Calculating-Boiler and-Process-Heater-Thermal Efficiency PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
CALCULATING BOILER AND PROCESS

HEATER THERMAL EFFICIENCY
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of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-104.06 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Introduction to Boilers
Calculating Boiler and Process
Heater Thermal Efficiency
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT OR
DIRECT METHOD ................................................................................. 3
Thermal Efficiency ................................................................................................ 3
Example Problem 1.................................................................................... 5
Input/Output or Direct Method.................................................................... 7
Example Problem 2.................................................................................... 7
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS METHOD ............. 9
Excess Air............................................................................................................. 9
Example Problem 3 Calculation Of Excess Oxygen ................................ 10
Stack (Flue Gas) Temperature ................................................................ 12
Heater Efficiency Calculation ................................................................... 14
Combustion Efficiency Charts............................................................................. 14
Example Problem 4.................................................................................. 15
Simplified Equation............................................................................................. 16
Thermal Efficiency Improvement ............................................................. 16
Example Problem 5 ............................................................................................ 17
Reduce Excess Air ............................................................................................. 21
Reduce Stack Temperature................................................................................ 23
Reduce Other Losses......................................................................................... 24
EFFECTS OF FIRING RATE ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY.......................................... 25
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 26
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY
USING INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD....................................................... 26
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY
USING HEAT LOSS METHOD ............................................................. 27
Work Aid 2A: Excess Air and Thermal Efficiency Using Short Cut Equations.... 27
Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Calculating Furnace Efficiency by Heat Loss
Method ............................................................................................................... 28
WORK AID 3: FLUE GAS OXYGEN (DRY BASIS) VS. EXCESS AIR......................... 30
WORK AID 4: HEAT ABSORBED CHARTS ................................................................ 31
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 36
ADDENDUM ................................................................................................................. 37
API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE ....................................................................................... 38
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 56
List of Figures
Figure 1. Steam Boiler System....................................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Excess Oxygen ............................................................................................. 10
Figure 3. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air ............................................................ 11
Figure 4. Typical Aspirating (High Velocity) Thermocouple.......................................... 13
Figure 5. Combustion Heat Available to Process ......................................................... 14
Figure 6. Steam Boiler System..................................................................................... 17
Figure 7. Furnace Air Leaks ......................................................................................... 22
Figure 8. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air ............................................................ 30
Figure 9. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1000 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas............... 31
Figure 10. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1600 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas............. 32
Figure 11. Heat Available from the Combustion of 5 API Fuel Oil............................... 33
Figure 12. Heat Available from the Combustion of 10 API Fuel Oil............................. 34
Figure 13. Heat Available from the Combustion of 15 API Fuel Oil............................. 35
Figure 1A. Typical Heater Arrangement ....................................................................... 38
Figure 2A. Vapor Pressure of Water ............................................................................ 41
Figure 3A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components ............................................................. 42
Figure 4A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components .............................................................. 43
Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet ............................................................................. 46
Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet, (contd) ............................................................... 52
List of Tables
Table 1. Furnace Fuel Savings .................................................................................... 19
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INFORMATION
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT

OR DIRECT METHOD
Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is defined as the percentage of the absorbed
energy to the total energy input. Calculation of thermal efficiency
is based on an energy balance around the boiler or process
heater.
In a boiler, although only the energy in the steam is usable, the
heat absorbed in a boiler is the sum of the energy in the steam
and the energy in the blowdown above that of the boiler feed
water. The energy in the stack gas above that of ambient air is a
loss. The energy transferred from the boiler through the
insulation and refractory to the atmosphere is also a loss. In a
process heater, heat losses are the same and include losses to
the stack gases and losses to the atmosphere through the
refractory and insulation.
Factors that increase the losses will decrease the thermal
efficiency. For example, operating with too much excess air
reduces the thermal efficiency by increasing the stack heat loss
because the excess air is heated from ambient to stack gas
temperature.
The thermal efficiency for which a boiler or a process heater is
designed is an economic evaluation involving the cost of fuel
and the cost of equipment to reduce the losses. Examples of
economic analyses include the amount of insulation or
refractory used to reduce heat losses to the atmosphere, the
amount of heat transfer surface provided in the radiant and
convection sections to reduce the stack temperature, use of a
preheater to reduce the stack gas temperature, types of burners
used (determines minimum excess air requirement) and the use
of chemicals to reduce the blowdown requirement.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

The thermal efficiency can be calculated using either the higher

heating value (HHV) or the lower heating value (LHV). The LHV
is a better measure of achievable thermal efficiency since the
latent heat of vaporization of the water in the flue gas cannot be
recovered. The HHV efficiency is several percentage points
lower than the LHV efficiency. It is common practice in the
furnace industry to use the LHV in calculations while the boiler
industry uses the HHV efficiency. All calculations will be done on
a LHV basis including boilers.
The Example Problem 1 shows the calculation of the thermal
efficiency and the magnitude of the heat losses.

Example Problem 1
Figure 1 is a schematic of a forced recirculation steam boiler system.
Figure 1. Steam Boiler System
Steam Boiler System:

Calculate the thermal efficiencies for the boiler in Figure 1 if firing 55,000 lb/hr of fuel
gas. The enthalpy data from a steam table that is needed for entering and exiting
streams is shown below:
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Steam Temp. F psia HT HV
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4
Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --
Fan-200 HP

Heat Balance: Water side/Process

Heat In: Feedwater = 910,000 lb/hr x 158 = 143.78 MBtu/hr (M = million)
Heat Absorbed = QA
Total = 143.78 + QA
Heat Out: Steam = 805,000 x 1,237.6 = 996.27

Blowdown = 105,000 x 343.5 = 36.07
Total = 1,032.34 MBtu/hr
Heat In = Heat Out
143.78 + QA = 1,032.34
Heat absorbed = QA = 1,032.34 - 143.78 = 888.56 M Btu/hr
Fuel Heat Input

QP = 55,000 x 19,400 = 1067 million Btu/HR.
Pump Energy
HPp =
(gpm )(P ) = (12000 )(108 ) = 1079 Hp
1715 (0.65 ) 1715 (0.70 )
HPp = 1079 x 2544 = 2.7 million Btu/hr
Fan Energy
HPF = 200 Hp
HPF = 200 x 2544 = 0.5 million Btu/hr
Total Energy Input

Qin. = 1067 + 2.7 + 0.5 = 1070.2
Total Energy Efficiency

Q A (100 ) 888.6(100 )
Eff. = = = 83.0%
QM 1070.2

To simplify the thermal efficiency calculation the energy input from pump and fan are
ignored because these are relatively small and fairly constant. If this is done then:
888.6(100 )
LHV Eff. = = 83.2%
1067
Blowdown (Unusable Energy)
QBD = 105,000(343.5 158) = 19.5 million Btu/hr
19.5
Loss = (100) = 1.8%
1067
Heat Losses
To atmosphere = 2% given.
To blowdown = 1.8%.
Flue gas loss = 100 - 83.2 - 2 - 1.8 = 13%
Input/Output or Direct
Method
The input/output or direct method is used whenever the heat absorbed by the boiler or
process heater can be measured. This is the usual method for boilers and is used for
process heaters only when there is a known amount of vaporization of the process fluid.
The energy balance on a boiler requires knowing all the rates on the boiler. Often the
blowdown (BD) rate is not measured. Sometimes the boiler feed water (BFW) rate is not
measured. The steam rate is always measured. Knowing the concentrations of one
impurity in both the BFW and the BD allows the calculation of the material and energy
balances. Example Problem 2 illustrates this calculation.
Example Problem 2
Calculate thermal efficiency of a boiler given the following data:

Steam production = 500,000 lb./hr at 434F and 140 psig
BFW chloride = 0.2 wppm
BD chloride = 10 wppm
Fuel fired = 673,576 ft3/hr with 1005 Btu/ ft3

Enthalpies
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Stream Temp. F Psia HL HV
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4
Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --
Solution:
Material Balance
FBFW = Fs + FBD
CBFW FBFW = CBD + FBD
C 0.2
FBD = BFW FBFW = FBFW = 0.02 FBFW
CBD 10
FBFW = 500,000 + 0.02 FBFW
0.98 FBFW = 500,000
FBFW = 510,204 lb/hr
FBD = 0.02 FBFW = 10,204 lb/hr
Heat Absorbed, QA
6 6
Heat In 10 Btu/hr Heat Out 10 Btu/hr
BFW = 510.204 (158) = 80.6 Steam = 500,000 x 123.7.6 = 618.8
Heat Absorbed QA BD = 10,204 x 343.5 3.5
Total 80.6 + QA Total 622.3
Heat In = Heat out

80.6 + QA = 622.3
QA = 622.3 80.6 = 541.7 million Btu/hr
Heat Fired
QF = 673,756 x 1005 = 677.1 million Btu/hr
Thermal Efficiency
Q A (100 ) 541.7 (100 )
LHV Eff = = = 80.0%
QF 677.1

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS

METHOD
The heat loss method calculation is used when the heat
absorbed cannot be readily calculated such as most process
heaters. The heat absorbed can be calculated by subtracting
the heat losses from the heat fired. In a boiler or process heater
the primary heat loss is that lost to the stack gas. The heat loss
in the stack is a function of the stack temperature, the amount of
excess air and the carbon and hydrogen ratio in the fuel. A
material and energy balance can be calculated knowing the
above parameters.
Excess Air
The amount of excess air is defined as a percentage of the air in
the flue gas to the air that is required for complete combustion.
Excess air and excess oxygen are numerically equivalent
because the numerator and denominator are both multiplied by
the same constant to convert from one to the other.
Analysis from the lab will always be on a dry basis. Stack gas
analyzers that sample the stack gas will dry the stack gas
before analysis. Stack gas analyzers that are in the stack
measure on a wet basis but may be calibrated to report on a dry
basis.
The calculation based on a dry flue gas analysis is outlined in
Figure 2 and detailed in Example Problem 3.

Normally there is no correction for incomplete combustion

shown in step 3 of Figure 2 because the carbon monoxide (CO)
concentration is usually negligible (10-50 ppm).
1. Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.

2. From the percent N2, calculate the total O2 into the furnace.
3. Reduce the free O2 by the amount required to burn the CO to CO2.
The remaining free O2 is excess. (CO is usually negligible)
4. O2 required = (total in) less (excess)
5.
Percent excess O2 =
(excess O2 ) x100 = (excess ) x100
(required O2 ) total - excess
Figure 2. Excess Oxygen
Example Problem 3
Calculation Of Excess Oxygen
Lab Flue gas analysis: CO2 9.5

CO 1.8
O2 2.0
N2 86.7
100.0
Air composition: 21% O2, 79% N2
0.21
O2 into furnace = 86.7 x = 23.0 moles/100 moles flue gas
0.79
1.8 CO + 0.9O2 1.8 CO2
(Note: Usually CO is in parts per million and this correction can be ignored)
Net O2 = 2.0 - 0.9 = 1.1 moles/100 moles flue gas
1.1
Percent excess O2 = x 100 = 5.02%
(23 1.1)
If there were no CO in the stack gas, the above analysis would have 11.3% CO2 and
the percent excess O2 would have been:
2.0(100 )
Percent excess O2 = x 100 = 5.02%
(23 2.0 )

Figure 3 (Work Aid 3) can also be used to calculate excess air (oxygen) once the
oxygen has been adjusted for complete combustion. For 1.1% O2 Figure 3 gives an
excess air of 5%. For 2.0% O2 Figure 3 gives an excess air of 9%. This checks our
previous calculations.
Figure 3. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

Excess air and excess oxygen are numerically equal, because both numerator and
denominator are multiplied by the same constant to convert between the two. % O2 in
flue gas is not % excess O2. Considering these equal is a common error.
The following shortcut equations can also be used to estimate percent excess air.
These equations assume complete combustion and a nominal carbon to hydrogen ratio.
When the flue gas analysis is on a wet basis:
111.4 x %O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - %O2
where: %O2 = Percent oxygen in the flue gas.
For 2% O2 in the stack gas.
111.4 x 2 222.8
Excess Air = = = 11.8%
20.95 - 2 18.95

When the flue gas analysis is on a dry basis:

91.2 x %O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - %O2
For 2% O2 in the stack gas.
91.2 x 2 182.4
Excess Air = = = 9.6%
20.95 - 2 18.95
Lab analysis is always on a dry basis because the water drops out as the gas sample
cools. When the oxygen analyzer is located in the stack, the oxygen is measured on the
wet basis but the analyzer may be calibrated using lab results so that it reports on a dry
basis. When the flue gas is extracted from the stack and is transported to an analyzer
that is located some distance away, the analysis is on the dry basis.
The precise relationship between oxygen content and excess air is a function of the
hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of the fuel. However, there is very little change in this
relationship over a wide range of fuels at low excess air rates as shown in Figure 3
(Work Aid 3).
Stack (Flue Gas)

Temperature
Another potential source of error in all efficiency calculations is an error in stack

temperature measurements. Ordinary stack temperature thermocouples can read low
by as much as 100F, depending upon their location and the flue gas temperature being
measured. If the thermocouple can "see" cold surroundings, such as the top of the
convection section or the sky, the indicator will likely read low. The higher the actual
stack temperature, the higher the radiation losses and thus, the higher the error. The
aspirating thermocouples shown in Figure 4 minimizes any error due to radiation.

6 3
4
5
2 2
1
6
6
A AA
2
1 2
2 2
A
7
1. = Thermocouple junction.
2. = Thermocouple wires to temperature-indicating instrument.
3. = Outer thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
4. = Middle thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
5. = Center thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
6. = Centering tripods.
7. = Air or steam at 10 lb/sq in. gage or more in increments of 10 lb/sq in.
until stable.
8. = Hot gas eductor.
From Furnace Operations, Third Edition by Robert Reed. Copyright 1981 by Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
Figure 4. Typical Aspirating (High Velocity) Thermocouple

Heater Efficiency
Calculation
API RP 532 specifies a detailed procedure for calculating the

thermal efficiency. This procedure is long and requires an
analysis of the fuel composition. This procedure is included in
the Addendum with an example problem and a blank calculation
sheets.
The API RP 532 procedure is a detailed heat balance on the
combustion side of the furnace to determine the amount of heat
lost up the stack.
Combustion Efficiency Charts

The API material and heat balance has been solved for a
number of cases and these cases plotted as heat available
charts to simplify the calculations. These charts are attached as
Work Aid 4. Work Aid 4 has charts for 1000 Btu/ft3 gas, 1600
Btu/ft3 gas, 5 API fuel oil, 10 API fuel oil, and 15 API fuel oil.
All charts have the general relationship shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 shows that the heat available to the process is reduced
as excess air is increased and a stack gas temperature is
increased.
Heat Available from Flue Gas
Above 60F, Btu/lb Fuel
0% Excess Air
20 10
Flue Gas Temperature
Useful in furnace design.

Useful in calculating furnace efficiency.
Figure 5. Combustion Heat Available to Process

Example Problem 4 illustrates the use of these charts in
calculating thermal efficiency.

Example Problem 4
Process heat absorbed = QA = 353 MBtu/hr
Stack temperature = 600F (from stack TI)
Percent excess air = 5%
Fuel = 1000 Btu/ft3 fuel gas LHV (Fuel rate not measured)
19,700 Btu/lb LHV (from refinery utilities coordinator)
From Heat Available Curve: Work Aid 4 for 1000 Btu/ft3 gas.
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb fuel at 600F and 5% excess air
Q A 353 x 10 6 Btu/hr
Net Fuel = FN = = = 20,643 lb/hr
HA 17,100 Btu/lb
Assume furnace box losses QL are 2%. (Usually 2 - 3%)
Gross fuel = FG = 1.02 x 20,643 = 21,056 lb/hr
Heat fired = QF = 21,056 x 19,700 Btu/lb = 414.8 x 106 Btu/hr
6
heat absorbed
LHV efficiency = (100 ) = Q A (100 ) = 353x10 6 x (100 ) = 85.1%
heat fired QF 414.8x10
Given the heat absorbed, the heat loss method will calculate the fuel consumed. If a fuel
meter is available the calculated fuel rate should be rationalized with the fuel meter
readings.
If only the thermal efficiency is desired the calculation simplifies to the following:
From above we have:
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb. fuel at 600F and 5% excess air (heat absorbed from chart)
HF = 19,700 Btu/lb. fuel (heating value of fuel for chart used)
QL = 2% (Percent heat release/lost to atmosphere)
HL = Heat loss, decimal fraction
QL 2
HL = = = 0.02
100 100
H (100 )
LHV efficiency = A
HF (1 + HL )
17,100 (100 )
=
19,700 (1+ 0.02 )
17,100 (100 )
= = 85.1%
20,094

Simplified Equation
A simplified (shortcut) equation can also be used to estimate LHV thermal efficiency.
The simplified equation assumes a nominal heating value of the fuel (carbon to
hydrogen ratio).
100
Percent efficiency = [100 (0.0237 + (0.000189 )(EA )(TST TA ))]
100 + QL
where: EA = Percent excess air.

TST = Stack temperature, F.
TA = Ambient air temperature, F.
QL = Casing heat loss, %.
For Example Problem 4 conditions and assuming the ambient temperature is 80F, the
furnace efficiency calculated by the shortcut formula is as follows:
100
Percent efficiency = [100 - (0.0237 + (0.000189 )(5 )(600 80 ))]
100 + 2
Percent efficiency = [100 - (0.0246 )(520 )](0.9804 ) = 85.5
This is a close check to the 85.1% calculated in Example Problem 4.
Thermal Efficiency
Improvement
Example Problem 5 calculates the thermal efficiency for a forced circulation boiler and
the changes in thermal efficiency that would result from reductions in stack temperature,
blowdown rate, and excess air.

Example Problem 5
Introduction:
In this example we will perform an energy balance around a boiler system and calculate
the fuel it requires. We will also examine methods of efficiency improvement.
Directions:
Calculate the fuel and boiler feedwater required for the boiler system shown in Figure 6.
How can the furnace efficiency be improved?
Use 2% for heat losses.
Use 10% blowdown (BFW basis).
For convenience, the required enthalpy data are given below:
Stream Temp. F psia HI HV

Feedwater 180 -- 148.0 --
Steam 700 600 -- 1351.8
Blowdown 492 633 478.5 1203.1
Figure 6. Steam Boiler System

Answer:
Material Balance:
Feedrate = F
Blowdown = 0.1 F
Steam product = 250,000
Material balance, F = 250,000 + 0.1 F
250,000
Feedrate F = = 277,778 lb/hr
0.9
Blowdown 0.1 F = 27,778 lb/hr
Heat in: Feed water = 277,778 x 148 = 41.11 MBtu/hr

Absorbed Heat = QA
Total = 41.11 + QA
Heat out: Blowdown = 27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 MBtu/hr

Steam = 250,000 x 1351.8 = 337.95
Total = 351.24
Heat in = Heat out 41.11 + QA = 351.24

Heat absorbed QA = 351.24 - 41.11 = 310.13 MBtu/hr
Heat loss QL = 2%
Fuel LHV LHV = 19,400 Btu/lb
Heat available HA = 16,725 Btu/lb at 600F Stack and 20% excess
air from Work Aid 4 using 1000 Btu/ft3 gas
chart.
310.13 x 10 6
Net fuel FN = = 18,543 lb/hr
16,725
Gross fuel FG = 1.02 x 18,543 = 18,914 lb/hr
Heat fired QF = 18,914 x 19,400 = 366.93 MBtu/hr
6
QA
LHV efficiency = (100 ) = 310.13 x 106 x100 = 84.52%
QF 366.93 z 10

Shortcut efficiency assuming the atmospheric air temperature is 100F:

Efficiency = [(100 -(0.0237 + (0.000189)(EA)))(TST - TA )][100/(100 + QL)]
= [(100 -(0.0237 + (0.000189)(20)))(600 - 100)][100/(100 + 2)]

= [(100 - 13.74)][0.9804] = 84.5%
To Increase Efficiency:
Lower stack temperature.
Add more surface to convection section and increase boiler feedwater
preheat.
Add more surface to convection section and preheat another process stream.
A 50F reduction in stack temperature would increase efficiency from 84.5%
to 85.9%.
Reduce blowdown rate.
If boiler feedwater quality allows, the blowdown rate can be reduced.
Reduction of blowdown from 10% to 2% would not increase the efficiency, but
would directly reduce fuel use by decreasing the process heat absorbed.
Reduce percent excess air.
A reduction of excess air from 20% to 10% increases efficiency from 84.5% to
85.4%. This might be accomplished by changing burners and closer control of
excess air.
As shown by the table below in Table 1, the improvements are all of the same order of
magnitude. Which one (or all) is used depends on economics of the specific boiler
under consideration.
Lower Reduce Reduce

Case Base Stack Blowdown Excess Air
Temp.
Percent blowdown 10 10 2 10
Heat absorbed, MBtu/hr 310.13 310.13 302.63 310.13
Stack temperature, F 600 550 600 600
Excess air, percent 20 20 20 10
Furnace efficiency, percent 84.52 85.91 84.52 85.40
Fuel savings, percent Base 1.62 2.42 1.04
Table 1. Furnace Fuel Savings

Calculation for efficiency Improvement:
Case 1 2 3 4
Lower Reduce %
Stack Temp. Reduce Blowdown Excess Air
Base
Heat in
277,778 x 148 = 41.11 41.11 255,103 x 148 = 37.76 41.11
Heat out
27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 5,102 x 478.5 = 2.44
250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95 250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95
351.24 351.24 340.39 351.24
Heat absorbed 310.13 310.13 302.63 310.13

Stack 600 550 600 600
Percent excess air 20 20 20 20
Heat loss 2% 2% 2% 2%
Fuel LHV 19,400 19,400 19,400 19,400
Heat Avail.* 16,725 17,000 16,725 16,900
Net fuel 18,543 18,243 18,095 18,351

Gross fuel 18,914 18,608 18,457 18,718
Heat fired 366.93 360.99 358.06 363.13
LHV, percent eff. 84.52 85.91 84.52 85.40
Fuel savings Base 1.62% 2.41% 1.04%

*Maxwell p. 185

Reduce Excess Air

All the air that enters a boiler or furnace is ultimately discharged
to the atmosphere at the stack temperature, and the energy it
contains is lost. The primary objective of efficient boiler and
furnace operations is to minimize airflow beyond that required
for good combustion. The air required for combustion should
enter only through the burners. The following steps can be
taken to reduce excess air:
1. Seal air leaks. This is particularly important in furnaces,
which operate with a draft (negative pressure) throughout
the furnace. These furnaces are more susceptible to air
infiltration. Figure 7 shows typical sources of air leaks into a
furnace.
Since most boilers operate with a positive pressure through
much of the boiler, air leakage into boilers is much less a
problem.
2. Fire all burners at the same rate (close off idle burners).
3. Control furnace draft.
4. Determine excess air targets for each furnace through a
series of plant tests. These targets are the minimum excess
air rates that are necessary for good combustion. Since no
two furnaces or boilers are exactly the same, there can be
different targets for each boiler and furnace in the plant.

Inlet
Construction
Joint
Clearance
Around Tube
Penetration
Poor Seal on Casing

Access Door Corrosion
Leaky Covers
on Observation
Doors
Idle
Burner
Outlet
Figure 7. Furnace Air Leaks

Add improved combustion control systems.

- Automatic draft control on boilers and process heaters.
- Use closed loop oxygen and/or CO trim control.
Replace oversized burners. It is difficult to operate burners
efficiently at high turndown rates.
Use high-capacity, high-intensity, or axial flow forced-draft
burners for improved, low excess air combustion.
Use low NOX burners for reduced emissions and low excess
air.
Reduce Stack Temperature

Fouling of the convection section tubes is the primary cause of
stack temperatures exceeding design. The extent of fouling can
be determined by visual inspection of the tubes or by observing
an increase in stack temperature over time. A 40F increase in
stack temperature typically represents a loss of 1% in thermal
efficiency.
Fouling can be reduced by operating sootblowers in boilers and
furnaces. Sootblowers should be provided for all boilers and
furnaces where heavy liquid fuels are fired. Units without
sootblowers should be periodically cleaned during turnarounds.
Fuel oil additives can be used to reduce deposits.
Reducing the stack temperature of a furnace or boiler that is
operating satisfactorily usually requires the addition of heat
transfer surface. The following are means of reducing stack
temperature:
Add heat transfer surface in convection section of process
heaters.
Add economizers on boilers to preheat the boiler feedwater
before entering the steam drum.
Add combustion air preheaters. Air preheaters can transfer
heat from the flue gas leaving the stack, to the air used for
combustion. Depending upon the flue gas temperature, the
incoming air can be heated several hundred F. The flue gas
temperature should be kept above about 300F to prevent
corrosion of the heat exchanger due to sulfuric acid in the
flue gas.

Reduce Other Losses

Although less important several other parameters listed below
can improve boiler and process heater efficiency:
Boiler blowdown should be controlled to the rate needed to

maintain boiler drum water impurities at the specified
concentration. Excess blowdown wastes heat and water.
Heat can be recovered from the blowdown stream.
Insulation should be maintained or improved to reduce heat
losses.
Steam leaks should be repaired.

EFFECTS OF FIRING RATE ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY

As the firing rate is increased the loss to the stack increases
primarily because the heat transfer area is fixed. The increase in
heat loss is not necessarily proportional to the increase in firing
rate. Increased loss will reduce thermal efficiency. Similarly a
decrease in firing will slightly improve thermal efficiency. At very
low firing rates the heat losses to the atmosphere become
significant and the thermal efficiency may decrease.
Over firing a boiler or a process heater will reduce thermal
efficiency.

WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL

EFFICIENCY USING INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD
This Work Aid is to assist in Exercise 1
Step 1. Calculate heat absorbed (QA) by a heat balance.
Step 2. Calculate heat released from fuel combustion (QF) by using the fuel rate and
the heat of combustion.
Step 3. Calculate thermal efficiency
QA
Eff. = (100 )
QF

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL

EFFICIENCY USING HEAT LOSS METHOD
Work Aid 2A: Excess Air and Thermal Efficiency Using Short Cut
Equations
Excess Air, EA
Dry Basis, O2 in stack gas
91.2 x % O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - % O2
Wet Basis, O2 in stack gas
111.4 x % O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - % O2
Thermal Efficiency
100
LHV efficiency = [100 (0.0237 + (0.000189 (EA )(TST TA )))]
100 + QL

Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Calculating Furnace Efficiency by

Heat Loss Method
This Work Aid will assist the Participant in Exercise 2B: Calculate Furnace Efficiency
using Heat Loss Method.
To determine a furnace thermal efficiency, follow the steps listed below:
Step 1: Calculate oxygen to furnace, using the formula:
moles N2 moles O2

100 moles flue gas 100 moles of air
O2 to furnace/10 0 moles flue gas =
moles N2

100 moles of air
moles N2
(21)
100 moles flue gas
=
79
Step 2: Calculate percent excess oxygen (air), using the formula:
moles O2 from furace

(100 )
100 moles flue gas
Percent excess O2 =
moles O2 to furnace moles O2 from furace

100 moles flue gas 100 moles flue gas
Percent excess O2 = percent excess air.
Step 3: Determine heat available (HA) per lb of fuel from Work Aid 4.
Step 4: Calculate net fuel fired, FN (If fuel consumption desired):
QA
FN =
HA
Step 5: Calculate gross fuel fired, FG (If fuel consumption desired):
QL
HL = where QL = % heat loss
100
FG = (FN )(1 + HL )

Step 6: Calculate heat fired, QF, Btu/hr (If fuel consumption desired):
QF = (FG) (LHV fuel)
Step 7: Calculate furnace efficiency:
Q A (100 ) HA
% efficiency = =
QF (LHV fuel) (1+ HL )
LHV fuel from combustion efficiency chart.

WORK AID 3: FLUE GAS OXYGEN (DRY BASIS) VS. EXCESS AIR
Figure 8. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

WORK AID 4: HEAT ABSORBED CHARTS
Source: Maxwell, Data Book on Hydrocarbon, page 184.
Figure 9. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1000 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas

Figure 10. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1600 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas

Figure 11. Heat Available from the Combustion of 5 API Fuel Oil



GLOSSARY
blowdown Water removed from the boiler to control the level of

dissolved impurities in the boiler water.
economizer A device for transferring heat from the flue gas to the boiler
feedwater (BFW) before the BFW enters the boiler drum.
excess air The percentage of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount

required for combustion.
flue gas Gaseous products from the combustion of fuel.
higher heating value (HHV) The amount of heat released during complete combustion of
fuel when the water formed is considered as a liquid (credit
is taken for its heat of condensation.) Also called gross
heating value.
lower heating value (LHV) The amount of heat released during complete combustion of
fuel when no credit is taken for heat of condensation of water
in the flue gas. Also called net heating value.
radiation heat loss A defined percentage of the net heat of combustion of the
fuel to account for heat losses through the boiler or furnace
walls to the atmosphere.
stack heat loss The total sensible heat of the flue gas components, at the
temperature of flue gas, when it leaves the last heat
exchange surface.
stack temperature The temperature of the flue gas when it leaves the last heat
exchange surface
thermal efficiency The total heat absorbed divided by the total heat input.
Usually expressed in percent.
total heat absorbed The total heat input minus the total heat losses.
total heat losses The sum of the radiation heat loss and the stack heat loss.

ADDENDUM
API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE...................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE

The API RP 532 procedure is a detailed version of the stack loss method. In addition to
the data required by the Simple Efficiency Equation, an analysis of the fuel composition
is required.
All sources of heat inputs and losses need to be included to make a precise efficiency
calculation. These sources are illustrated in Figure 1A. This calculation requires the
following additional data.
Relative humidity of the air.
Temperature and specific heat of the fuel.
Temperature and rate of atomizing steam when liquid fuel is fired.
If not known, it is usually satisfactory to estimate these data, based on typical local
conditions.
QS
T ST
Qr
LHV + H f + H m H a at T t = T a
Am bient
Fuel Air
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Figure 1A. Typical Heater Arrangement

The work sheets required for the RP 532 procedure are attached. An example of how it
is used to calculate the efficiency of a gas-fired furnace is attached.
This procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Using the Lower Heating Value Work Sheet, determine the lower heating value of
liquid fuel (if required). If the fuel is gas, or if typical liquid fuel properties are
known, it is not necessary to complete this work sheet.
2. Using the Combustion Work Sheet, determine flue gas properties for stoichiometric
combustion conditions.
3. Using the Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet, determine the amount of
water vapor in the flue gas. The vapor pressure of water at the ambient
temperature can be determined from steam tables on Figure 2A.
4. Using the Stack Loss Work Sheet, determine the stack heat losses. The enthalpy
of the flue gas components can be determined from Figures 3A and 4A.
5. The thermal efficiency can then be determined by the following equation:
100(QsQr )
e = 100 - (Eqn. 4)
LHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
where: Cp = Specific heat, Btu/lb-F.

e = Net thermal efficiency, % (LHV).
Ha = Air sensible heat correction, Btu/lb of fuel.
= Cp(air)(Ta - Td)(pounds of air per pound of fuel).
LHV = Lower heating value of the fuel, Btu/lb of fuel.
Hf = Fuel sensible heat correction, Btu/lb of fuel.
= Cp(fuel)(Tf - Td).
hs = Enthalpy of atomizing steam, Btu/lb.
Hm = Atomizing medium (usually steam) sensible heat correction,
Btu/lb of fuel.
= Cp(medium)(Tm - Td)(pounds of medium per pound of fuel).
If steam, Hm = (Enthalpy difference)(lb of steam/lb of fuel).
= (hs - 1087.7)(lb of steam/lb of fuel).
Qr = Radiation heat losses, Btu/lb of fuel.

Qs = Calculated stack heat losses (from Stack Loss Work Sheet),

Btu/lb of fuel.
Ta = Ambient air temperature, F.
Td = Reference (or datum) temperature, F.
= 60F (usually).
Tf = Temperature of fuel, F.
Tm = Temperature of atomizing medium, F.
6. The gross thermal efficiency can be determined by the following equation:

100(Qs + latent heat )
egross = 100
HHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
where: egross = Gross thermal efficiency, % (HHV).

Latent heat = (H2O formed by combustion of fuel) x1059.7.
7. The firing rate can be calculated, based on the heat absorbed in the boiler or
furnace, as follows:
Qa
Qf = (Eqn. 6)
e/100
where: Qf = Heat fired, MBtu/hr (LHV).
Qa = Heat absorbed, MBtu/hr.
e = Net thermal efficiency, %.
This procedure calculates the efficiency of boilers by both the Input/Output and Stack
Loss methods. It uses the HHV of the fuel and can be used for coal-fired boilers, as well
as gas- and oil-fired units. The forms for this procedure are attached. Line items on
these forms that do not apply to Saudi Aramco boilers have been crossed out.
Sample Calculation - RP 532 Procedure
The following sample calculation illustrates the use of the RP 532 calculation procedure
to determine thermal efficiency. (Based on Par. 3.2.2 of RP 532.)

2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
Vapor Pressure of Water, psia
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Temperature, F
Source: Data taken from Steam Tables
Figure 2A. Vapor Pressure of Water

Figure 3A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components

Figure 4A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components

Sample Problem:
Given:
Stack temperature TST = 300F
Air temperature Ta = 28F
Specific heat of air Cp(air) = 0.24 Btu/lb- F
Relative humidity = 50 %
Oxygen content of flue gas = 3.5 % (wet basis)
Radiation losses Qr = 2.5 % of lower heating value of fuel
Fuel temperature Tf = 100F
Fuel specific heat Cp(fuel) = 0.525 Btu/lb- F
Fuel composition:
Methane = 75.41 vol. %
Ethane = 2.33
Ethylene = 5.08
Propane = 1.54
Propylene = 1.86
Nitrogen = 9.96
Hydrogen = 3.82
Solution:
1. Complete the following work sheets attached (completed copies attached).
Combustion Work Sheet.
Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet.
Stack Loss Work Sheet.
2. Determine Net Thermal Efficiency, as follows:
From Combustion Work Sheet, LHV = 18,120 Btu/lb
Radiation Loss Qr = 18,120 x 0.025
= 453.0 Btu/lb of fuel
From Stack Loss Work Sheet, Qs = 1162.1 Btu/lb of fuel
Data extracted from API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process
Heaters, 1st Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

Sensible heat corrections:

Pounds of air/pound of fuel is obtained by adding the total from column 7 of the
Combustion Work Sheet with the pounds of dry excess air per pound of fuel from the
Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet.
Air: Ha = p(air) (Ta - Td)(pounds of air/pound of fuel)
= 0.24 (28 - 60)(14.322 + 3.191)
= -134.5 Btu/lb of fuel
Fuel: Hf = p(fuel) (Tf - Td)
= 0.525 (100 - 60)
Atomizing medium Hm = 0 (no atomizing steam required)
Using Eqn. 4:
100(Qs + Qr )
e = 100
LHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
100(1162.1 + 453.0 )
e = 100 = 91.03 % (LHV )
(18120 134.5 + 210 )
3. Determine Gross thermal efficiency, as follows:

From Combustion Work Sheet, H2O formed = 1.784 lb/lb of fuel.
Latent heat = H2O formed x 1059.7

= 1.784 x 1059.7
HHV = LHV + latent heat
= 18120 + 1890.5 = 20010 Btu/lb.
Using Eqn. 5:
100(Qs + Qr + latent heat )
egross = 100
HHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
100(1062.1 + 453.0 + 1890.5 )
egross = 100 = 82.83% (HHV )
20010 - 134.5 + 21.0
Data extracted from API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process

Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet

Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process



Calculate the thermal efficiency of a boiler or furnace, using the Stack Loss Method.
Attached are calculation sheets you may require.
1. Determine Net Thermal Efficiency.
LHV = ________________Btu/lb
Radiation Loss Qr = LHV x %Qr/100
= (_______)(_______) = __________ Btu/lb of fuel

Qs = _________ Btu/lb of fuel
Air required = ____________ (lb of air/lb of fuel)

Excess air = ____________ (lb of air/lb of fuel)
Total air rate = ____________ (lb of air/lb of fuel)
Sensible heat corrections:

Air: Ha = Cp(air) (Ta - Td)(total lb of air/lb of fuel)
= ___________(________ - 60)(___________)
= ___________ Btu/lb of fuel
Fuel: Hf = Cp(fuel) (Tf - Td)
= ___________(___________ - 60)
= ___________ Btu/lb of fuel
Atomizing medium Hm = Cp(medium) (Tm - Td)(lb of medium/lb of fuel)
If steam is used: Hm = (Enthalpy difference)(lb of steam/lb of fuel)
= (hs - 1087.7)(lb of steam/lb of fuel)
Atomizing steam temperature = ___________F

Steam enthalpy hs = ___________ Btu/lb
Hm = (__________ - 1087.7)(___________)
= ___________Btu/lb of fuel

Thermal efficiency
100(Qs + Qr )
e = 100
LHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
100( + )
= 100
( + + + )
e= % (LHV )
2. H2O formed = ___________lb/lb of fuel
Latent heat = H2O formed x 1059.7
= (_________) x 1059.7
= __________Btu/lb of fuel
HHV = LHV + latent heat
= (_________) + (_________) = ____________Btu/lb
100 Qs + Qr latent heat
egross = 100
HHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
= 100 - 100 ( + + )
(_______ + ______ + ______ + ______)
egross = ___________% (HHV)

Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet, (contd)




REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-F-001 Process Fired Heaters
API Standards
API-RP-532 Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process

heaters (RP = Recommended Practice)

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CALCULATING BOILER AND PROCESS

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Figure 1. Steam Boiler System....................................................................................... 5

Table 1. Furnace Fuel Savings .................................................................................... 19

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

The thermal efficiency can be calculated using either the higher

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Figure 1 is a schematic of a forced recirculation steam boiler system.

Figure 1. Steam Boiler System

Steam Boiler System:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Heat Balance: Water side/Process

Heat Out: Steam = 805,000 x 1,237.6 = 996.27

Fuel Heat Input

HPp = 1079 x 2544 = 2.7 million Btu/hr

Total Energy Input

Total Energy Efficiency

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

QBD = 105,000(343.5 158) = 19.5 million Btu/hr

Calculate thermal efficiency of a boiler given the following data:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Heat In = Heat out

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Normally there is no correction for incomplete combustion

1. Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.

Figure 2. Excess Oxygen

Lab Flue gas analysis: CO2 9.5

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Figure 3. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

where: %O2 = Percent oxygen in the flue gas.

For 2% O2 in the stack gas.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

When the flue gas analysis is on a dry basis:

For 2% O2 in the stack gas.

Stack (Flue Gas)

Another potential source of error in all efficiency calculations is an error in stack

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Figure 4. Typical Aspirating (High Velocity) Thermocouple

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

API RP 532 specifies a detailed procedure for calculating the

Combustion Efficiency Charts

Flue Gas Temperature

Useful in furnace design.

Figure 5. Combustion Heat Available to Process

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

where: EA = Percent excess air.

TA = Ambient air temperature, F.

QL = Casing heat loss, %.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

Stream Temp. F psia HI HV

Figure 6. Steam Boiler System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17

Heat in: Feed water = 277,778 x 148 = 41.11 MBtu/hr

Heat out: Blowdown = 27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 MBtu/hr

Heat in = Heat out 41.11 + QA = 351.24