be able to reach the site.
All these considerations must be taken into account to maintain desired productivity.
Each individual is also responsible for maintaining quality in an organisation. Work
should be carried out with pride. This will automatically lead to quality. Poor-quality
work means that the job has to be redone, which leads to a loss of money and time. A
company that produces shoddy work will get a bad reputation. This, in turn, will mean
less work.
Remember that cutting corners and excessive cost cutting leads to poor quality, which
will always surface at some stage.
Page 6 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
2. condition-based maintenance, and
3. preventative maintenance.
Sometimes more than one type is used simultaneously.
The best method of explaining the three maintenance processes is by using a truck as
an example.
Page 7 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
Every year, workplace accidents cost Kenya millions of Shillings.
This money could be better spent on other, more useful, things.
Legislation has been created to try to minimise risks and accidents.
Legislation provides a standardised set of rules that can be followed by all employers
and employees. This legislation takes the form of The Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA) 2007
Page 8 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
All employees need to be completely familiar with the safety procedures within their
organisation and for their particular area of work. Generally, employees need to take
the necessary preventative measures to avoid accidents from occurring in the
workplace.
Every employee must do the following:
Take care of his or her health and safety, and the health and safety of other persons
who may be affected by his or her acts.
Carry out any lawful order given to him or her in the interest of health and safety.
Obey the health and safety rules and procedures as given to him or her.
Immediately report to his or her employer or health and safety representative any
unsafe or unhealthy situation of which he or she is aware.
Report an incident that has occurred and may affect his or her health to the
supervisor, the companys health and safety officer or the health and safety
representative, as soon as possible, but no later than the end of the shift in which the
incident occurred.
Not damage or misuse any equipment that is provided in the use of health or safety.
Keep himself or herself, the workplace and change rooms clean.
Page 9 of 10
NIST Paul Macharia
Non-compliant equipment
All the equipment and tools used on a construction site must be properly maintained
and cared for. Machines that are not in a good operating condition can become
dangerous to the user and others, as well as to the environment. If a machine becomes
non-compliant, it must be reported immediately to a supervisor or safety officer. An
employee may refuse to operate any tool or equipment that could be a potential
hazard.
Non-compliant equipment, such as an excessively smoking generator, can cause health
problems to people breathing in dangerous fumes. If it is placed in an area that is not
well ventilated, it can become lethal. A small dump truck with defective brakes can
cause an accident with serious injury. The driver should stop operating the truck
immediately until it is fixed.
Some examples of non-compliant equipment are:
defective electrical connections on power tools
machines without safety guards
equipment not used for their intended use, and
poorly maintained tools and equipment.
If an employee notices any of the above situations, it is his or her responsibility to act.
The employee should first inform management or his or her immediate supervisor and
bring the hazard to their attention.
Management should place appropriate signage to alert others to the non-compliant
equipment, and contact security and maintenance.
Page 10 of 10