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91-10437
Flight Dynamic Directorate
Wright Laboratory
Air Force System Command
Wright- Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-6553
.4
NOTICE
WHEN GOVERNMENT DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, OR OTHER DATA ARE USED FOR ANY
PURPOSE OTHER THAN IN CONNECTION WITH A DEFINITELY GOVERNMENT-RELATED
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WAY BE RELATED THERETO.
THIS REPORT HAS BEEN REVIEWED BY THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS (ASDIPA)
AND IS RELEASABLE TO THE NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS). AT
NTIS IT WILL BE AVAILABLE TO THE GENERAL PUBUC INCLUDING FOREIGN NATIONS.
THIS TECHNICAL REPORT HAS BEEN REVIEWED AND IS APPROVED FOR PUBUCATION.
DAVID R. SELEGAN
Acting Chief
Aeromechanics Division
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WL/FIMM
Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-6553 WL-TR-91-3073
WL/FIMM
Wright-Patterson AFB Oh 45433-6553
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
OF REPORT OF THIS OACr OF ABSTRACT
Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified Unlimited
NSN 1540-0' 29O 5500 Stardard t-n, .'98 ,.v 2 89)
Foreword
This technical report was prepared by Captain Michael G. Alexander from Wright
Laboratory, Flight Dynamics Directorate, Aeromechanics Division, Wright-Patterson AFB,
Ohio, 45433-6553. This work was accomplished under work project 240410A2, Advanced
Tactical Transport. This technical report provides the wind tunnel testing engineer a
handbook with useful equations, definitions, and concepts to aid in wind tunnel testing.
The author wishes to thank the exceptional insights, observations, expertise and help
ii01i, Mr. Tom Tighe, Mr. Jim Grove, Mr. Bob Guyton and Mr. Larry Rogers all from
WL/FIMMC (Wright Laboratory, Airframe Aerodynamics Group).
SAcecslon For
iii I
Table of Contents
v
Table of Contents (continued)
V TRIP STRIPS
vI
Table of Contents (continued)
vii
Table of Contents (continued)
Viii
Table of Contents (continued)
ix
Table of Contents (continued)
IX STRESS ANALYSIS
X T'RENDS
x
Table of Contents (continued)
RIi'REN.('J." .................................... I
'l
Table of Contents (concluded)
xii
List of Figures
111-1 Force and Moment Vectors; Aft Tailed Aircraft .............. 111-6
111-2 Force and Moment Vectors; Tailless Aircraft ..... ........... 111-6
111-3 Force and Moment Vectors; Canard Aircraft ................. 111-7
111-4 Positive Angle, Moment, and Body Axis Definition ............ 111-8
IV-1 Body Axis System ......... ......................... IV-2
IV-2 Wind Axis System ......... ......................... IV-3
IV-3 Stability Axis System ........... ...................... IV-4
IV-4 Angle Definitions ........... ........................ IV-7
IV-5 Rotation Order ............. ......................... IV- I1
IV-6 Balance Axis. ............. .......................... IV- 12
V-1 Boundary Layer Thickness ......... .................... V- 10
V-2 Streamwise Grit Location ......... .................... V- I I
V-3 Grit Height ........... ........................... V-12
V-4 Carborundum Grit Number ....... ..................... V- 13
V-5 Minimum Grit Size (method 2) ....... .................. V-14
VI-_1 Airfoil Nomenclature ........... ...................... VI-4
VI-2 General Planform Parameters ....... ................... VI-5
VI-3 Conventional, Straight-Tapered Planform ...... .............. VI-6
VI-4 Double Delta and Cranked Wing Planform ................... VI-8
VI-5 Planform Example ......... ......................... VI- 10
VII-I Drag Tree ........... ............................. Vii-9
VII-2 (CL vs CD) Drag Polar; subsonic ....................... VII- 10
xii1
List of Figures concluded
xiv
List of Tables
xv
.ubsonic
Wind
Tunnel
Testing
:Tandbook
xvii
I INTRODUCTION
I Introduction
The aerodynamic engineer who participates in wind tunnel testing often has a need for
reference material to aid him/her in his/her testing. It is nearly impossible for the
engineer to recall every equation, concept, definition, and to carry reference material to
the wind tunnel site. This handbook, Subsonic Wind Tunnel Testing Handbook, attempts to
provide to the testing engineer in one reference some of those equations, concepts, and
definitions that he or she might find helpful during testing. This handbook is a quick
reference for the testing engineer and is an amalgamation of information from numerous
reference materials and personal observations. It is designed to be a living document
readily expandable and to fit in a briefcase to accompany the testing engineer to the test
site. Also by design, this aid has not encompassed every wind tunnel technique or
principle, but offers enough information to facilitate and help ease wind tunnel testing.
This handbook is predominantly structured for subsonic (non-compressible flow), force and
moment, wind tunnel testing. For compressible flow testing, an excellent reference aid
is the NACA 1135 (ref. 1). However, it is no longer in print by the government, but,
reprints of the NACA 1135 can be procured from reference 2.
I- 1
II AERODYNAMIC DEFINITIONS
II
II Aerodynamic Definitions
Symbols
cg Center of Gravity
CL Lift Coefficient
cp Center of Pressure
MAC Mean Aerodynamic Chord
N Neutral Point
0
SM Static Margin
Xnp Distance from the MAC leading edge to the aerodynamic center
Xcg Distance from the MAC leading edge to the center of gravity
aC m Pitching Moment Coefficient slope
acc
aC
mcg Slope of the cg pitching moment and lift curve
L
AC
n Slope of yawing moment coefficient and the yaw angle
ap
a Cn Slope of yawing moment coefficient and the sideslip angle
aC1
aC
1 Slope of rolling moment coefficient and the sideslip angle
ap3
Y Angle-of-Attack
13 Sideslip Angle
(P Yaw Angle
TI-I-
Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) - The point where the pitching moment does not vary with tile
angle of attack.
Center of Pressure (cp)- A point where the pitching moment vanishes. The cp location
varies with angle of attack and Mach number.
N'Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) - The chord of an imaginary, untwisted, unswept, equal span
non-tapered wing which would have force vectors throughout
the flight range identical with thobe u," the actual %,
ing or
wings.
Neutral Point (xnp or N0 ) - As the cg is moved aft, the slope of aCmcg / aCL becomes
Static Margin - The distance from the center of gravity to the neutral point expressed as
a fraction of the mean aerodynamic chord. The 'X' position
of Xnp is measured positive aft from the c.g..
X -X a
SM = np cg _ mcg
aCC
Longitudinal Static Stability - Is determined by the sign and the magnitude of the slope
aC
of C m versus a curve. m must be < 0 and C
aam must be
a~t 0
11-2
positive longitudinal stability.
Directional Static Stabiliiy - Is determined by the sign and magnitude of the slope of C
aC
versus P3curve, where 03 is the sideslip angle. n must
a13
be positive (> 0) for directional stability. This is also
known as weathercock stability. Also, Cn versus (p can be
dC
used where p is the yaw angle. n must be negative (< 0)
for directional stability.
Lateral Static Stability - It is determined by the sign and magnitude of the slope of the
8C 1
C1 versus 03curve, must be negative (< 0) for positive
a0
lateral stability. This is also known as the dihedral
effect. An increase in lateral stability causes dutch roll;
too little stability causes spiral instability.
Dynamic Stability - Is the time history of the movements of a body in response to its
static stability tendencies following an initial disturbance
from equilibrium.
Trimmed Flight - For balanced flight, the aircraft flies at a given elevator angle and
angle of attack that produces Cm = 0.
Critical Mach Number - Is the Mach number where there is a sharp increase in drag (drag
divergence, approximately Mach = 1.0).
11-3
This page was intentionally left blank
11-4
NOTES
11-5
NOTES
11-6
NOTES
11-7
NOTES
11-8
III FORCE AND MOMENT EQUATIONS
III
III Force and Moment Equations
Cn Yawing Moment 6C
C Yawing moment curve slope -- n
x C
cp Center of Pressure cp m
c CN
CN
III-1
General Aerodynamic Symbols and Equations (continued)
Cy
Y Side Force Coefficient
D Drag Force (lbf) -- (D = Nsinca + Acosot)
8C x N
N Neutral point -- m _ cg 0
8 CL
0 c
L + T sinatT L
n Load Factor -- - - (for ccT small)
W W
M Mach number
PM Pitching Moment (dimensional)
P Pressure
R Gas Constant
T Thrust
7 Temperature; (Rankine)
2
q Dynamic Pressure -- 0.5pV 2 or 0.7(Ps)M
111-2
General Aerodynamic Symbols and Equations (concluded)
np CLc
13 Angle of sideslip
Angle of roll
11 Tail efficiency factor (qt/q.)
(P Angle of yaw
C Downwash angle
0 local angle of inclination of surface to V
Subscripts
np -- neutral point w -- wing t -- tail
s -- static pressure T -- Thrust c -- canard
cg -- center of gravity ac -- aerodynamic center
inc -- incompressible o -- freestream conditions
111-3
Table 1
Force and Moment Definitions
Forces
Moments
Parameter legend
111-4
Aerodynamic Equations
CM
cg
CC CL[w] [TZTV
=[M1
[ac]jw
+ + CD [lz +
[c
TjJ - CLt)'t
C(Vw -
L
Ccgl inlet
= at[(la .O8__
-
)a
cx+ + ,Aal
a
111-5
Sign
Convention
ZT NT
T
ENGINE
w
Aft Tailed Aircraft
Meg t 111-6
NWB
Nc LwB
LcDc McDB
ac 'acM "C-0./ -ZieWB Fuselage.
Meg ca
Ic J-7 XW NT
ZT
Canard Aircraft
111-7
Wind Reference
Win' Refrence + a + C
Plane
V Positive Pitching
(Moment
+C+U
V
Positive Yawing
Symmylng
+ Z
Positive Rolling
Moment
1l1-8
Stick-Fixed Neutral Point
x N
SCM/SCL _g 0
Two-Dimensional Lift
Subsonic
ain (Cxa)
CL - inc a (cx in rads)
2
inc 1 - M
Supersonic
CL2D 4c
Pressure Coefficient
Incompressible
F 2 p- p Cp.
Ci =1 C P C- nc (thin-airfoil
Pinc 7J c q - theory)
Compressible
Sp = y2
YMO
Cp
[ 22: I + .5(y -
M2]Y
1)M
111-9
C=p 20 0 = >0 compression (0 in rads)
SM 2
_0 = <0 expansion
CM
Xcp3 =- CN (units of length)
Assume the moment reference center is at a distance 'x' from the L.E.
and then take moments about the a.c.
x CM -CM
ac x x ac
-c -c CLCosat + CDsina
for a << 1
x CM CM
ac x x ac
-
c
-
cL
CL
Mo = pAV
I11-10
NOTES
111- Il
NOTES
III- 12
NOTES
1I1- 13
NOTES
III-14
NOTES
111-15
NOTES
III-16
IV AXIS SYSTEM DEFINITIONS
IV
IV Axis System Definitions
(Ref. 6)
Tunnel Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which remains fixed with respect to
the tunnel in pitch, roll and yaw.
Body Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which remains fixed with respect to
the model and rotates with it in pitch, roll, and yaw (figure IV-l). All
forces, moments, and axis systems are referenced from the Body axis.
Yb- Lateral body axis perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the aircraft,
usually taken in the plane of the wing; positive toward right wing tip.
zb Vertical body axis in the plane of symmetry of aircraft, perpendicular to
the longitudinal and lateral axes; positive down.
Wind Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which is obtained by rotating through
pitch and yaw, but not roll with respect to the Body axis. This system
defines lift as perpendicular to the relative wind, drag as parallel to the
relative wind, and side force as perpendicular to the plane of lift and
drag (figure IV-2).
Stability Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which remains fixed with respect
to the relative wind in pitch, but rotates with the model in yaw and roll.
Lift is defined as perpendicular to the relative wind with drag and side
force yawing with the model (figure IV-3). The only difference between the
Stability axis and the Body axis is a.
Ys- Lateral stability axis, coincident as the lateral body axis; positive out
the right wing tip.
zs Vertical stability axis in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft,
perpendicular to the longitudinal and lateral stability axes; positive down.
IV-1
Side View
+xB
CC
Rear View I
+'tri+ i
urnQ
+zX nun-le
FigreIV1 od AisSyte
RearIV 2iw
Side View
+X CLw
RearVie clww
+ X+-
Top View CY wI
CL
Fiur I- WidAisSse
Rear View CW
+zW~ Cy w -- _+:Yw
+Z B
+Y B
I V-3
Side View
+X B
Sz
Tear View Sy
++ B 8
Fiue"V3StbltyAi Sse
+IV-4
Angle Definitions (figure IV-4)
Aerodynamic Angles
cx - Pitch angle-of-attack, angle between the xb axis and the projection of (V)
on the plane of symmetry. A positive cX is pitch up or rotates the zb axis
into +xb axis. a = tan- (w/u)
-Yaw angle, angle between the projected total velocity vector (V) on the
xbYb plane and the +xb axis. A positive direction rotates the + Xb axis
into the +Yb axis (positive nose right). p(= tan-'(v/u).
0 -Pitch angle, positive clockwise about the +Yi axis direction (+ nose up; +zi
into +xi).
p- Yaw angle, positive clockwise about the +z. axis direction (+ nose right;
+xi into +yi).
S- Roll angle, positive clockwise about the +x. axis direction (+ rt wing down;
+Yi into +z.
(p, 0, and 0 form a system of three angles which defines the orientations of the
Body axis with the respect to the Tunnel axis system (inertial reference system). Any
orientation of the Body axis system is obtained by rotationally displacing it from the
Tunnel axis system through each of the three angles in turn. The order of rotation is
important (figure IV-5) and is defined to be yaw-pitch-roll.
A long discussion ensued over the definition of yaw ((p) and sideslip (13). After many
IV-5
arguments and three dimensional velocity box drawings, yp = -i3 (after yawing and pitching
the model. Roll = 0). When the model is yawed, pi.ched, and rolled, then yaw does not
equal minus sideslip (q * -03). The difference is obviously roll.
b = body i = inertial
It is the plane which passes through the wing tips and is parallel to the longitudinal
axis.
It is the plane that passes through the relative wind vector and intersects the wing
reference plane along a line which is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry.
It is the plane that passes through the fuselage axis and is perpendicular to both the
wing and wind reference planes.
IV-6
XB
B
S
VX
Orenato
V-27 --
Coordinate Transformation Equations
Most external balances measure about the wind axis system and most iniernal balances
measure about the body axis system. Thus it becomes necessary to transfer from one axis
system to another. If the model and balance are fixed to the sting, with no relative
motion between the model and the balance, and the sting is capable of movement in yaw,
pitch, and roll then body axis coincides with the baiaice axis. Therefore, all forces and
moments indicated by the balance are body forces and moments.The axis can pass through
either the balance moment reference center or the desired model c.g.. However, if the
model and balance axes do not coincide, additional transformati',s must be considered.
The coordinate transformations below assume data have been transferred to the desired
c.g. location. Also, at is Cbody and has not been corrected for the wind tunnel upflows
and wall effects.
IV-8
Balance Axis to-Body Axis
(Ref. 28)
Forces (roll = 0)
Forces (roll # 0)
IV-9
Moments (roll * 0)
(Note: Body c.g. is located +X, +Y, +Z from balance c.g. See figure IV-6)
CNb
Legend
IV-10
ROLL-PITCH-YAW PITCH-ROLL-YAW YAW-PITCH-ROLL
xx x
X ROTATE 900
ROTATE -900
ABOUT X
(ROLL)
2f Y ABOUT Y
(PITCH)
ROTATE +900
ABOUT Z
(YAW)
ROTATE *900 X
ABOUT Y TY
(P ITCH) ROTATE -900 ROTATE +900
4 ABOUT X ABOUT Y
(ROLL) (PITCH)
Y Nz~z Y
ROTAE, +90 x x
ABOUT Z
(YAW) ROTATE +90 ROTATE 900
ABOUT Z ABOUT X
z(YAW) (ROLL)
zz
IV-1l
CN
-%X
bal
CmXbal
CA
Ibal Balance CL
+Y NF
N
Moaci/ +X
Reference Balance
PoiPonnt -
SMoment
Reference
+Z Center
+X A
+Z
IV-12
Body Axis to Wind Axis (ref. 4 & 8)
Forces
CL = CN cosa - CA bsina
Forces
CL cosa -sina 0 CN
Moments
C =CCnbCosa - Clsinca
Moment
B = wing
_n span C 0 -sina cosa C nb
c = M.A.C. w b
IV-13
Body Axis to Stability Axis (ref. 4)
Forces
CL = CNbCOSa - CAbsina
CD = CN sinch + CA Cosot
CYs = CYb
Forces
Moments
C m =C
s mb
S
C, C1 Cosa + C~ siII
Is b nb
Cn C Cn oa - Clsino
Moments
1 0 0 m
C1 0 cosc sinc C b
C 0 -sino. cosaX C
IV-14
Wind Axis to Stability Axis (ref. 4 & 8)
Forces
CL =CL
s w
CD s =CD CoS(P - Cy singf
W w
Cy -Cy cosq + CD singp
s w w
Force
IL 1 0 0 CL
S
CD = 0 cosq -sing CD
S w
Cy 0 sing cosq Cy
"- S" - W
Moments
Cn =C n
s w
Mcments
Cm cosp - (B/c)sinp 0- Cm
s w
C,1 (c/B)sinq cosg 0 Cl
s w
Cn 1 0 0 C
B = wing span
c = M.A.C
IV-15
Since all of the fore mentioned coordinate transformation equations are orthogonal
matrices (square matrices), one can obtain the 'other' axis transformation by simply
transposing the matrix.
IV-16
NOTES
IV-17
NOTES
IV-18
NOTES
IV-19
NOTES
IV-20
NOTES
IV-21
NOTES
IV-22
V TRIP STRIPS
V
V Trip Strips
k Roughness height
uk Local streamwise velocity component inside the boundary layer at the top of the
roughness particle
VI
Boundary Layer Discussion (ref. 7)
Due to the effects of viscosity, the velocity near a surface is gradually slowed from
the freestream velocity, V., to zero velocity. The region where this velocity change
occurs is called the boundary layer. A boundary layer in which the velocity varies
approximately linearly from the surface is called laminar and a boundary layer whose
velocity varies approximately exponentially from the surface is called turbulent.
Generally speaking, the upper Reynolds number (Rn) limit for a laminar boundary layer is 1
X 106 per ft. However, transition from a laminar to a turbulent boundary layer most often
occurs at a much lower Reynolds number (5 x 105 per ft).
The boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the surface to a point
where the velocity in the boundary layer is 99% of the velocity of V\.. The boundary layer
thickness can be approximated by
Laminar
0 5
6 = 5.2 (12/Rn)
Turbulent
02
6 = 0.37 l/(Rn)
\2
Trip Strips (ref. 8)
A trip strip is an artificial roughness added to the model to fix the location of
transition from laminar to a turbulent boundary layer. The reason a trip strip is added
to a wind tunnel model is to increase the local effective Reynolds number and to
"duplicate" the boundary layer to that of a full scale test article. Some general
guidelines that are applicable to all grit-type trips are listed below (ref. 25):
4) Care should be taken no: to build up layers of adhesive which can form spanwise
ridges at the edge of the trip. These ridges also tend to make tile trip act as
a two-dimensional step.
Grit
The traditional trip strip is a finite width strip of grit. Two commercially
available grit materials that are used are Carborundum and Ballotine micro beads
or balls. Trip strip width is usually 0.100 to 0.25 inches. Clear lacquer or
double sided tape can be used as a gluing agent.
Two-Dimensional Tape
These consist of 0.125 inch height printed circuit drafting tape or chart tape.
Also, cellophane type tape can be used. The trip strip is built up by multiple
layers of tape.
V-3
Epoxy Dots
A vinyl tape of varying thicknesses that has holes of 0.05 inch diameter and
0.10 inch center to center displacement is used. This tape is applied to the
model surface and an epoxy compound is forced into the holes. Once the epoxy
has harden remove the tape.
Thread or String
Thread or string is glued to the model. This technique is not used much any
more.
Lifting Surfaces
This includes wings, tails, and fins. The trip strip is applied to both sides
of the lifting surface. For four and five digit airfoils and conventional wing
constructions, the full scale transition will occur approximately 10% of tile
chord at cruise conditions.
Fuselage
The trip strip is often located where the local diameter is one-half of the
maximum diameter. Care should be taken to ensure that the flow has not
reattached or that laminar flow has been reestablished aft of the trip strip.
Nacelles
For flow through nacelles, the trip strip is placed inside the nacelle and is
located approximately 5% aft of the inlet L.E. Also, additional trip strip is
located on the outside at 5-10% aft of the inlet L.E.
From reference 8, testing of models through a range of Reynolds and Mach numbers, it is
desirable to eliminate the need for changing grit sizes for each condition. This
elimination is accomplished by using a grit (roughness) size determined for tile
V-4
combination of test Reynolds number and Mach number which require the largest grit size -
usually at the smallest Reynolds number and largest Mach number condition. For tapered
wings (ref. 10), apply grit at a ccr.aA percer...;: of t,',,e local chord (nominally 5%).
In order to permit the use of a single grit size across the span, the grit size is
calculated for the largest chord. For wings with a sharp supersonic leading edge,
calculate the grit size using the Mach number and unit Reynolds number based on the flow
outside the boundary layer on the upper surface at the maximum test angle of attack.
Apply grit to both upper and lower wing surfaces. For sharp subsonic leading-edge wing or
round leading-edge wing, whether or not swept behind the Mach line, the freestream Mach
number and unit Reynolds number are used to determine the grit size. Using the above
criteria, there will be test conditions when grit particles are larger than the minimum
required to cause transition. However, careful application of a sparse distribution of
grit particles on a narrow strip will minimize the drag contribution of the grit itself.
Grit height determination is a black art. The testing engineer, having an understanding
of boundary layer build-up/profile (at low q, the boundary layer height is larger than at
high q), can make a determination of the grit height based on a proven method. Also,
don't forget the helpful hints from the the "old guard" that has determined grit height
many times previously. The correct method in determining the grit height for establishing
boundary layer transition is to accomplish a drag study based on grit height. But reality
(money and time) dictates the test and the use of reference 25 is generally adequate. If
the test has variable dynamic pressure (q) runs, the proper method is to have a new grit
height at each q. However, economics ($) will dictate if a grit study will be
accomplished.
Two methods of determining boundary layer and grit heights based on experimental data
are presented. The first method is for atmospheric tunnels only. The second method can
be used for either atmospheric or pressure tunnels.
This method of determining boundary layer and grit height is for wind tunnels whose test
section is roughly at one (1) atmosphere. In other words, there is no control over the
total pressure or total temperature and consequently Reynolds number per foot is a
V-5
function of velocity or Mach number. This method is based upon reference II (flIa
plate) and each figure (figures V-1 thru V-3) is represented by two total temlperature
curves, Tt= 40OF and Tt= 120 0 F.
The effect of increasing the temperature is to increase the boundary layer thickness at
each Mach number. Also by increasing the Mach number (Reynolds number per foot), the
boundary layer thickness decreases at any station (on a flat plate).
It is desirable to prevent the transition point from moving on the model during the
test. By applying the correct grit at the correct distance, the boundary layer will
transition from laminar to turbulent near the grit grains at a fixed position. The
conditions which these grains cause transition and remain fixed at subsonic speed, are
generally dependent upon the length Reynolds number, RX., and the height Reynolds number,
Rk'
Reference 25 (using ref. 11 as a reference) points out not to try to cause artificial
transition below a length Reynolds number of approximately 100,000. The first restriction
is line "A" on figure V-1. This restriction has the practical effect of moving the
transition strip aft of the wing leading edge to a fixed dimension rather than a fixed
percentage of the chord. Using the lowest Mach number on figure V-i, the minimum distance
is approximately one (1) inch. Another restriction based upon the length Reynolds number,
R x, is the location on the surface where transition from laminar to turbulent first starts
to occur naturally. Natural transition occurs on a flat plate at an approximate length
Reynolds number of 680,000 and the corresponding distance is represented by line "B" ont
figure V-1. Since transition starts naturally at line "B", it's desirable to place the
trip strip ahead of "B" at a given set of test conditions. This action precludcs the
possibility of the natural transition point moving ahead of the trip strip which could
possibly be attributed to an adverse pressure gradient.
A curve of grit height verse Mach number is shown in figure V-3. Also shown is a curve
of boundary layer height at a length Reynolds number Rx = 100,000. The critical grit
height is shown to be well within the boundary layer at each Mach number. Reference 25
has shown that transition may be achieved by the range of grit size above the minimum.
However, when the grit protrudes from the boundary layer, measurable drag is created.
Satisfactory artificial transition of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent may be
caused at a given Mach number by grit sizes which lie between the two curves in figure
V-3.
Shown in figure V-4 is a curve of Grit height verses Carborundum Grit Number. This
figure can be used to determine the use of nominal grit sizes that will provide enough
grains to cause transition provided the spacing of the individual grains is correct.
V-6
In order to satisfy the condition for minimum influence of the particles, some
consideration must be given to particle density and to the width of the grit strip. It
has been demonstrated experimentally in reference 25 that approximately one grit per every
2mm (.080 in) along the transition line is the closest desirable spacing; grains could
possibly be spaced as far as 5mm (.200 in) apart and still cause transition (sublimation
chemicals can help determine the transition point). The width of the trip strip should be
on the order of 1mm (0.04 in).
The maximum forward location of the trip strip required to cause transition is shown in
figure V-2 at two (2) different total temperatures. Figures V-2 and V-3 are used to
determine the trip strip grain size and trip location.
This method for determining the height of the trip strip originated from reference 10.
Figure V-5 is derived from reference 10 and is included in this report.
Below is an example using Method 2 to determine the grit height required to start
transition and the corresponding carborundum grit number.
Example
Wing (2-D curves)
R /ft
X* 6o _X,4 X 106 -4X
I x 106 1 x 106
R / ft
X * ___/_ft- (.5)(4) = 2 inches
6
I x 10
R /ft
006 -0.0264
1 x 10
V-7
K,4 X 106 -4K=0.0264
1 x 106
K = 0.0066 inches
Table V-I
Nominal Grit Size
.A,,- t_
- ., ;,, --illy used to lay out the trip strips (at a certain width apart).
Then shellac, lacquer, artist's clear acrylic, or even superhold hair spray is painted or
sprayed over the trip strip area. Once the adhesive material has covered the surface, ihe
grit material is dusted or blown on the wet adhesive. Grit usually is difficult to apply
V-8
to vertical and lower surfaces. To aid in applying grit to those surfaces, a piece of
paper or cardboard can be shaped into a 'V' and with skill can be blown onto the surface.
If the grit is too densely packed, use a tooth-pick to pick off selected grit particles.
V-9
.. . . . .........
. ..... ... ..
TT 46-0 f'" T=
o d -.. -;,. -120
."
Z~ rZ
R1=100"000
A
S L)120
.. .............. .
0
.j - . .. .. o.2o
Ln
o'a -
Rr~0T--B4-- . . . . MfiCH- NO
C0 0.20
0)
mn 0.50
-0 S
8 '0.95
S'" I' I I F
0.0 0.4 0,8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2,4 2.8 3.2 3.6 1.0
OLstonce oLong surFoce, x, Lnches
V-10
CD
oc
..
. ~~.. .....
..... .
ccc
* . * CD
. . . . . ..
..
V--c
I.........
.T.T. .... 120 0 F T7 .. ...... ............ Nom inal
. .. .....
.. . ... ... .....
.... .
...... ..... Gr i
a .... .... ...... ... ... . .. .... ......
0 0
0.
..
... ......... .......
.. . .. .. ..
g ...
.. .. ....
..
....................
... .. .. ........ ... . . ..... ..... ... ......
...
0.00050.0
0200.5 .1
. 03 0400.5 .5 0550..00.5 7 .. 0.0
..
7 080. 0 0.9 .00
.~ ~ .......
~...~......
~ .......
c N....u....
........
..........
V-110
.0 .. . ...
7 . . .. . .
0. ... .. . .. . . . . .. .. ... .. . . . . . . .
oD
0. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. ..
C0
0D
0. .. . . . .. . .. . . .
.0 . . . ... . . ... ..
4- C
Co0 ...
CD
CD
.0 . . . .
CD
GrtHih,5,i~e
Fiu eV4 Croun u rt N m e
zV 13
MINIMUM GRIT SIZE FOR
-U RX = 600
.0 (NACA 'rN-4383)
008 - - - - Based on 2I-D Curves. Use for Wing ~
1 ~~ and Tail Surfaces 1
Based on 3-D Curves. Use for I
0 .24 u slae and Naoa Ilee. et. 'M 1.25
- r fiH
-rr
.01 z 0.15
(1.t2~~~)(')P ~ K CJ2 !I5si
0.026 r
0.0-- -------
-----
0..2
0.02
0---- ------
--
0.016
- -- - -- - - - --
'0.0106
* . /l
0(H~f3.............
q q
---- -- ---
MINIMUM GRIT SIZi: FOR Rx 600
r 0.45:NACA TN-4:363
0.036
S0.0326
007-~ t.
H1
2
0.71 M-.
028__ 0.0 5.
I.7 7.-4:
.0.024___
.. .. .. ... .
0.020 .....
0.052
NACA TN-4363
0.048
0.0404
0.030 - _
0.012
_.00 -
0.008 0
77- 77
10O6
X\
F
.. 7b i~- f--
0.050
0.054 - __/
t-~----
7 L4d
~277V1 A M 25
0 .04 06 -4-~
0.032- -
0.032~~
a A
I~~d
----- -- ''ur'es, Us f.or Wing an d
0.020 4--'t
[- t7-
-------- --
0.015-
24 0 -1~-I ''2 14 15
vl III
NOTES
\"-!9~
NOTES
V-20
NOTES
V-21
NOTES
V-22
VI PLANFORM CHARACTERISTICS
VI
VI Planform Characteristics
Planform Symbols
AR Aspect ratio
a Cutout factor
b Full wing span
b/2 Half wing span
b/(21) Wing-slenderness parameter
bi Span of inboard planform formed by two panels
bo0 Span of outboard planform formed by two panels
c Chord (parallel to axis of symmetry) at any given span station i
c Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
cB Chord at span break station
c r or C r Root chord
ct or Ct Tip chord
1 Over-all length from wing apex to most aft point on the trailing edge
m,n Non-dimensional chordwise stations in terms of c
p Planform-shape parameter
S Wing area
Si Total area of inboard panels
S0 Total area of outboard panels
SW Wing urea affected by trailing edge deflection
AS Incremental wing area
x Chordwise location of leading edge at span station y
Xcentroid Chordwise location of centroid of area (chordwise distance from apex to
c/2)
x MAC or x Chordwise location of mean aerodynamic chord
YMAC or y Spanwise location of MAC (equivalent to spanwise location of centroid of
area)
X. Taper ratio
ALE Sweep angle of leading edge
ATE Sweep angle of trailing edge
An ,A Sweep angles of arbitrary non-dimensional chordwise locations
T1 Non-dimensional span stat'lon
VI-I
a Angle-of-attack
1 i'rio Non-dimensional span stations at inboard and outboard edges of control,
respectively
VI-2
Wing Parameters Definitions (figure VI-1)
Chord Line A straight line between the leading edge and the trailing edge of the
airfoil in the streamwise direction
Mean Camber Line A line described by the points which are equidistant from the
upper and lower wing surfaces.
Angle-of-Attack Angle between the relative wind (V.) and the chord line.
Zero Lift Line A line parallel to the relative wind (V.) and passing through the
trailing edge of the airfoil when the airfoil is at zero lift.
Effective Angle
of Attack The angle of attack of the zero lift line measured from the the
relative relative wind.
VI-3
y Tangent to Mean Camber Line
~c) max
c
L.E. rI.E
x 1.0l
Ly d maximum ordinate of
max mean camber line
(reference 12)
aX eff
Re lat ivelo
Wind
VI-4
Pianform, Parameters
General Planforms
(ref. 12 & 14)
'centroid T x
E'/2
YMA4
S =2 0 c dy c ~fo2 c dy
9 /cx dx ~f/c d
(2 yj S~ Itc F
T1 p C
cRIS dv
r RMS (-b/2) fCCr SCJ
Vl-5
Cunventional, Straight-Tapered
(ref. 12 & 14)
XEALE
"O cr
C-HA
b
AR2b ( 4(1 - X)
= C((I - a)(l + 4)tanALE
S = (b/2)C (1 + X) =
r W
AS b
2 C r [2_(lX)(l1+T]2)]
c=2Cr
2 1 +I +
X 4.
+ X
bl [I + 2X
-
"AI 6
XLE = 2-] rtanA LE = ytanA LE
+2),b1
1 b1S2)/
tjA- 1 ARIT-+-C
tanA 1 C1-0M=X) C t
Tr r (b/2___]
atanA LB r0
cb2tn 4(l X
fa- A E /2)aALBE AR(1 + 4)Fa-nALE
Tj= (2y)/b
tanAE 4 _ anAT (X )
%IT ,7
Double Delta
and
Cranked Wings
XLE
XB Cr Xcentroid Xt
ALES
I- b
- b2 2b A
A=S= - r[i1 X)1lB + ,ki + X.]
C -c + CSo
1 0
VI-8
x = x LE + c/I2
b-7 b.. + +s
IZB botanAL
1+ 0
b. tanA LE.
CC/C = XIXO
x. cB/Cr
0 =C/cB
VI-9
Planform Example
This is an example using the equations for a cranked wing to determine the MAC, c/4, and
other items of interest.
Inhadea
' t Tre-wition
,040
A 3 5"L
OUUXmrd
Ct
I
Ct= 36.51 i
b /2 =26.96 in
TE + 3651)(26.96) = 1172.2 in 2
(50.45 8.14 ft2
C = 50.45)(1.30) 43.86 in
V1-b
i= H [1 + 2Xi =(26.96)(0.473) = 12.76 in
- 2] 1][i 1+2i
x= [ 1 XjtanALE = (12.76)tan35
8.93 in (from LE of C d
=
I
Outboard Section (o)
C r = 24.58 in
0
Ct = 7.51 in
0
bo/2 = 33.15 in
co o 32(24.58)(1.072) = 17.56 in
Measured from LE of Cr
Y= [b I1 [j + 22 0 ] =(33.15)(.4114)= 13.64in
Measured from LE of C
r.1
Total Wing
VI-1I
y = 12.76(0.688) + 40.6(0.312) = 21.45 in (1.79 ft)
hboa:d Section
Outboard Section
x%4 = x + bi tanALE + c0
Total Aircraft
Measured from LE of C
1
Yc!4= 21.146 in
VI-12
NOTES
VI-13
NOTES
VI 14
NOTES
VI-15
r-
V T
NOTES
VI-17
VII DRAG
VII
VII Drag
List of Symbols
AR Aspect Ratio
g Gravitational constant
Rn Reynolds number
V00 Freestream velocity
VII-1
Drag (ref. 13)
Subsonic Drag
The aircraft drag, when taken below the divergent Mach number, is traditionally
decomposed into lift-induced and minimum drag.
Minimum Drag
Minimum drag can be divided into profile (skin friction, pressure, and base drag) and
interference drag (figure VII-l). In general, about two-thirds of subsonic minimum drag
may be attributed to profile (skin friction) drag (figure VII-2).
The skin friction drag is due to the momentum transfer between the fluid particles
adjacent to the vehicle surface and the vehicle. It (in inco" pressibe flow) can he
established for a laminar and turbulent boundary layer. This drag is based upon the
"wetted" surface area of a flat plate, on ONE surface.
Laminar
VII-2
Turbulent
0.455 / (log Rn) 2 ,5
CD turb = Dturb / (q Swet
9
I X 106 > Rn < 1 X 10
Turbulent
CD _~ *C
cone - 2
CDflat plate
Pressure Drag at subsonic speeds is due to boundary layer displacement effects and
separation effects on aft-facing slopes.
Interference Drag
This drag is the result of mutual interaction of the flow fields developed by the major
configuration components (ie... wing-body).
Miscellaneous Drag
Drag due to lift is almost entirely the result of the lift-produced circulation as well
as the vortex shedding from the wing tip.
Zero lift drag, CD , is the drag at CL = 0 and can be easily found on a drag polar
0
curve. The primary contributor to this drag is from skin friction. From figure X-6, the
effect of wing sweep and Mach number on zero lift drag (CD ) can be seen.
0
VII-3
Base Drag
Base drag contribution to minimum drag is caused by a rapid expansion of the flow into a
base region which causes significantly reduced pressures to act upon a finite base (area).
This drag is associated with a momentum loss in a flow through nacelle. This drag is
measured by having a nozzle pitot static pressure rake (assume inlet conditions are at
freestream conditions) measuring the momentum loss within the nacelle (duct). Once a
ACD is obtained, subtract it out of the total aircraft CD'
Dduct
Wave Drag
Wave drag is primarily due to the lack of pressure recovery on the surface due to a
total pressure loss through the shock wave.
A drag polar can be represented by two curve types, CL vs CD or CD vs CL-. Both types
This drag polar, as seen in figures VII-2, VII-3, VII-4, is parabolic (a quadratic
function) by nature. The eccentricity of the parabola and its origin is affected mainly
by wing camber, twist, and flow separation. A few performance parameters that can be
established by this curve are CD , CDO, (L/D)max' CL , CL .A drag polar has the
min o pb
characteristic equations listed below.
VII-4
Parabolic
C2
L
CD = CD +
min rARe
p
(CD vs CL 2 ) Polar
From figure VII-5, the slope of this line is K, the induced drag factor. And 14,
Oswald's wing efficiency factor, e, can be obtained. Also, from figure VII-5's cutout,
the intersection of the CD axis and the curve reveals CD
0
When the wing leading edge suction has lost its force (separation has occurred), the
polar shape departs drastically from the typical parabolic shape. The drag polar is said
to "break" at this point (figure VII-2). The break point is sensitive to Mach number,
Reynolds number, leading edge radius, and wing geometry.
Camber (and twist) essentially shifts the drag polar. The effect of camber (and twist)
can be seen in ACD minresulting in a higher CD and CD The parabolic extent of the
polar is increased and its shape is improved through the use of camber (and twist).
VII-5
Drag and Performance Equations (ref. 14)
'2
CD =CD + K(CL - CL)
min
CDmin Dmin parabolic +ACDmin
C
CL = (1- e CLpb
AC "Dmin - [e
[tcARe p2 1 *
2
Lpbb
CL = CL 2
AR ep- e)
(CL -CL )2
e=
nAR (CD - CD)
0
NON-Parabolic Polar
CL K
CD *2(CD -C LY
0 0
1
(L/D)max =
2 (CD - CL TKiP
0 0
PRrabolic Polar
CL = K (L/D))max 2__D
CD = 2 CD
0
VII-6
Analytically Determined Drag Polar (ref. 15)
Aerodynamic wind tunnel data (drag) is never exactly parabolic. But, the data can be
approximated by a parabolic relationship. The approach is as follows.
CD =CD + K(CL )2
I o min
where CDm, K and CL are unknown; expanding equation 1
mi n
CD = a + bCL + cCL2
N N N
aN + bI CL(i) + 2 YCL-i
C
I= 1 L) c'= i CL i D
N N N N
I C L (i)') + 2 + YCL(i)
CL(i) = X ICL(i)CD(i)
ai b= + = L )=
N C L i 2 +)
aE N 3 + N
Y- C ii)2 N
= L() + CL(i)'+ i CL(i i=CL(i)*CD(
N N
Once ZCL(i)s
F & CD(i)'s are determined, use a Gaussian Elimination technique to solve
VII-7
Example
N=5
K CL CD
1 0.0 0.0190
2 0.1 0.0202
3 0.2 0.0234
4 0.3 u.0313
5 0.4 0.0456
Resulting augmented matrix
3 1 3 10.13951
[1 .3 .1 0.03433
a =0.01945
b = - 0.02398
c = 0.2207
CD = 0.0194
0
K = 0.2207
CL = 0.0543
VII-8
TOTAL DRAG
Vi [-9
Subsonic
Imsmmam/'
CO N
MCi X11\0
Figu~~~~Re VI- C v D ra\oa
Supersonicn
C MIN
SO CD
Supers1-10
CL Hand drawn
Tangent line
CL
CD CD~l
.08
.06 K - __
S7TreAR
.04
.02
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 .9 1.0 1.2
CL 2
CL2
VII-I
This page -was inientionally left blank
VII- 12
NOTES
VII- 13
NOTES
VII- 14
NOTES
VII- 15
NOTES
Vii- 16
VIII EXPERIMENTAL TESTING AND INTERPRETATION
VIII
VIII Experimental Testing and Interpretation
(Ref. 8)
For each wind tunnel test accomplished, the items of interest for the engineer will
vary. Below is a list of items and facts that are usually of interest to the engineer.
Referenc, is ani excellent aid for tinding those items and for subsonic wind itui1il
testing. This handbook and reference 8 should be the two reference materials that
accompany the testing engineer to the wind tunnel site.
Aircraft (wing-body-tail)
max CM0
CD CD CD ao
min o
(L/D)max CL 0 CMac Cnp
CI CY
Flaps
The purpose of flaps is to reduce the wing area through increasing CL and thus reduce
max
the parasite (skin friction) drag in cruise. Flap systems usually generate large negative
pitching moments and require a large horizontal tail to develop adequate down loads for
trim, which reduce the total (wing-body-tail) CL
max
Increase CL
max
Increases a for stall
VIII-1
Lift Curve (Flaps Up)
VIII-2
* There is usually little need to take the flap- down lift curve as low as
O
I0
Generally, the pitching moment curves are used to determine if the aircraft
has static stability through the desired C.G. range at all flight
conditions (trimmed flight).
CLt can be found. Use qt = 0.85q.. From CLt and known stabilizer angles,
VIII-3
the slope of the tail lift curve (dCL /datt) can be established.
Aileron criteria are usually determined at (p = 0' and plots of Clvs Cn,
C1 vs Sa, and C1 vs 5a are used.
* Good qualities of ailerons are high rolling moments and low hinge moments.
* Maximum roll rate and maximum helix angles are determined from C1
max
Generally, C1 of 0.03 is adequate for one aileron.
max
When yaw (yp) equals 0, and there is a slight rolling or yawing moment or
side force when controls are neutral, be sure to subtract them out before
reporting the data. This delta can be attributed to asymmetrical tunnel
flow or model asymmetry.
aC 1 /ap = 0.0002 is equivalent to 10 of effective dihedral.
If there is enough time and money (which usually there is not), do the aileron
effectiveness test with tail off (ref. 8). The first reason to do this is when the
ailerons are deflected in flight, the aircraft normally rolls and the inboard aileron
trailing vortices are swept away from the horizontal tail by the helix angle. In the wind
tunnel, these vortices stream back close to the horizontal tail and induce a load on (he
tail that does not occur in flight. Secondly, it saves effort in data reduction since
tunnel wall effects on a horizontal tail is then non-existent.
VIII-4
Rudder Power Curves
stable)
Rudder Power: aCn / a8 r= -0.001 is reasonable.
To determine the C.P. shift the derivative aCM / aMach is used. The main factor that
contributes to this derivative is the backward shift of the wing center of pressure (C.P.)
which occurs in the transonic range. On two-dimensional symmetrical wings, for example,
the C.P. moves from approximately 0.25c to approximately 0.5c as the Mach number increases
from subsonic to supersonic values.
C.G. Shift
Moving the C.G. forward reduces a trim or CL resulting in an increase in trim speed.
(X - 1.5 5.0
a 1.0 17.88
Static Martin
awbaa
acL - ,5 - 0.08 per degree
5-(-1.5)
at a = 1.00
0.08 (1 + 1.5)(h
-0.01 = C Macwb+Macabwb - hac ) (2)
at ax = 7.880
Equations 2 & 3 can be solved simultaneously. Subtracting equation 3 from equation 2...
VIII-6
(h - h a -006
aCwb -0.55
h = 0.35c
(h - h acWb ) =O0.11
CM = -0.032
For a given wing-body combination, the aerodynamic center lies 0.05 (5%) of a chord
length ahead of the c.g.. The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center is -0.016.
If the lift coefficient is 0.45, calculate the moment coefficient about the c.g..
VIII-7
CMcgw = 0.0065
Wing-Body-Tail
Consider the wing-body data above, the area and the M.A.C. of the wing are 1.076 ft2 and
0.328 ft respectively. The distance from the airplane c.g. to the tail a.c. is 0.557 ft,
the tail area is 0.215 ft2, the tail setting angle is 2.70, the tail lift-slope is 0.1 per
degree, and from experimental measurement, o= 0.0 and a8/cet = -. 35. If x = 7.880,
calculate CM
cg
1S
i = 2.70 = 0.0
Using Equation 5
CM = -0065
cg
VIII1-8
Longitudinal Static StabiItv
Does the aircraft (wing-body-tail) above have longitudinal static stability and balance ?
aC
(h - H (6)
aCM
cg= 0.08[(0.11)- 90.34) 0 (1 - 0.35)]
00.0
aCM
cg_ - 0.01331
80:
Longitudinal Balance
CM = -0.032 + (0.34)(0.1)(2.7)
0
CM = 0.
0
Trim angle-of-attack
8CM
Remember that - C~ is the slope of a straight line. Therefore by setting CM to zero,
R 0wb Cc e
VIII-9
and writing the equation of a straight line
y = mx + b (8)
aCM
y CM m - cg
cg a
x = trim b =CM
0
(X trim= 4.540
Clearly, this angle-of-attack falls within the reasonable flight range. Therefore, the
aircraft is longitudinally balanced and statically stable.
Trimmed flight parameters can be easily found from a CM vs CL and CL vs cx plot. One of
the model test parameters an engineer should always consider testing is the elevator.
From this data, trim conditions can be found. When testing the elevator for its
effectiveness,
the angle-of-attack for the model configuration should be he!d constant
while only A change of the elevator deflection angle (5 e) is accomplished. Holding the
configuration at a constant angle-cf-attack is not necessary, but it helps when
manipulating the data for presentation. Make as many runs as necessary at different 8 's
while the horizontal tail incident angle is held constant. The resultant plot can be see
,i figure VII-7. On the CM vs CL plot, where each 8e curve crosses CM = 0, that point is
considered a trim point and the corresponding CL is the trim CL. To find a trini' a line
(this line equates to a constant CL) is drawn from the CM vs CL plot to the corresponding
8e on the CL vs Ccplot. That intersection on the CL vs ac plot a trinican be found. If a
series of trim points are found on the CL vs (x plot a C tL can also be found.
trim
VIII- 10
Determining any C.G. Location
(unpowered, gliding flight)
To find the trim envelope (where CM = 0) for any c.g. location, a line of any slope is
drawn by rotating that line from CM = CL =0 on the CM vs CL curve to any position on the
CM vs CL curve. The slope of the newly drawn line is equal to the c.g. shift (refs. 16
and 8).
M 6C
M IC p
T
c.g. position -- old c.g. position Snew
where
A = [old c.g. position (%MAC) - new c.g. position (%MAC)]
or
A = [(Xcg- Xac)old- (Xcg- Xac)new]
Example:
aCM
ac M .2 = 0.2 - (0.35
- 0.2)
L 0.2
aCT 00
S0.2
It appears that to acquire this transfer a subtraction of moment arms (A) was
accomplished. However, in reference 16, a thorough explanation is discussed and it shows
that it is not just subtraction of moment arms but rather a subtraction of moments.
To determine the average downwash behind the wing ,est the model configuration with the
VIII-1 I
tail-off. Then test the configuration with the tail-on at different tail incident angles.
The tail incident angle (it) is the angle between the wing-body zero-lift line (generally
the longitudinal axis) and the tail zero-lift line. If the tail is a symmetric airfoil,
the tail zero lift line and the tail chord line are the same. Also, if the tail is an all
movable tail, the tail incident angle would generally be the same as 8e. Once the tail-on
and tail-off data are acquired, plot the data similar to figure VIII-1 (a w vs CM) at
different it's and then plot the tail-off data. The intersection of the tai!-on curve
with the tail-off curve are points where, at a given awl the tail-on CM equals the
tail-off CM. Also, at those intersections, the tail is at zero lift.
at = ccw +it - Ew =0
Once L is found then the parameter - can easily be obtained by plotting Lw vs aC.
Draw a plot of CD vs CL 2 . The slope of this line is K, the induced drag factor (see
figure VII-5). The intercept is Cd
0
Since K =
__ 1
Oswald's wing efficiency factor (e) is... e = __ I
A base pressure correction is applied to remove the base pressure drag from the total
drag in order to correct the force drag. Such a correction is required because of the
base drag is unknown without the interference or interactions of the sting or a jet. The
measured base pressure is corrected to the reference ambient static pressure which is
VIII-12
considered to act over the entire base of the model. Occasionally more than one static
pressure is measured on the base of the model and averaged to arrive at the base pressure.
This average is multiplied by the area of the base to obtain the base-pressure axial force
correction. IP enation form:
FA = (Cp
=Cave)) (AB)(q.)
Where
AB = Base area
To determine the appropriate differential pressure transducer, three items are needed.
The first being the maximum expected pressure coefficient (CP), the second being the
minimum expected CP and finally the dynamic pressure (q). If obtaining the maximum and
minimum CP's are difficult, then use +0.5 and -2.0 for the first iteration (these
suggested CP's are good numbers for wing pressures). Then just "plug and chug" the
equation below.
CP P-_P 0
1 2
pv
Ap = (p - p..) = CP(q)
VIII- 13
Example:
Flow Visualization
Flow visualization offers the testing engineer a unique way to observe the local flow
fields. Flow visualization can be separated into two categories, surface flow
visualization and off-body flow field visualization. Techniques to observe surface flow
fields are tufts and oil flows. Laser light sheet, smoke, and tufts are used for off-body
flow fields.
Yam should be used when the testing engineer is not concerned with the model forces and
moments. Yam has the greatest adverse effect on lift and drag compared to other surface
flow visualization techniques. For yam tufts, use 0.75 inch length of No. 6 floss
crochet yarn (any color). Have plenty of yam available since it does not last a long
time in the wind tunnel. Before applying tufts on the model, clean the model with naphtha
or other solvents to remove any oils. There are two methods used to apply the yarn tufts
to the model. The first method is to use a tuft board. A tuft board is a piece of
scrapwood with two nails in it. The distance between the two nails is the length of the
tuft (generally 0.75 to 1.0 inch). Wrap the tufts around the nails and then cut the tufts
on the backside of the nail to give you the correct length that is needed. To attach the
yarn to the model use cellophane tape or "super glue" and apply the yarn to the model in a
symmetric pattern (0.75 inch x 0.75 inch). Ensure that at least 0.75 inch of the tuft
material is available for the flow to manipulate freely. The second method in applying
tufts to the model is to tape the yarn at two opposite ends of the item of interest on the
model (ie... leading to the trailing edge) and glue/tape the tuft at the desired interval
lengths (0.75 in) then cut the yarn.
VIII- 14
Fluorescent Mini-tufts (ref. 26)
Mini-Tuft Installation
The procedures listed below have proven to be adequate for most applications. Tuft
application utilizing these procedures are able to withstand many hours of testing at
transonic and supersonic Mach numbers without appreciable adhesion failure.
1. Wipe model surface with a solvent to remove grease and oil. Use clean paper towels
or tissues rather than shop rags. Preferred solvents are naphtha or any chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene or trichloroethane. Methyl ethyl ketone or
Freon are less suitable because of rapid evaporation rates. Do not use alcohols.
2. If possible, lightly abrade the surface with a fine grit carborundum pad or aluminum
oxide paper. Do not use silicon carbide paper on aluminum. Care should be taken not
to compromise the aerodynamic smoothness requirements for the model.
3. After abrading the surface, thoroughly clean the surface with a solvent using clean
tissues. Then wipe that area with another clean tissue using that tissue only once.
Wiping more than once with the same tissue redeposits the contaminants. Continue to
wipe the surface with solvent until the tissue shows no stains. Avoid letting the
solvent evaporate completely before it is wiped.
4. Apply an Alodine solution to the surface with a swab or a brush. Allow it to remain
wet on the surface for three to five minutes. Any areas that resist wetting should
be scrubbed with carborundum pad wet with the Alodine solution (Alodine is a chromate
conversion solution that promotes adhesion of the gluing material to the surface. It
VIII-15
is available from aircraft paint suppliers. In this application, add a wetting agent
such as Kodak Photo-Flo to Alodine to make it a one percent concentration.).
5. Rinse the Alodine from the surface with clean water and then dry the surface with
clean tissues. Be careful to limit skin contact with the Alodine and to wash
thoroughly after use.
6. Cover the cleansed area with paper to avoid recontamination until after the tuft
adhesive is applied. Realize that the above procedures are involved and can be
reduced in scope. Steps one through six are the correct way to prepare the model
surface. However, there is a correct way of doing things and the getting it done way
of doing things. Be flexible in this area.
1. Lay out alignment marks with a soft pencil (roughly 0.75 inch grid) so that the tufts
can be applied in a symmetrical pattern.
2. Place oversized lengths of tuft material over the extreme ends of the model (i.e...
L.E. to T.E. if a wing) surface by wrapping the tuft around the model and then taping
it to the lower surface.
3. Be careful to use only slight tension t. avoid stretching the filament.
4. Use a "super glue" type of gluing agent to apply the tufts to the surface. Apply a
small drop of glue to the strand of tufting material in intervals of approximately
0.5 to 0.75 inches.
5. Be sure glue drops are dried before cutting the tuft material. Cut tufts just ahead
of each adhesive drop with a new razor blade.
Experience has shown that the visual appearance of these tuft results are greatly
enhanced by carefully keeping the tuft spacing uniform. If the tuft pattern is
asymmetrical, it is still possible to describe the flow, but it is difficult to interpret.
To illuminate the mini-tufts, an ultraviolet light source is required. The ultraviolet
illumination excites the fluorescent material to radiate in the visible spectrum (i.e..
400-600 nanometers). Video tape or black and white still photographs are the normal
surface flow visualization data medium. It also helps if a fluorescent felt tip marker is
used to hi-lite/outline the model. This will allow the model lines to be seen in the
photograph or video tape.
VIII- 16
Oil Flow
Oil flow visualization shows flow separation lines, vortex reattachment lines, shock
lines, and complete boundary layer activity on the surface. The oil flow runs should be
held for the last runs of the test since the oil will clog static pressure taps and is
generally a messy procedure. The model is painted a flat color with the oil a color that
will contrast the model color (generally a black model and white oil). The oil viscosity
is an important parameter to be considered. If the oil is too viscous it will not display
the true surface flow. If the oil is not viscous enough, it will run off the model and
not display the flow on the surface. There are several formulas that can be used for the
oil. The formulas will differ from tunnel-to-tunnel and from test engineer-to-test
engineer based on his or her experience. One formula that is used and works well is one
teaspoon of titanium dioxide (a white color), one teaspoon of STP Oil Treatment, and five
drops of Oleic acid. Mix this amalgamation thoroughly and apply it on the model using a
syringe with a 18 or 20 gauge needle. When applying the oil to the model it should have a
logical and somewhat symmetrical pattern.
The vapor screen technique is a simple, yet effective, flow visualization tool to study
the off-body flows about aerodynamic shapes at subsonic, transonic, and supersonic speeds.
In recent years, this technique has frequently been employed in wind tunnel experiments to
improve the understanding and control of the vortices shed from slender bodies of
missiles, fuselage forebodies, and wings of fighter aircraft at high angles-of-attack.
The technique features the injection of sufficient water into the tunnel circuit to create
a condensation in the test section. An intense sheet of light is generated, usually with
a laser (18-watt Argon-ion laser is sufficient), that can be oriented in any selected
plane relative to the test model. The light is scattered as the water particles pass
through the sheet, which enable the off-body flow to be visualized. However, the tunnel
operator/owner might become perturbed at putting water in the tunnel. To alleviate
his/her fear and to remove the water from the tunnel after the vapor screen runs, pump the
tunnel down to a Ptotal of 500 psf, start the tunnel(subsonic) and turn the driers on. Do
this approximately twice for 15 minutes each time. This will evaporate a majority of the
water. After doing this have the tunnel technicians enter the tunnel and wipe up wkhat
VIII- 17
little water is remaining.
Flow visualization using smoke is an excellent tool for observing off-body (external)
flow fields that are dominated by vortical flows. If done correctly, superb qualitative
data will result at a Reynolds number that might make it feasible to extrapolate the flow
field to flight conditions.
Typically, smoke is generated by several methods. Such methods include pyrotechnic
smoke devices, chemical (titanium tetrachloride and tin tetrachloride), petroleum products
(kerosene, Type 1962 Fog Juice) and Rosco smoke generating fluid. The technique of
producing smoke will be determined at the wind tunnel site.
A low turbulence wind tunnel is extremely helpful when trying to accomplish a flow
visualization study using smoke. The surrounding air in the test section needs to be as
undisturbed as possible in order that an accurate analysis of the model's flow field can
be made.
Generally, the smoke enters the wind tunnel via a smoke wand that is typically located
in the stilling chamber of the wind tunnel. The density of the smoke emitting from the
wand should range from a mild to moderate fog (qualitatively speaking). The smoke should
then traverse down to the test section and enter as a filament sheet that spans most of
the section. The smoke filament sheet should be set (vertically) in such a manner that
the smoke is "caught up" in the upwash of the wing, chine, or item of interest. It might
be necessary to change the position of the the smoke wand to achieve an optimum smoke
filament sheet position. Once the smoke filament sheet is caught in the upwash, the
external flow field can be observed using a laser light sheet to expose the vortical
systems.
Tufts
To use tufts for off-body flow visualization, a tuft wand or a tufted, framed, wire grid
is used. A tuft wand is a pole with a long tuft on the end of it. The wand is hand held
in the tunnel near the model to observe off-body flow fields. This technique is a
qualitative procedure since the person and the pole create a flow disturbance in ihe
tunnel. A tufted, framed, wire grid gives the testing engineer a planar view of the
off-body flow field. The wire grid contains symmetrical, square (1 inch by 1 inch ) wire
mesh with tufts (usually yam) glued at the comers of each mesh. The wire grid is placed
VIII- 18
downstream of the model and is useful in examining wing tip vortices.
Determining Aerodynamic Angles from the Model Support (sting) Angles
Aerodynamic angles a and 13 are calculated using the model support (sting) angles 7, V,
0, andS.
Where
y prebend angle of sting (only in pitch)
=
p= yaw angle of the support
0 = pitch angle of the support
= roll angle of the support
Knowing
ar tan-t wU3
sin -'[Vi
Where
u = longitudinal velocity component
v = lateral velocity component
w = vertical velocity component
V = total freestream velocity
from reference 28 and 38
V = [sinosin~cos~p - cososirnP] V.
Vill- 19
sino = [sinosinOcosy - cososinwo]
-00
1w
Tail -12 -4 0 +4 +8 i
off
(+) Cm (--)
CL ( CL _
--.
Trim
lift curve
a Cmcg
VIII-20
NOTES
VIII-21
NOTES
VIII-22
NOTES
VIII-23
NOTES
Vlll-24
NOTES
VIII-25
NOTES
VIII-26
NOTES
VIII-27
NOTES
VIII-28
IX STRESS ANALYSIS
Ix
IX Stress Analysis
List of Symbols
A Area
d Diameter
c Distance from Neutral Axis
E Modulus of Elasticity
ftu Ultimate (allowable) Tensile Stress
IX-I
List of Symbols continued
p. Poisson's ratio
y Angle of shear strain
Subscripts
IX-2
Definitions
Stress Stress implies a force per unit area and is a measure of the intensity
of the force acting on a definite plane passing through a given point.
The stress distribution may or may not be uniform, depending on the
nature of the loading conditions. Tensile load is considered (+) and a
compressive load is considered (-).
Strain It is the change in length per unit length. The strain distribution
may or may not be uniformed depending on the member and loading
conditions.
Normal Stress A unit stress which acts normal to the cross section of the
structural element. These stresses are created by bending
moments and axial forces.
Shear Stress A unit stress which acts parallel and in the plane of the cross
section. These stresses are caused by torsional moments and
shear forces.
Normal Strain Strain ssociated with a normal stress; it takes place in the
direction in which its associated normal stress acts. Increase
in length are (+) strains, decrease in lengths are (-) strains.
'Y eld Point Where elongation increases with no increase in load. The stress
at this point is known as Tensile Yield Stress.
Proportional Limit Where the stress-strain curve first becomes non-linear.
That point is the maximum stress where the strain remains
directly proportional to stress.
Elastic Limit The maximum stress to which a material maybe subjected and still
upon the removal of the load, return to its original dimensions.
Neutral Axis When a beam is deflected, one surface is in compression while the
other surface is under tensile stress. There is a plane
(neutral) where the stress will be zero. Where this neutral
IX-3
Neutral Axis plane intersects any perpendicular cross section (or plane of
(continued) loading) this location is the neutral axis for that cross
section.
Ultimate Tensile Stress This is the maximum allowable stress of the material.
Shear Modulus of Ratio of shear stress to shear strain at low loads. The
Elasticity initial slope of the stress-strain diagram for shear.
Radius of Gyration The distance from the inertia axis that the entire mass
of an Body would be concentrated in order to give the same moment of
inertia.
Radius of Gyration The distance from the inertia axis to the point where the
of an Area area would be concentrated in order to produce the same
moment of inertia.
IX-4
STRESS FORMULAS
E
an
Cn
lateral deformation
axial deforma t ion
n
=- Ase G " s_ s
s L Cs
ANGLE OF TWIST
Split tube
4, 3TL
2irRt 3 G
IX-5
Solid. Circular Shaft Tubular, Circular
cross-section
J tr- Jr-- 0 ri)
S-'r
2 2
RADIUS OF GYRATION
Body Area
BENDING STRESS
SHEAR STRESS
TORSIONAL FORMULAS
2nrr
7tr4 4
7r(r r-r4
0 1
IX-6
Split tube
fs="s-2rRt'
3T
(flat plate)
fs= 3T fs =s s -- x1T t2' lt1
Ss 'Es =lT>>
i2' t
It
l/t 1.0 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 00
Ia .208 .231 .239 .246 .258 .267 .282 .299 .307 .313 .333
.141 .196 .214 .229 .249 .263 .281 .299 .307 .313 .333
COMBINED STRESS
fb f bl2 +f 2
fT= 2_-+ +s
o = y x Ycos0 + t sin20
2 2 xy
G -aC
= 2-Ysin20 + 'r cos20
2
IX-7
Principle Stress
min 2
1;
tn20 -- xy
tan22 - x - y
y)
max -2
min
CF
x + ay
tan20 2
xy
FACTOR OF SAFETY
F ftu ftu
SF - stress SF -
T
SF =
f)2 ( f 2
IX-8
Calculate Centroid of a Planform Area
Area y AY Ay2
Dim ( in) ( in 2 ) (in) (i n3 ) (i n 4)
Elem.
1 1.45 X 4.20 6.1 10.3+2.1= 12.4 75.5 937.9
2 2.3 X 10.3 23.7 10.3/2 = 5.14 122.0 628.6
3 8.98 X 2.0 X 0.5 8.98 8.98/3= 3.0 26.9 80.82
4 8.98 X 2.0 X 0.5 8.98 8.98/3= 3.0 26.9 80.82
5 0.83 X 2.0 1.66 0.83/2= .42 0.7 0.29
6 0.83 X 2.0 1.66 0.83/2= .42 0.7 0.29
7 0.85 X 4.22/2 1.8 4.22/3+10.3= 11.7 21 .1 246.4
8 0.85 X 4.22/2 1.8 4.22/3+10.3= 11.7 21 .1 246.4
' 54.7 in 2' 294 .9 2221.5
Y
_ XAy _ 294.9 - 5.4 in
A 54.7
4
1 = 2221.5 in
7- -8
5t5
IX-9
Example: Stress Analysis
f 6M I = base
bt I , t = height (thickness)
( -Mc, I= t = -)
(fb=
I
= if12 C= !
2
T
fs - (XIt2
T = torsion in beam
(x = constant dependent upon 1/t
1 = 0.84 in
Bending
IX-10
Shear
(0.333)(0.840)(0.037)2
S.F.= = 3.57
[11896]2
[8-+ +[[139922
T5600]j
6M
(f -Mc. I= I t, c = )
1 12 2
f T
s Xlt2
T = torsions in beam
a = constant dependent upon l/t
IX-I1
T= 6[0.473 +0_41 =5.358 in-lb
Bending
f =5.358
13,482 psi
(0.333) (0.564) (0.046)2
S.F.= 1 = 3.23
[1779812 F1348212
R2 0.558R R3
R 0.154R 0.302R
0.706 0.706 1 4-0.7061
+ 0.302 2
1.57NF = R1 0.706 + 0.5582 + 0.1542
0.706
IX- 12
1.57NF = 1.31R 1
RI = 1.199NF
From above...
S.F. - = 36.8
7.2
= 7t(0.519)(0.58)(0.5)
f = 7.2 / 0.0047
IX-13
S.F. - 96000 62.7
1532
f= 120000 psi
IX-14
1,1.577
0.706
-0.558
-0.332
0.154
R2 R
EE
.33 2______
8.0~
Section E-E
0.0.14
0.002 V 0.030
0.840
I X-15
This page was intentionally left blank
IX-16
NOTES
IX-17
NOTES
IX-18
NOTES
IX-19
NOTES
IX-20
X TRENDS
X
X Trends
maxf
mC
I Flapped L.E.
Wing
(L.E. & T.E.)
CL T.E.
f =flap
CL CL max
CL
0
f
CLa
CL= CL
a f a
CL Wing
ZL A astall4
aZ
(wing alone)
Flaps Extended
Flaps Retracted
CL
CL
CD + CM -
ac
X-1
E fect of Vertical Location of C.G.
on Pitching Moments
0.30 -
0.25 -
0.20 -
0.15
0M10
b.
C. 0.05
0.0
E! -- CL
10.05 1.0 -- Low Wing
0.3.5
-- -- -..
SMid Wing
--0.25
-0.30 --
High Wing
0.15 -
0.10 -
0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
-0.25
CL
X-2
Increasing Math number
CL
0 a
C L ---
I i I
1 2 3
cD
t I 1
1 2 3
SK = Induced drag
K factor
\,
'%
1 ] f
1 2 3
Mact Nu Irlb;r
X-3
CL 3x1
9 x 10
CL
CD
CL10 AR
0(
X- 4
Double Wedge
() t/c = 0.06
X = 0.05
04 A = 4.0
Ater 27A
.03
.02
SKIN FRICTION
0 I i 1 I I I I 1
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
.8
MOD
X--5
""
RCH :0.63 flRCN :0.93
e.g.. I.I
.0.1
0.I. 0.1
SI.,. 0.7-
0.3, 0.t,
.j 00, .
0.20.P 0.
ei -o..
z01 42 0. t
z046 iil?*JF
0.21-0. -H 3 "0 9
0.9.. 0-24
0,2.O 0.)9
0.-0.
00.16. 0046
"0.
it -0.4,
"0.
08 / 0 6.2
50i
b/2 = 7.58 C=
Cr 6.1 C, = 2.45
X-6
MACH z0.63 MRCH:0.93
0.0, 0.11
e.g. e.g.
0.4 0.4.
0.. 0.1.
.-41 ;4 i o 10 12 14 TO
AILPHA (DEG) ALPHA (DEG)
-0. -0.
z z 7
6 - 0. & FOatmaO swOP! W.j-O. & FORtAtO lafry
C C
o"C
-0.5" 0sC -
0.24 0.24-
0.24 0.24-
0.22 0.22-
"0.'o. 00o.
l -
o.i. a.o..
WO.14. 0. t4.
0. kO 0.I0.
-0 .- . Ii t . .Na 'J.. 14 1 0 1 .
.0. O S NEP/
rapOAN 0 .0115f
2-
-o o, i o, . .,
LIFT COEAFICIENTCL LIFT COEFFICIETN,CL
X-7
10.63
MAOCH flRCH -0.9)
0 .S
I....
-4-
-' 1- t ;Z
14 1 1, 1" I'sI
RLPAR IOEG) ALPHA (O)
-I
K FOhijAlo SM1'
0. is1
ZEL=.15(P
o.11*
0.12
SOil
h.S
0.07
X-8
-2.5 -
' ti CL Wing vortex
suction peaks i.-... . .
0: 9.93 .400 i ; : -- , l I
-2.0 a 12.00 .516 - - - - -
o 14.07 .627 I .zi
-1.o a 161 .72I
-. 18. 18= .845 _d / 1
o'20.!!13 .962 : i !i . ..
0-.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
y/s
(a) x/c-0.50
Cp-1.5
CPU -1.0 " 4 18.18 .845
o9 14.7.02
o 201 .6
.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
y/s
(c) x/c.0.62
X-9
a CL
------ 9.93 .400
-1.5 Ssuctione
- vor
...... J . .
-a--- 12.00
14.07
.516
.627
-" 16.15 .725
S .. /....\ 18.18 M85
-1.0 )P '..... .9 2
- -- 20.13,
/,,Straitsvortex // ' - L!
C suction peaks
0.
2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
y/S
(e) x/cxO.75
.0.75
0o1.62521
0,50 J,
Forebody
0.4o0.40
l
x/c-O.30 !
<A-A
X-10
1.6-
1.4
1.2
Cl 1.0
.8
.6
t/c = 14-
-5 0 5 10 15 20
-. 2j 1
X-11
1.2
1.0
C1 -8xlOG; M = 0.67
14.5x 10; M = 0.66
t/c = 17%
.2
0
.01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06
Cd
X-12
UU-4
I 0\
U CZ
CZ)
il II II t
X-13
-2.0-
M C1 Cd
o 0.5 .722 .0082
o 0.6 .746 .0114
t/c 17%
Shock Effect
-1.0-
Cp
-. 05-
0.5-
1.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Chord
X-!4
NOTES
X-15
NOTES
X-16
NOTES
X-17
NOTES
X-18
XI INTERNAL STRAIN GAGE BALANCES
xI
XI Internal Strain Gage Balances
(Ref. 36)
List of Symbols
A Cross-sectional area
E Voltage
F Gage Factor
iFA} Appliea load to balance matrix
IF0 Output (mv) force matrix
[K..]-' Inverted balance calibration matrix
L Length
I Rolling moment
m Pitching moment
mv Milli-volts
n Yawing moment
IDR Resistance
ISC) Sensitivity constant matrix
wt Weight
X Axial force
Y Side force
Z Normal force
E Axial (local) strain
A Incremental
11t Poisson's ratio
p Resistivity of the gage material
Subscripts
XI-I
Strain Gages
In strain measurement. the simplest device to use is the resistance type strain gage.
Its construction and operation are simple, but it is so precise that strains on the order
of 0.1% may be measured. The gage is about the size of a postage stamp but only slightly
heavier. It consists of a metallic wire or strip of foil whose electrical resistance
varies linearly with strain. The gage is securely bonded to the member to be strained so
that any strain in the member due to a load ie, transmitted to the wire. There are
literally hundreds of types of strain gages available commercially; each gage having been
developed in response to a demand for a gage to meet a specific condition.
The most fundamental part of the gage is the wire itself. The resistance increase of a
wire, when it is stretched, is due to an increase in the length and a decrease in its
cross section, than to actual change in specific resistance. Typically, an electrical
conductor (wire) is bonded to the specimen (balance) with an insulating cement under a
no-load condition. A load is then applied, which produces a deformation in both the
specimen and resistance element (wire). This deformation is indicated through a
measurement of the change in resistance of the element (wires).
Three common types of resistance strain gages used in internal balances are wire, foil,
and semi-conductor. The bonded wire is most commonly used with the wire diameter varying
between 0.005 and 0.001 inches. The foil gage usually employs a foil less than 0.001
inches thick. The semi-conductor gage employs a silicon base material that is strain
sensitive and has the advantage of a very large gage factor (F-100). (The gage factor
relates the electrical resistance to the physical properties of the gage.) The material
is usually produced in brittle wafers having a thickness of 0.01 inches.
Wire and foil gages may be manufactured in various ways, but the important point is that
the resistance element (wire/foil) be securely bonded to its mounting. Most wire strain
gages employ either a nitrocellulose cement or a phenolic resin for the bonding agent with
a thin paper backing to maintain the wire's configuration. Such gages may be used up to
300F. A Bakelite mounting is usually employed for temperatures up to 5000F. Foil gages
are manufactured by an etching process and use base material of paper, Bakelite, and epoxy
film. Epoxy cement is also used on wire and foil gages.
XI-2
Temperature Effects
The major soure of strain gage error is the fact that the resistance of most wires
changes with temperature. This variation is not only a function of the change in
temperature but, may also be a function of the number of heating cycles to which the gages
has been subjected and of the time elapsed between cycles. Temperature compensation may
easily be accomplished by installing a second strain gage, often known as a dummy gage, on
an unstrained piece of the same metal that the active gage is bonded to. There are two
changes in gage resistance which are caused by temperature changes. The first effect is
the temperature coefficient of resistivity which is a random effect that may b, considered
as independent of the gage factor. The second effect is the difference in linear
expansion between the gage and the member (material) on which it is mounted. The latter
effect is one in which the error in the strain gage output is significant. Semi-conductor
gages offer the advantage that they have a lower expansion coefficient then either wire or
foil gages. It's best to mak , sure the strain gages are temperature compensated.
R = L)
A
L = length
A = cross-sectional area
p = resistivity of the material
Differentiating (1)
dR + dL dA (2)
R p L A
The area may be related to the square of some transverse dimension, such as the diameter
(D) of the resistance wire.
dA _ dD (3)
A D
XI-3
The unit axial strain E is defined as
_ dL (4)
L
Poisson's ratio is defined as
= dD/D (5)
dL/L
Rearranging (7)
Local Strain
= (AR (9)
FR
The value of the gage factor 'F' and the resistance (R) are usually specified by the
manufacturer so that the user need only measure the change of resistance (AR) in order to
determine the local strain due to a load.
Measurement of AR/R
Consider the basic Wheatstone bridge in figure XI-1. The voltage at the detector is
given by
XI-4
R !P
ED E 1 2 (10)
IR I +R 4 R 2 R3
A2 R +AR R
D _ I 1 2 (11)
E R 1+AR 1+R 4 R 2 +R 3
No internal balance is able to measure the pure loads that it was intended to measure.
This is due to errors within the balance. There are generally two types of errors. The
first type of 'balance' errors are the linear (first degree) errors. This type of errors
are primarily due to construction errors, improperly positioned gages, variation in gage
factors, and electrical circuits. The second type of error is the non-linear (2nd degree)
error. This error is primarily attributed to elastic deformation (deflections) of various
balance parts. Both types of errors create interaction of forces and moments.
To account for these interactions (errors) in the balance, the balance is calibrated.
The purpose of this calibration is to acquire a set of interaction equations that can be
used to determine the loads applied by the model through the balance output (voltage)
signals. This type of calibration will not (generally) be accomplished by the testing
XI-5
engineer. All the testing engineer will receive will be a sheet(s) of paper with the
linear and non-linear interaction coefficients on it (figure XI-3). For a six component
(3 forces and 3 moments) balance, the linear coefficients will be uscd as a 6x6 matrix
with near unity (1) on the diagonal. The non-linear coefficients will be used as a 6x21.
For a six component balance, there is a total of 27 interaction terms. Generally
speaking, the 6x6 matrix will need to be inverted to be used in the data acquisition
computer. This can be seen below in the theory of how the computer acquires force/moment
data from a balance.
(F 0 [Kij]IF A
Example:
XI-6
Inverted Original Balance Cal ibration Matrix
The interactions of the forces and moments can be seen in the inverted matrix. For an
example, thete is a -17.6% interaction on the normal force due to the the pitching moment
and a 3.7% interaction on the rolling moment due to the side force.
The testing engineer needs to know if the balance coefficients are indeed
load
non-dimensional or dimensional (ie... (vTl-)) If the interaction matrix is
non-dimensional, then the testing engineer will have to acquire a sensitivity constant
Ioad
Vol-) for each force and moment. The acquisition of the sensitivity constants is
acquired during the check loading of the balance (see page XI-10).
Calii.aticn Podv
XI-7
should be manufactured as light as possible a.rnd as stiff as possible.
Loads applied to the balance (via the cal. body) components are considered absolute
loads. Therefore, the weight of the cal. body and fixtures and even parts of the balance
must be considered as applied loads. However, the weight of the cal. body and fixtures
are taken out in the 'zero' reading. The zero reading is the reference voltage to be
subtracted out from the load reading to acquire a 'true' reading.
Check Loading
It is important .o check load tile balance over the entire anticipated load and
center-of-pressure range and that sufficient points are taken to assure accurate and
repeatable loadings. The minimum check load to hang would be 10e7- of tile balance limit.
This procedure will assume that a dead weight (ie... disks) will be used to acquire the
loadings required. However, a load is a load whether it is generated by a disk or
hydraulic actuator or sonie other source. Just make sure it's a point load and not a
distributed load on the calibration body.
Hang the weights on the calibration body at CONSTANT INCREMENTS, as an example,
A50 lbf or A100 lbf or whatever weight increment you choos-, to use. Be sure to maintain
that increment at all times. Don't forget to take a 'zero' voltage reading prior to
hanging weights. A zero reading includes the weighis of the cal. body, ",eight pan or any
other weight that's considered a *zero' weight. After loading a weight on the weight pan,
stop the weight pan from swaying. Place an inclinometer on the cal. body and raise or
lower the cal. body (via the sting) until it is level (or < 4 3 mins of ,, degree). This
XI-8
takes out the weight component due to the deflection of the sting. Also, sting deflection
measurements can be taken at this time. After the weight has been added and the swaying
has been stopped, have the control room take a data point and record the output (normally
in milli-volts [mv], and then add the next incremental weight and repeat the above
procedure. Do this until the maximum load is achieved. Once the maximum load is applied
and voltage taken, remove the weights at the same increment as when you added ihe weights
and take a data point at each weight going down. Do this until all the weights hae been
removed and then take another zero. This up and down procedure of check loading will show
accuracy, iepeatabiliy and a zero shift of the balance. Do this for all force and moment
check loadings.
When the dead-weight system is employed, the weights are generally in the forni of cast
iron disks (accurate to 0.1%) hanging on a weight pan supported by the cal. body or moment
arm fixture. For a highly accurate check loading, one can weigh the cast iron di,;ks prior
to check loading.
When hanging weights for the normal force and side force, al a minimum, hang the weight,
at the balance electrical moment center and use this check loading to determine the normal
and side forces sensitivity constant. Taking the sensitivity constant for the forces at
the balance electrical moment center, allows the contribution (interactions) of the
principle moments (pitching and yawing) to become negligible.
Hanging the weights for the pitching and yawing moments, at a minimum, at one moment arm
ahead and behind the electrical moment center but at different moment arms. This will
result in a positive and a negative moment. When check loading for the rolling moment,
place the rolling moment fixture at the balance electrical moment center and at a minimum,
apply loads at two different moment arn on the rolling moment fixture (expect to see a
normal force reading).
Axial force check loading is generally accomplished with a pulley rig. A pulley rig has
two wires that are connected to the cal. body that run down the side of the sling and over
the pulleys down to a 'T' weight pan where the weights are placed. The 'T' weight pan
must be absolutely level. Any angle in the 'T' weight pan will produce undesirable
XI-9
interactions and an erroneous axial force will be acquired. Also, it might be desirable
to check load m the negative axial force direction. If this is desirable, set the pulley
rig in front of the cal. body and hang weights. Be sure to check the balance limits to
see if a negative axial force limit exists. Normally, a negative axial force calibration
is not dor:e.
Sensitivity Constants
Sensitivity constants are required when the balance calibration matrices are
non-dimensional. They are acqiired during check loading and are nothing but slopes of a
line [fAload and are required for each force and moment. The sensitivity matrix is a
diagonal matrix.
XI-10
Amilli-volts (Amv) should be close to one another since the weight increment (Awt) is
held constant.
7) Obtain an average Amy.
8) Divide the Awt by the average Amv. This is the sensitivity Zonstant for that position
on the plane.
9) Repeat steps 6 3 for each position on the plane.
10) Steps 6-8 are not as accurate as using a linear regression program on the computer.
11) For the moments, add your sensitivities together and divide by the number of
sensitivities to obtain and average. This average sensitivity constant for the
moment is the one given to the software/tunnel personnel.
12) After the sensitivity constants have been acquired, re-hang selected loads on the
cal. body once again to verify the validity of the constants. The applied load to
the output load should be within 0.5% of one another.
Z 2.3184 0 0 0 0 0 Z
X 0 - .7844 0 0 0 0 X
mA 0 0 -. 1867 0 0 0 mi
1A 0 0 0 .1324 0 0 1
nA 0 0 0 0 -. 07780 n
Y 0 A 0 0 0 0 -1.188 Y 0J I
1) Take the balance output (mv) and subtract out the zero reading (mv).
2) Take that increment (Amv) and multiply it by that position on the balance calibration
coefficient (ie... if you are checking the normal force, on the nxn matrix (which is
usually inverted) go to the Z,Z position), and multiply it by the its sensitivity
constant.However, don't forget the interaction terms. They'll need to be added or
subtracted to the force or moment you are looking at for an accurate reading.
XI-II
F or M = Amv(balance calibration)(sensitivity constant) + interaction terms
F = force; M = moment
Don't forget that each interaction term also has a sensitivity factor associated with
it. Keep a close eye on the units. Don't mix apples and oranges.
The example below uses a 6 component balance calibration matrix. The calibration matrix
below is considered non-dimensional. If the calibration matrix was dimensional, then
consider the sensitivity constants on the diagonal of the sensitivity constant matrix as
unity (1).
From equation 14
(F ) = [K.i.]'SCIHFo}
XI-12
Example Inverted Balance Calibration Matrix
Z 2.3184 0 0 0 0 0 Z
A 0
X 0 .7844 0 0 0 0 X
A 0
m A_ 0 0 -. 1867 0 0 0 m0
1 0 0 0 .1324 0 0 10
A
nA 0 0 0 0 -.0778 0 no
YA 0 0 0 0 0 -1.188 Y
Using the inverted and sensitive constant matrix above, the total normal force (Z) and
pitching moment (m) equations are listed below.
The rest of the forces and moments equations are derived in the same manner.
XI-13
Balance Placement in the Model
The physical placement of the balance in a wind tunnel model can vary. Usually, the
balance electrical moment center is placed at the center of pressure of the configuration
at the maximum aerodynamic load. Since the center of pressure position varies with
angle-of-attack, make re the aerodynamic load is not outside the load of the balance.
XI- 14
B
AE /l Ci
S A
x, C
' D
St
RbB
Eb
T E A C
XI-15
N ~
~ ~ ~
1I N ~ ~ Nw% -Il WJI
Q ini
- ---- m Lm
0z X-tx n
-4 "4 "4"4
..- .,3
4A q
a)
-' 220 b %A 4 r "
N upNa 4 t 4
V
zrb
w
IN. I i 0 I S I I//
CD I 0 000
I I I 0 0# 0II 0 0001 I
a ,
Soo 3 g-. -,4 4-
WN 4 M I
I tn Mi w I 2 I
-) 'A'")*
)e" " n1 04
I- WV
m I. I MI I If I IlIl I -
H 0 000 0 0 0 0 000W
'-"kw% %M
CD 0 4.d Ci31
Z - jo's CA 0 x m O 4Z.l
(DW0 V ~ 0 CA ' -4.VCt V C 0 go
X1-16
Normal Force (Z) Calibration
(Balance Electrical Moment Center)
Wt Inc. fData Pt X Y Z I m n
0 1 -1329.8 960.6 0.0 -1112.7 705.4 536.3
100 2 -1308.8 962.6 191.1 -1110.7 710.4 536.3
200 3 -1289.8 964.6 384.2 -1108.7 714.4 537.3
300 4 -1268.8 965.6 575.3 -1105.7 718.4 536.3
400 5 -1250.8 966.6 766.5 -1104.7 722.4 539.3
500 6 -1230.7 966.6 958.6 -1103.7 726.4 536.3
600 7 -1208.0 966.8 1150.9 -1101.9 731.6 534.4
700 8 -1186.7 967.6 1342.8 -1100.7 735.4 534.3
600 9 -1211.0 967.8 1149.9 -1102.9 730.6 536.4
500 10 -1227.7 964.6 957.6 -1103.7 725.4 536.3
400 11 -1250.8 966.6 765.5 -1106.7 721.4 536.3
300 12 -1268.8 965.6 573.3 -1107.7 727.4 536.3
200 13 -1287.8 965.6 381.2 -1110.7 713.4 538.3
100 14 -1306.8 964.6 189.1 -1112.7 709.4 540.3
0 15 -1326.8 962.6 0.0 -11-2 2,1 4, 541.3
WtInc. DataPt X Y Z I m n
0 16 -1324.8 962.6 -2.0 -1113.7 688.4 543.3
100 17 -1310.8 963.6 182.1 -1110.7 567.3 544.3
200 18 -1298.8 964.6 369.2 -1108.7 446.3 545.3
300 19 -1286.8 964.6 555.3 -1105.7 326.2 545.3
400 20 -1271.8 965.6 742.4 -1102.7 206.1 545.3
500 21 -1260.8 965.6 928.6 -1100.7 85.1 546.3
600 22 -1248.7 966.6 1114.7 -1099.7 -36.0 545.3
700 23 -1233.7 966.6 1301.8 -1097.7 -157.1 545.3
600 24 -1247.7 965.6 1114.7 -1098.7 -35.0 547.3
500 25 -1256.8 966.6 928.6 -1100.7 86.1 545.3
400 26 -1273.8 965.6 742.4 -1102.7 208.1 545.3
300 27 -1287.0 965.8 556.4 -1103.9 329.3 545.4
200 28 -1298.0 964.8 370.3 -1106.9 450.4 545.4
100 29 -1309.8 964.6 183.1 -1108.7 571.3 547.3
0 30 1-1322.8 963.6 0.0 -1110.7 692.4 547.3
X 1-17
This page was intentionally left blank
XI-18
NOTES
XI-19
NOTES
XI-20
NOTES
XI-21
NOTES
XI-22
LIST OF REFERENCES
R
R List of References
1) Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow, NACA 1135, 1953.
2) Ametec Engineering, Inc., 11820 Nor'hup Way Suite 200, Bellevue, Wa 98005,
(206)827-3304.
3) Nicolai, L., Design of Aircraft Vehicles, United States Air Force Academy,
Colorado Springs, Co, July 1972.
4) Lesko, James S., Reduction of Forces and Moments Taken on Internal Balances and
the Effect of Axes Orientation, Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson
AFB, Ohio, Technical Note 9, April 1952.
5) Stewert, V.R.,Low Speed Wind Tunnel Test of Ground Proximity and Deck Edge
Effects on a Lift Cruise Fan V/STOL Configuration, NASA-CR-152247, May 1979.
6) Henderson, C., Clark, J., Walters, M., V/STOL Aerodynamics, Stability &
Control Manual, Naval Air Development Center, Warminster, Pa., NADC-80017-60,
January 1983.
7) Hoerner, Sighard, F., Fluid Dynamic Drag, Published by Author, 1965.
8) Rae, William, H., and Pope, Alan, Low Speed Wind Tunnel Testing; Wiley
Interscience Publication, New York, New York, 1984.
9) Lan, Edward, C. and Roskam, J., Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance; Roskam
A iaition and Engineering Corporation, Ottawa Kansas, 1981.
10) Braslow, A.L., Knox, E.C., Simplified Method Determination of Critical lleight of
Distributed Roughness Particles for Boundary Layer Transition at Mach Number 0
to 5, NACA-TN-4363, Sept 1958.
11) Taylor, Robert, Boundary Layer Transition Strips in Atmospheric Tunnels, Memo,
March 7, 1967, NASA-Langley Research Center.
12) Hoak, P.E. et al., USAF Stability and Control Datcom, Air Force Flight Dynamics
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1978.
13) Jobe, Charles E., Prediction of Aerodynamic Drag, AFWAL-TM-84-203, Flight
Dynamics Laboratory, Wright -Patterson AFB, Ohio, July 1984.
R-1
List of References continued
14) Smith, C.W., Aerospace Handbook, General Dynamics, Convar Aerospace Division,
Fort Worth, Tx, Rev B, March 1976.
15) Alexander, Michael G., Personal class notes, AEE 502 Aircraft Performance, 1988.
16) Roskam, Jan, Airplane Flight Dynamics & Automatic Flight Controls, Roskam
Aviation & Engineering Corporation, Ottawa, Kansas, 1982.
17) Perkins & Hage, Airplane Performance Stability and Control, John Wiley & Sons
Inc., Jan 1967.
18) Simms, Kenneth L., An Aerodynamic Investigation of a Forward Swept Wing, Thesis,
AFIT/GAE/AA/77D-14, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB,
Ohio.
19) Erickson, G.E., Rogers, L.W., Schreiner, J.A., Lee, D.G., "Further Studies of
Subsonic and Transonic Vortex Flow Aerodynamics of a Close-Coupled Forebody
Slender Wing Fighter", AIAA paper AIAA-88-4369, Aug 1988.
20) Alexander, Michael G., Cavity/Separation Characteristics of an Axisymmetric Air
-to-Air Missile from Mach 2.0 to Mach 5.0, Wright Research and Development
Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, WRDC-TR-89-3041, April 1989.
21) Gieck, K., Engineering Formulas 5th Edition, McGraw- Hill Inc., 1986.
22) Bartel, H.W., McAvoy, J.M., Cavity Oscillation in Cruise Missile Carrier
Aircraft, AFWAL-TR-81-3036, June 1981.
23) Whitford, Ray, Design for Air Combat, Janes Publishing Company Inc., New York,
New York, 1987.
24) Abbot and Doenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections, Dover Publications, Inc., NY, NY,
1958.
25) Braslow, A.L., Hicks, R.M., and Harris, R.V., Use of Grit Type Boundary-Layer
-Transition Trips on Wind Tunnel Models, NASA-TN-D3579, Sept 1966.
26) Crowder, J.P.,Fluorescent Mini-Tufts for Non-Intrusive Flow Visualization,
Douglas Aircraft Company, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, MDC J7374, 1980.
R-2
List of References concluded
27) Shapiro, Ascher H., The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
volume 1, The Ronald Press Company, 1953.
32) MIL-Handbook 5
33) Cerrnica, John N.,Strengths of Materials, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. 1977
34) Nash, William A., Strength of Materials Schaums's Outline Series in
Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1972
35) Unknown; "Definition & Measurement of Net Lift and Drag", 707/CFM56 Aerodynamic
Staff, June 1978
36) Holman, J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1966, 1971.
37) Volluz, R.J., Handbook of Supersonic Aerodyanmics, Section 20, Wind Tunnel
Instrumentation and Operation, John Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory, Silver Springs, Maryland, NAVORD Report 1488 (Vol. 6), DTIC
AD261682, January 1962.
38) Thelander, J.A.; Aircraft Motion Analysis, FDL-TDR-64-70, March 1965, DTIC
AD617354, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
R-3
APPENDIX A
A
APPENDIX A
20.0 -
15.0
10.0
7.00
5.0 AI _:
DYNAMIC
PRESSURE (q) 4.0 -
(psi)
3.0
2.0 / / /
MCNU/
i.u -i Dcse
(a dA se
.- i!
-~ -- r1-
Reynolds number per unit lengthx (RA ft ) 14.7 pot
N X, 1 j u4
I N
4-
EIN
-TIT
N U INo "
N
0 ~ N
~
..
. ..
-t#
Fiur A- Renod ff I t
Nube Determ
1LInaVtio I rf.
I il.. 1 tA-21 1
Speed of Absolute Kinematic
Altitude Temperature Pressure Density Sound Viscosity Viscosity
ft F R psf psi lbm/ft^3 ro/ro0 ft/sec mi/hr Ibm/ft-s ftf2/sec
0 58.7 518.4 2116.0 14.700 0.002378 1.0000 1107.64 760.9 3.725x10^-7 1.566x1O^-4
2000 51.5 511.2 1968.0 13.672 0.002242 0.9428 1100.07 755.7 3.685 1.644
4000 44.4 504.1 1828.0 12.699 0.002112 0.8881 1092.36 750.4 3.644 1.725
6000 37.3 497.0 1696.0 11.782 0.001988 0.8358 1084.64 745.1 3.602 1.812
8000 30.2 489.9 1572.0 10.921 0.001869 0.7859 1076.78 739.7 3.561x10"-7 1.905x10-4
10000 23.0 482.7 1455.0 10.108 0.001756 0.7384 1068.92 734.3 3.519 2.004
12000 15.9 475.6 1346.0 9.351 0.001648 0.6931 1060.91 728.8 3.476 2.109
14000 8.8 468.5 1243.0 8.635 0.001545 0.6499 1053.05 723.4 3.434 2.223
16000 1.6 461.3 1146.0 7.961 0.001448 0.6088 1046.21 718.7 3.391x10^-7 2.342x10"-4
18000 -5.5 454.2 1056.0 7.336 0.001355 0.5698 1036.75 712.2 3.348 2.471
20000 -12.6 447.1 972.1 6.753 0.001267 0.5327 1028.60 706.6 3.305 2.608
22000 -19.8 439.9 893.3 6.206 0.001183 0.4974 1020.59 701.1 3.261 2.756
24000 -26.9 432.8 819.8 5.695 0.001103 0.4640 1012.15 695.3 3,217x10"-7 2.916x10-4
26000 -34.0 425.7 751.2 5.219 0.001028 0.4323 1003.71 689.5 3.173 3.086
28000 -41.2 418.5 687.4 4.775 0.000957 0.4023 995.26 683.7 3.128 3.268
30000 48.3 411.4 628.0 4.363 0.000889 0.3740 986.82 677.9 3.083 3.468
32000 -55.4 404.3 572.9 3.980 0.000826 0.3472 978.23 672.0 3.038x100-7 3.678x10^-4
34000 -62.5 397.2 521.7 3.624 0.000765 0.3218 969.50 666.0 2.992 3.911
36000 -67.3 392.4 474.4 3.296 0.000705 0.2963 963.67 662.0 2.962 4204
38000 -67.3 392.4 431.1 2.995 0.000640 0.2692 963.67 662.0 2.962 4.625
40000 -67.3 392.4 391.9 2.723 0.000582 0.2448 963.67 662.0 2.962x10^-7 5.089x10"-4
42000 -67.3 392.4 356.2 2.475 0.000529 0.2225 963.67 662.0 2.962 5.599
44000 -67.3 392.4 323.7 2.249 0.000480 0.2021 963.67 662.0 2.962 6.161
46000 -67.3 392.4 294.2 2.044 0.000437 0.1838 963.67 662.0 2.962 6.778
48000 -67.3 392.4 267.4 1.858 0.000397 0.1670 963.67 6620 2.962x10-7 7.459x10"-4
50000 -67.3 392.4 243.1 1.689 0.000361 0.1518 963.67 662.0 2.962 8.206
52000 -67.3 392.4 220.9 1.535 0.000328 0.1379 963.67 662.0 ,2.952 9.028
54000 -67.3 392.4 200.8 1.395 0.000298 0.1254 963.67 662.0 2.962 9.933
56000 -67.3 392.4 182.5 1.268 0.000271 0.1140 963.67 662.0 2.962x10-7 10.93x10-4
58000 -67.3 392.4 165.9 1.153 0.000246 0.1036 963.67 662.0 2.962 12.02
60000 -67.3 392.4 150.8 1.048 0.000224 0.09415 963.67 6620 2.962 13.23
62000 -67.3 392.4 137.1 0.952 0.000203 0.08557 963.67 662.0 2.962 14.56
64000 -67.3 392.4 124.6 0.866 0.000185 0.07777 963.67 662.0 2.962x100-7 16.02x10'-4
65000 -67.3 392.4 118.7 0.825 0.000176 0.07414 963.67 662.0 2.962 16,8
70000 -67.3 392.4 93.53 0650 0.000139 0.05839 963,67 662.0 2.962 21.33
75000 -67.3 392.4 73.66 0.512 0.000109 004599 93.67 6620 2.962 27.09
A-3
CQUATIONS, TABLES, AND CHIARTSP ORl COMPRESIBLE FLWW
SUBSONIC FLOW
PI A... .P .
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IIIIIIII I
REPORT I 13b-NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMIrErr MOR AERONAUTICS
SUPERSONIC FLOW-Coltioiued
p LT A_ , Et
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A-9
To Convert Into Multiply By
A
A-10
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-11
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-12
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-13
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-14
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-15
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-16
To Convert Into Mulitiply By
J
A-18
To Convert Into Muitiply By
M
A-19
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-20
To Convert Into MultiF* By
0
Ounce drams 16
Ounce grains 437.5
Ounce grams 28.349527
Ounce pounds 0.0625
Ounce ounces (troy) 0.9115
Ounce tons (long) 2.79x10-5
Ounce tons (metric) 2.835xl0"-5
Ounce (fluid) cubic inches 1.805
Ounce (fluid) liters 0.02957
Ounces (troy) grains 480
Ounces (troy) grams 31.103481
Ounces (toy) ounce (avdp.) 1.09714
Ounces (boy) pennyweights (troy) 20
Ounces (troy) pounds (troy) 0.08333
Ounce/sq inch Dynes/sq cm 4309
Ounce/,c inch Ibf/sq in (psi) 0.0625
A-21
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-22
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-24
To Convert Into Multip*y By
A-25
To Convert Into Multiply By
A-26
NOTES
A-27
NOTES
A-28
APPENDIX B
13
APPENDIX B
Tid Bits
This section offers tid bits of information that can be useful. The information listed
below is not in any particular order.
8) Supercritical airfoils (wings) delay the drag rise due to shock formation.
9) When the Mach number is > 0.3, be sure to correct the dynamic pressure
(density) for compressibility effects.
B-1
Wind Tunnel First Aid Kit
This section is a collection of suggested items that would be helpful to the testing
engineer if they accompanied him/her to the testing site. It keeps the testing engineer
from loosing an 'atta boy'.
12) Notebook for wind tunnel log. It is most important that the testing engineer
write down everything that happens during the test. By the time the reduced data
arrives back 'home', you will have forgotten what happened during the test.
B-2
Square Circular Are Sector
S= !LI h = z fp,
2b d2- 2.b.... T
* 22
b -T
Rootanillo
Acb Iab3 Quarter Circular
Pazallelolraan
[a.-A h -l:h .i
T -+
LICuba n r. v
h 2a + b-=
A =GA
xquilatrial
Trian
T
PeIrallelpiped ml n-.q,
_A 2(.1
Ln 2
a Parallelpiped
A
2
Circle A nr
2
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4icu
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CI. = T 4
1.( .
-= Vx 4 = 0 1
Cylinder
Semi-Cirole A E1 2 V d:-
A TM 4 1 1'
-- ---
y 4,--
3,-r
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rh=
:
I.= ly 0 .10913r4
I2-a--PIrbollo
b ~ ~ 3 - Co
h A
iP2sr: obol1b.l~ 4
Parabelio
Aa
A ab sphere
Sb Aeurf 4.r2
B-3
NOTES
B-4
NOTES
B-5
NOTES
B-6
APPENDIX C
C
APPENDIX C
Power On Symbols
Moment Arms
AL Lift
AD Drag
AM Pitching moment
ARM Rolling moment
Total Coefficients
C-1
Symbols continued
M. V
CD Ram drag coefficient, 1
CAero or CLLA
CL Lift coefficient
CAero or CA
CD CD Drag coefficient
CM
CAero or CA
CM Pitching moment coefficient
C RCRAero or CM
C R olling moment coefficient
Miscellaneous
x = Fan Number
c = M.A.C.
b - Wing Span
C-2
Power On Aerodynamic Equations (ref. 5)
CAero = CD
CD ACD TCD
_ CR
CM
CAero = CM ACD T ACMD
C-3
DR = MiV
_DR
DR qS
AL CLA -CL
AD pwr on pwr off
T CT
AD~ CA " CD
AM pwr on pwr off
T CT
CRMA - CRM
AM - pwr on pwr off
T CT
C-4
LIFT C~rFnCIENT
DUE TO THRUST
CL At
CLA
4 L Puwcr oft
(Acro Lift)
24 it6 6
CDA
Power Off
CD 0 (Aero Drug)
2 4 68
INCREMENTAL
H ~~DRAG COEFFICIENT
DUE TO THRUST
h1
ACA
CM
cmA
Power On
INCREMENTAL PITC11ING (Aero Fitch)
ACM T
CMo Power On
2 4 68
h/) MtDX~ED P'ITCHING MOMENT
COEMVCIE NT
CM
Power Off
(Total Pitch)
C-3
This page was intentionally left blank
c-6
NOTES
C-7
NOTES
C-8
NOTES
C-9
NOTES
C-10
NOTES
C-II
NOTES
C-12
NOTES
C-13
NOTES
C-14
NOTES
C-15
NOTES
C-16
NOTES
C. 17
NOTES
C.- I,
NOTES
C-19
NOTES
C-20
NOTES
C-21
NOTES
C-22
NOTES
C-23
NOTES
C-24
NOTES
C-25
NOTES
C-26
NOTES
C-27
NOTES
C-28
NOTES
C-29
NOTES
/ /,.,
SUPPLEMENTARY
INFORMATION
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE
WRIGHT LABORATORY (AFMC)
WRIGHT-PATrERSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO
1) Page 11-2; Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC); Add a comma after 'span'.
2) Page IV-7; Figure IV-4, Top figure 'Aerodynamic Angles'; -3 is on the wrong plane.
It should be on the +VI plane.
3) Page IV-9; Balance to Body A."is , force equations (roll=O) [not matrix]; on CN term
C-- Cbal sino3sina should be positive +Cba1
+C sinosinox.
4) Page IV-9; Balance to Body Axis , force equations (roll=0) [not matrix]; on CA term
5) Page IV-9; Balance to Body Axis , force equations (roll=O) [not matrix]; on CY
8) Page IV-15; Wind Axis to Stability Axis, Add a 'w' sub-subscript to CL in the vector
column of the force matrix.
9) Page V-2; change the units on 32.1741 to (lbm-ft/lbf-sA2) from (ft/secA2).
10) Page VI-6; Figure VI-3; Tli is measured on this figure from the centerline to
the inboard trailing edge flap chord.
11) Page VI-10; Inboard Section, b /2=26.96in; Change to bi/2=26.96 in.
N
12) Page VII-7, Method of Determining a Drag Polar; Change X CL(i)*CD(i) 2 to
N i=l
XCL(i) 2*CD(i).
izi
15) Page XI-9; 4th line; Change 'in milli-volts [mv]' to 'in milli-volts [my])'
D-1
16) Page XI-12; Example Original Balance Calibration Matrix, no action is required. This
is a point of clarification. Part of this matrix came from Figure XI-3. The original
matrix was inadvertently entered and subsequently inverted in COLUMN order when in fact it
should have been entered in ROW order. All the preceding calculations use the column
order inverted matrix, but their ORDER of calculations and calculations is correct. If
you "pretend" they were entered in row order everything works out fine. This was not
corrected in this report.
17) Page A-3; Standard Atmosphere; The values used in this figure were obtained from a
dated U.S. Standard Atmosphere source ie., speed of sound @ S.L. = 1107.64 when it should
be 1116.1.
18) Delete Page A-12.
19) Page A-10...; Conversion Factors;
20) Page B-3; Figure B-I Geometric Equations, Parallelogram; tile length of 'a' is the
base of the parallelogram.
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