MESSIAH.

MARINUS DE JONGE1

The term going back to Messias, a Gk form (John 1:41; 4:25) of the Heb m ah, denoting
an anointed person. Hebrew hamm a (Aram m ), the Messiah, is usually translated
in Gk with ho christos, the Christ.
Because a central tenet of Christianity has always been the conviction that Jesus was the
Christ (the Messiah expected by Israel), much attention has been paid to the study of Jewish
expectations of the Messiah. The Christian focus upon the person of Jesus has led to an undue
concentration on the person of the Messiah in Jewish thought, even in the works of recent
scholars. One should realize that in the OT the term anointed is never used of a future
savior/redeemer, and that in later Jewish writings of the period between 200 B.C. and A.D.
100 the term is used only infrequently in connection with agents of divine deliverance
expected in the future.
The use of the term Messiah to denote any figure expected to introduce an era of eternal
bliss, regardless of the terminology used in the source, leads to confusion. The words
messianic and messianism have a still wider range of meanings; they are also used in
connection with expectations of a definitive change in history which is not brought about by
a particular future deliverer. (In fact, the expression messianism without Messiah has even
been coined.) These terms also appear in studies by historians of religion and by social
anthropologists, who use them in discussions of developments in later Western history and
in other cultures (often under Western colonial, missionary, and modernizing influence).
In the analysis of the literature that concerns us here, we should employ the words
anointed and Messiah only where the sources use the corresponding word in their own
language. Similarly, messianic expectation should only denote the expectation of a
redeemer who is actually called Messiah. We should also be careful in employing the
words eschatology and eschatological. The basic element in the expectations which are
commonly called eschatological is the conviction that God will complete and crown his
dealings with his people and with the whole world by effecting a radical and lasting change,
inaugurating a new era. God may use human or angelical intermediaries in bringing about
this change, but quite often agents of divine deliverance are not found at all. The mythological
imagery and the other expressions qualifying time and space used to describe this radical
change are of secondary importance. Though it may be useful or even necessary to
distinguish between the various images and concepts, we must be careful not to prejudice our
analysis through inappropriate later terminology. We shall do well to use the words
eschatology and eschatological without any modern connotations dependent on

Marinus de Jonge Professor of NT and Early Christian Literature, University of Leiden, Leiden, The
Netherlands
1
De Jonge, M. (1992). Messiah. In D. N. Freedman (Org.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 4,
p. 777788). New York: Doubleday.
philosophical or theological theories concerning the relation between history and that which
is beyond history.
A. The Act of Anointing People
B. Anointed Persons
C. Anointed King(s) in the Psalms
D. OT Prophecies about Future Davidic Kings
E. Anointed Ones in Early Judaism (200 B.C.A.D. 100)
F. Later Jewish Writings
G. Summary

A. The Act of Anointing People

The Heb verb ma is used to indicate the applying of oil to an object or person by either
pouring, rubbing, or smearing. The usual Gk equivalent in the LXX is chriein. When the
word is employed with persons, it denotes the conferring of a specific status (except Amos
6:6). Mostly kings are anointed (Saul, David, Absalom, Solomon, Jehu, Joash, Jehoahaz);
however, in some instances (high) priests were anointed (so Aaron and his sons, and Zadok),
as were prophets (in one OT case, Elisha).

1. Kings. In the Jotham fable (9:715) directed to those who had made Abimelech king
at Shechem, the trees are portrayed as wanting to anoint one tree to be king over them. The
initiative here is clearly with the kings (prospective) subjects. Likewise, the men of Judah
anointed David king over the house of Judah (2 Sam 2:47), and they were followed by the
men of Israel who made him king of Israel (2 Sam 5:4 = 1 Chr 11:3, cf. 2 Sam 5:17 = 1 Chr
14:8). The case of Absalom in 2 Sam 19:11 (Eng 19:10) may be compared. During the
dynastic conflicts preceding Davids death Solomon was anointed, at Davids instructions,
by Zadok, the priest, and Nathan, the prophet (1 Kgs 1:34, 45; in v 39 only Zadok is
mentioned as the one who took the oil from the tent and anointed Solomon). In 1 Chr 29:22
it is the assembly of Israel which makes Solomon king and anoints him as prince for the Lord
(cf. 1 Kgs 5:15 [Eng 5:1]). In 2 Kgs 11:12 a group of people proclaims Joash king and
anoints him, against the wishes of Athaliah; the LXX attributes the actual anointing to
Jehoiada, the priest (cf. 2 Chr 23:11; Jehoiada and his sons). In 2 Kgs 23:30 Jehoahaz is
anointed by the people of the land.
In 2 Sam 12:7 (cf. Ps 89:21Eng 20), Nathan reminds David that it was YHWH who
anointed him king over Israel, and this is also the message of the story in 1 Sam 16:113,
where Samuel receives instructions from YHWH to anoint for me him whom I name to you
(v 3), and where Samuel proceeds to anoint David in the midst of his brothers. We may
compare here 11 QPsa 151:57 (cf. LXX Ps 151A). Anointing here indicates divine election

LXX Septuagint

LXX Septuagint

LXX Septuagint
(vv 712) and is accompanied by the gift of the Spirit (vv 1314). Likewise, Samuel earlier
had been instrumental in anointing Saul (1 Sam 9:16; 10:1); his action signified that YHWH
had anointed him to be prince over his people Israel (10:1, 15:1, 17). In 10:56, 913, the
Spirit of the Lord comes mightily upon Saul, and he prophesies (cf. 11:6, before an act of
valor). This narrative is combined with the story of Sauls designation by lot (1 Sam 10:17
27) and the report that the people made Saul king before the Lord in Gilgal (1 Sam 11:15;
cf. 12:1).
In 1 Kgs 19:15, 16, Elijah received YHWHs command to anoint Hazael to be king over
Syria, Jehu to be king over Israel, and Elisha to be prophet in his place. In the case of Jehu
this command was carried out by one of Elishas assistants, who told the future king: Thus
says the Lord, I anoint you king over Israel (2 Kgs 9:3, 6, 12; cf. 2 Chr 22:7); after Jehu
reported this, his men proclaimed him king (v 13).
It is hazardous to use these stories in the books of Samuel and Kings for a reconstruction
of the historical circumstances or of developments in ideas about kingship and the anointing
of kings in various groups in Judah and Israel. For the purpose of the present inquiry, it is
sufficient to note that in their final redaction these books show a clear emphasis on YHWHs
initiative, election, and commission. This also comes out clearly in the term anointed of the
Lord (discussed below).

2. Priests. In a number of passages generally considered to belong to the so-called P

Code, Moses receives the instructions to anoint Aaron (high) priest (Exod 29:7; Lev 8:12;
cf. 6:13Eng 6:20). Aaron is always mentioned together with his sons, however, and a
number of times the sons also are supposed to have been anointed (Exod 28:41; 30:30; 40:13,
15; Num 3:3). In Lev 7:36 it is declared that it is YHWH who anointed Aaron and his sons.
The idea is that the anointing/consecration guarantees an eternal priesthood for Aaron and
his successors (Exod 40:15; cf. 29:29; Lev 6:15 [Eng 6:22]; 16:32; Num 35:25). It should
be added that in 1 Chr 29:22 the assembly of Israel anointed not only Solomon but also Zadok
as priest.

3. Prophets. In 1 Kgs 19:16, Elijah is told to anoint Elisha to be his successor as prophet.
The story of Elishas call, however, does not mention any anointing; Elijah simply casts his
mantle upon him(1 Kgs 19:1921). When Elijah departs to heaven Elisha asks for and
receives a double share of Elijahs spirit, and he takes up the latters mantle (2 Kgs 2:114).
We may compare Isa 61:1, where the prophetic author declares that the Spirit of God is upon
him, because YHWH has anointed him. The emphasis is not on the rite of anointing but on
the gift of the Spirit of God.

B. Anointed Persons

The Heb noun m a, anointed, is only used of persons, particularly of kings and
(high) priests. In Ps 105:15, the term my anointed one occurs in parallelism with my
prophets in a context that speaks about the patriarchs. In 2 Sam 1:21 it is found in connection

P Pesher (commentary)
with Sauls shield, but here a great number of manuscripts have the passive participle of the
verb ma.

1. Anointed Kings. The emphasis on divine initiative in the stories about the anointing
of kings is reflected in the popularity of the expression the Lords anointed (m a YHWH)
and the corresponding expressions my/your/his anointed. Saul is the Lords anointed (1
Sam 12:3, 5), and therefore David spared his life: one should not raise his hand against the
Lords anointed (1 Sam 24:7, 11 [Eng 10]; 26:9, 11, 16, 23). The Amalekite who claimed
to have killed Saul at his request was put to death because he did not observe this rule (2 Sam
1:14, 16). We should compare here the warning in Ps 105:15: Touch not my anointed ones,
do my prophets no harm.
The expression the Lords anointed is also used in connection with Davids being
anointed by Samuel (1 Sam 16:6) and as a reference to David in 2 Sam 19:22 (Eng 21). In
2 Sam 23:1, David introduces himself as the anointed of the God of Jacob; the next verse
continues: The Spirit of the Lord speaks by me, his word is on my tongue.
In many so-called Royal Psalms the Davidic kings are regarded as anointed by the Lord
(see D. below). We may add here 1 Sam 2:10 in the Song of Hannah (cf. 1 Sam 2:35, an
oracle announcing a faithful priest before my anointed for ever), Hab 3:13, and Lam
4:20 (bewailing the capture of the breath of our nostrils, the Lords anointed).
In all these texts YHWHs anointing of the king denotes the exclusive, intimate
relationship between the God of Israel and the king whom he has appointed and given the
power to reign in his name. The king is Gods representative on earth and is thought to
participate in Gods sovereign rule. As ideas about this divine rule develop, the expectations
also expand (see in particular the Royal Psalms). Quite exceptional is Deutero-Isaiahs
application of the term messiah to the Persian king Cyrus: Thus says the Lord to his
anointed, to Cyrus (Isa 45:1; cf., however, Hazael in 1 Kgs 19:1517). For Israels sake,
YHWH calls this mighty king who does not even know YHWH by name. Cyrus gets the
commission and the power to secure peace and freedom for Gods chosen people (Isa 45:1
7); he is Gods shepherd (44:28) where Davidic kings have failed.

2. Anointed (High) Priests. In Lev 4:3, 5, and 16, the (high) priest is called the anointed
priest; in 6:14 (Eng 6:22), the priest from Aarons sons who is anointed to succeed him.
It is also probable that (high) priests are meant in Dan 9:25 (speaking about the coming of
an anointed one, a prince) and 9:26 (announcing that an anointed one will be cut off):
Joshua, in the time of Zerubbabel, and Onias, in the time just before Antiochus IV Epiphanes
capture of Jerusalem, respectively. One should note that here m a is used twice absolutely
but without an article.
C. Anointed King(s) in the Psalms
In the Royal Psalms (see Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144), the
theme the king and his God plays a significant role. These psalms belong to and contain
different genres (intercessions for the king, prayers of the king himself, thanksgivings,
laments, oracles, proclamations, etc.) and are difficult to date. Some will have had a place in
the temple ritual and will have been recited at specific occasions or during regularly recurring
celebrations while Davidic kings reigned in Jerusalem. Others may have been composed after
the Exile. In any case, all psalms continued to be used long after there had been kings in
Jerusalem, and this may have influenced their present wording. Referring to Gods promises
and his instructions to David and his dynasty, the psalmists make far-reaching assertions.
These were related to the currently reigning king and his family, not to some future son of
David. But because the ideal remained to a great extent unfulfilled in the present, and because
these psalms were used for different kings in succession, it is not surprising that in later times
these Royal Psalms were interpreted as referring to the future Davidic anointed of the Lord,
whose arrival Israel hoped for.
There are a number of major theological ideas connected with the notion of the king as
the Lords anointed. In Psalm 45, a kings wedding song, the king is said to have been
anointed with the oil of gladness. He will reign in equity and righteousness, his throne is
Gods throne forever and ever (vv 67). Psalm 89 refers to Gods anointing of his servant
David (v 21Eng 20). The kings (Davids) relationship to God is one of a firstborn to his
father. God has made a firm covenant with his offspring; he will punish them if they sin but
continue to show them his steadfast love. They will reign forever, conquering their enemies
(vv 2038Eng 1937). The psalmist, clearly writing in a period of great distress, appeals
to this covenant; he reproaches God for having forsaken his anointed and beseeches him to
intervene: Remember, O Lord, how thy servant is scorned (the taunts) with which they
[i.e., the enemies] mock the footsteps of thy anointed (vv 3953, esp. 5152 [Eng 3852,
esp. 5051]). Psalm 89 should be connected with Nathans prophecy to David in 2 Sam 7:14
17, partly referring to Solomon, but in its present form clearly speaking about Davids
dynasty (see esp. v 14: I will be his father, and he shall be my son; cf. also 1 Chr 17:315
and 1 Chr 22:810; 28:67, where Nathans prophecy is applied to Solomon). In this context
we should also mention Ps 132:10: For thy servant Davids sake do not turn away the face
of thy anointed onea prayer put into the mouth of Solomon in 2 Chr 6:42. Next, there is
Ps 132:17: There I will make a horn to sprout for David; I have prepared a lamp for my
anointed (cf. 1 Sam 2:10). Also, Psalm 18 (a hymn of royal thanksgiving for Gods help in
obtaining a victory over his enemies) ends with a reference to Gods steadfast love to his
anointed, to David and his descendants forever (v 51 [Eng v 50]; cf. 2 Sam 22:51; see
also Ps 21:7; 144:10; and 2 Sam 23:5, which mentions an everlasting covenant between God
and David).
Psalm 2 portrays the nations as plotting against the Lord and his anointed (v 2). The
king will conquer and rule the earth, because he is Gods king (v 6), even Gods son: God
decreed You are my son, today I have begotten you (v 7). The king will be victorious over
all Gods opponents and his dominion will be worldwide, like that of Gods. This idea is also
found in Psalm 110, which in v 4 calls the king priest forever after the order of
Melchizedek, and in Psalm 72, which prays for fertility and peace, and extols the kings
righteousness which has showed itself in his help for the poor and the oppressed (cf. the story
of Solomons dream at Gibeon in 1 Kgs 3:515).
In a number of other psalms the certainty of Gods help for his anointed forms the basis
of an appeal to God in days of troublesee Pss 20:7 (Eng 6); 28:8; and 84:10 (Eng 9);
cf. also Pss 61:78 (Eng 67) and 63:12. When the king prospers, the people are secure in
Gods protection and individuals live in peace.
D. OT Prophecies about Future Davidic Kings

Except in Isa 45:1 and Hab 3:13 (already discussed above), the word anointed is not
found in the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, or the Twelve Prophets. However, prophecies
concerning future Davidic rulers found in these works contain elements that cannot be
neglected in the present inquiry. They are mentioned here as they occur in the biblical books;
as a rule, no attempt will be made to distinguish between genuine utterances of the prophet
concerned and the additions to his work made later in the course of the formation of the
present writings. The fact that certain ideas found expression is more important than their
date; the analysis of the way in which they received their present form is bound to remain
hypothetical in many cases.
In the much disputed prophecy of Isa 7:14, the name of the (royal?) child about to be born
is Immanuel (God is with us), probably as a reminder of Gods continuing care for the
house of David and his people. In Isa 9:16 (Eng 27), light in darkness, joy, deliverance
from enemies, and peace are promised to be effected by a descendant of David who will reign
forever with justice and righteousness (cf. 16:5; 32:1). His names are Wonderful Counselor,
Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace (v 5 [Eng 6]). In Isa 11:19, a situation
is portrayed in which the tree representing the Davidic dynasty has been reduced to a mere
stump. Yet a branch will grow out of its roots. The Spirit of the Lord will be on this
descendant of David. His wisdom and knowledge are extolled, as are his righteousness and
help for the meek of the earth. He shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth (v 4;
contrast Ps 2:7: you shall break them with a rod of iron). Verses 69 give a picture of a
paradisiac situation on Gods holy mountain; the earth will be full of the knowledge of the
Lord. Verses 1016 add that the nations will seek the root of Jesse, that Ephraim and Judah
will be reunited, and that those in exile will be brought back.
The passage in Mic 5:13 (Eng 24) announces the birth of a ruler from a renowned
family of old (that of David) in Bethlehem. He will feed his flock and make them dwell
securely, as would a good shepherd. He will be great to the ends of the earth, strengthened
by the Lord and reflecting Gods glory. Verse 2 (Eng 3) mentions the return of the rest of
the brethren to the people of Israel. Verses 56 add a prophecy concerning deliverance from
the Assyrians.
In Jer 23:14, the shepherds are accused of neglecting their duty and scattering the flock.
The Lord will bring his people back and appoint new and more responsible shepherds. In vv
56 the coming of a righteous Branch for David is announced. He will reign as king and
execute justice and righteousness, and Judah and Israel will dwell together securely. His
name will be the Lord is our righteousness (cf. the name of the last king, Zedekiah). This
prophecy is repeated with some changes in 33:1416. Verses 1726, clearly reflecting a much
later situation, interpret it collectively as referring to the eternal, unbreakable covenant
between the Lord and David with his family, as well as with the levitical priests (cf. 1 Sam
2:35; 1 Chr 29:22; and Zech 4:14 and 6:915 below).
The verses in Ezek 17:2224 portray how the Lord will take a young twig from the lofty
cedar and plant it on a high mountain in Israel where birds of all sorts will gather in the shade
of its branches. Comparison with 17:121 shows that the image refers to a future Davidic
king, standing in clear contrast to Zedekiah, who has broken the covenant and is brought to
Babylon. In Ezekiel 34 God accuses the bad shepherds who have neglected their flock and
announces that he will gather together his flock and will himself care for his sheep. In this
context he announces: I will set over them one shepherd, my servant David, and he shall
feed them I, the Lord, will be their God and my servant David shall be prince (Heb n )
among them (vv 2324). A period of peace and plenty will follow. Also in chapter 37 (the
vision of the resurrection of Israel) my servant David is introduced as king and prince of
the Israelite people, who have been brought together in their own land (vv 2425). As in Hos
3:5 and Jer 30:9 (cf. Amos 9:11), David does not denote the name of the king expected to
return, but a future ideal ruler from his family, a perfect servant of the Lord. It should be
added that the blueprint of the new Israel found in Ezekiel 4048 (in which everything centers
around the new temple) pays much attention to the role of the Zadokite priests. The rights
and duties of the prince in relation to the people and the temple are defined precisely.
In the time immediately after the Exile, Haggai, on Gods behalf, commands the
rebuilding of the temple. He directs his words to Zerubbabel, governor of Judah, and to
Joshua, the high priest. In Hag 2:2023 Zerubbabel is addressed as my servant, and God
assures him that I have chosen you (expressions recalling the status of Zerubbabels
ancestor David). In the upheaval and total renewal of the present world which the Lord will
bring about, Zerubbabel will be the Lords signet ring (cf. Jer 22:24); that is, he will be
protected by God whose representative he is. Many exegetes think that Zerubbabel is
intended in the references to my servant the Branch (Zech 3:8) and the man whose name
is Branch (Zech 6:12). The fact that the crown is not given to him but to Joshua, the high
priest (Zech 6:914), is problematic and should best be explained by a correction of the text
at the time when high priests and not kings functioned as leaders in Jerusalem. According to
another interpretation, the Branch (see Jer 33:1426) really refers to an ideal David of the
future. We should note that he is expected to have a priest alongside his throne with whom
he cooperates in good harmony (6:13; cf. Jer 33:1426). In 4:14 there are two sons of oil
(RSV the two anointed) who stand by the Lord of the whole earth.
Among the prophecies which were later added to Zechariah 18 is an oracle (9:910)
about a humble king riding on an ass, righteous and bringing salvation because God has
shown his righteousness to him and given him protection. He is not said to belong to Davids
family, but allusions to Ps 45:4 (Eng 4) and Ps 72:1, 8, are apparent. God will end war,
and the king will command peace until the ends of the earth. In Zechariah 12, it is announced
that God will protect Jerusalem from attack by all the nations of the earth. The feeblest on
that day will be like David, and the house of David shall be like God, like the angel of the
Lord at their head (v 8; cf. Exod 23:20). It is not clear (in v 10) who is meant by the one
whom they have pierced and who will be the object of heavy mourning.
In summary, the prophecies listed in this section announce a decisive and lasting change
in the plight of the people, brought about by God. War will end, peace and plenty will be
restored, Israel and Judah will be reunited, people in Exile will return; salvation has
worldwide dimensions. A new era is inaugurated that will never end; it is absolutely
unthinkable that God would allow the earlier situation to return. In these prophecies, the
central figure is a descendant of David who represents an ideal of kingship in the name of
YHWH; this is also reflected in the books of Samuel and Kings and in the Royal Psalms. The
complexity of this ideal allows for all sorts of nuances in the individual texts. The emphasis
is not on the person of the future king but on the fact that, at last, the Davidic ideal, which no
historical king (including David) ever fulfilled, will be realized. The importance that some
of these texts attach to the future cooperation between king and high priest should also be
noted.

E. Anointed Ones in Early Judaism (200 B.C.A.D. 100)

RSV Revised Standard Version

 1. Ben-Sirach. In Sir 36:117 a prayer is given for the deliverance and restoration of
Israel in which God is expected to act himself, without any mediator. The verb to anoint
occurs a few times in the Praise of the Fathers (chapters 4450). Moses ordained and anointed
Aaron with holy oil (45:15), Samuel established the kingdom and anointed rulers over his
people (46:13), and Elijah is the one who anointed kings and prophets (48:8; cf. 1 Kgs
19:1516). In 46:19 we find the expression the Lord and his anointed in a reference to 1
Sam 12:5.
In chapters 4450 we find a long eulogy of Aaron (45:622) who, with his descendants,
is said to have received an eternal covenant (vv 7, 15). In 45:2326, Phinehas is extolled as
the third in glory; he and his descendants will have the dignity of the priesthood forever,
in accordance with Num 25:1013 (cf. Ps 106:30). Chapter 50 sings the praise of Simon, the
high priest, son of Onias (who officiated around 200 B.C.); in the Heb version of 50:24 the
wish is expressed that the covenant of Phinehas may remain for him and his descendants
forever.
In 45:25 the covenant with Aaron is contrasted with that of David. The exact meaning of
this verse remains uncertain. Enough is clear, however, to suggest that the authors attitude
toward David and his family is ambivalent. David is praised (47:111), while Solomon
receives praise and blame (47:1222). Gods care for the Davidic dynasty is mentioned
regularly (47:11, 22; 48:15), but looking back on the history of the Davidic kings the author
concludes: Except David and Hezekiah and Josiah they all sinned greatlytherefore the
kings of Judah came to an end (49:4). In 49:1112, Zerubbabel and Joshua are praised for
their work on the temple. Above all, Sirach is clearly interested in Gods promises concerning
the (high) priesthood in the line of Aaron, Phinehas, and (implicitly, see 1 Chr 5:2741 [
Eng 6:115]) Zadok (cf. Ezekiel 4048). He does not neglect Gods promises to David, but
they do not seem to be relevant for his audience, neither in the present nor in the future.
An addition in the Heb version on 51:12 praises God who makes a horn to sprout for the
house of David (cf. Ps 132:17) and elects the sons of Zadok to be priests (cf. Ps 132:16).

2. 1-2 Maccabees. The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees concentrate on the crisis caused by
Antiochus IV Epiphanes intervention in Jewish affairs leading to the capture of Jerusalem
and the desecration of the temple, and on the role played by the sons of Mattathias in restoring
the true worship in the temple and (relative) independence to Israel. For the present purpose
it is relevant to note that Mattathias resistance against the measures of the Syrian king is said
to have been motivated by zeal for the law (1 Macc 2:26, 27). He follows the example of
Phinehas (2:26), who in Mattathias testament (2:4970) is called our father (v 54).
Again, it is stressed that he was deeply zealous and received the covenant of eternal
priesthood. This statement prepares the reader for the appointment of Jonathan to the high
priesthood by King Alexander (10:1821) and for the solemn decree recorded in 1 Macc
14:2548, according to which the Jews and their priests make Simon their leader
(hgoumenos) and high priest forever (vv 35, 41; vv 42, 47, add commander [stratgos];
and v 47, ethnarchcf. 15:1). In v 41 we read that the arrangement would last until a
trustworthy prophet should ariseprobably an arrangement to pacify those who believed
that the true leaders of the people had to be designated by God through a prophet like Samuel
or Nathan (cf. also 4:46).
The book of 1 Maccabees was written to legitimize the Hasmoneans leadership in cultic
and political matters, as high priests and princes (soon to be called kings). This leadership
lasted until the days of Herod the Great, but it was not undisputed by those who questioned
the legitimacy of the Hasmoneans and/or were opposed to the fact that they combined the
two offices.
The book of 2 Maccabees covers a much shorter period than 1 Maccabees. One should
note that the second of the two letters in chap. 1 is addressed to, among others, Aristobulus
who is of the family of the anointed priests (1:10); i.e., the legitimate high-priestly family
of the Zadokites to whom Onias, son of the Simon (Sirach 50), belonged. Onias piety, the
intrigues to replace him, and his murder receive much attention in chaps. 3 and 4 (cf. Dan
9:26 discussed above). In 15:1216 he appears to Judas, together with Jeremiah, and
intercedes for the oppressed Jews. He is clearly thought to be with God in heaven, like the
martyrs whose suffering as pious servants of God and Gods law has brought about a decisive
turn in the fate of Gods people (6:1831; 7:1242; also 14:3746). The military activities of
Judas Maccabeus and other pious Jews could only succeed after the wrath of the Lord had
turned to mercy because of the martyrs self-sacrifice (8:15). Although Judas actions are
important, he is portrayed throughout as one who continually expects his help to come from
the Lord (e.g., 15:2124).
3. The Book of Jubilees. Jubilees has to be mentioned here because of Isaacs blessing
of Levi and Judah in 31:1317 and 1820, respectively. The emphasis is on the functions to
be exercised by the two patriarchs and their descendants on behalf of Israel: Levi and his
sons will minister in the sanctuary but will also be judges, teachers of the law, and rulers
(princes and chiefs). In 30:1820, the descendants of Levi are said to have been chosen for
the priesthood because of Levis zeal to execute righteousness, judgment, and vengeance in
the Shechem case (Genesis 34). The parallel with Phinehas in Numbers 25 is clear.
Judah, on the other hand, will receive strength and power, and he will be Jacobs help;
his righteousness will bring peace for all Israelites. Significantly, it is said to him: A prince
shall you be, you and one of your sons. Not only the patriarch or the tribe but also David
and/or a future ideal Davidic king come into the picture. In Jub. 33:20, it is stressed that
Israel is a holy nation to the Lord a priestly and royal nation for his possession.
4. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. In their present form, the Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs are undoubtedly Christian, and this becomes particularly clear when the
extremely varied passages dealing with the future are analyzed. Reconstructing earlier
redactions of the Testaments or earlier traditions used in them, which might represent the
ideas of Jewish groups handing down material connected with the twelve sons of Jacob,
remains a hazardous undertaking. Many patriarchs speak about the position of Levi and Judah
in the history of Israel. Levi will be priest, Judah will be king (T. Iss. 5:7), and the priesthood
is superior to the kingship (T. Jud. 21:16a). A number of passages focus on Levi and depict
him not only as a priest but also as ruler, teacher, judge, and/or warrior; in those passages
Judah is often mentioned only in passing, or not at all (T. Reu. 6:57, 8, 1012; T. Sim. 5:4

Jub. Jubilees

T. Iss. Testament of Issachar

T. Jud. Testament of Judah

T. Reu. Testament of Reuben

T. Sim. Testament of Simeon

6; T. Levi 4:26; chaps. 56 [referring to the Shechem episode; cf. Genesis 34 and Jub. 30:18
20]; 8:217; chap. 13 passim.
Levis descendants are, however, singled out as sinners against Jesus Christ in T. Levi
4:4, chaps. 10, 1415, and 16; while in 5:2 it is expressly said that Levis priesthood will be
limited to the period before Gods decisive intervention in the history of Israel. This
corresponds with T. Reu. 6:8, which limits Levis priestly activities to the period until the
consummation of times (the times) of the anointed high priest, of whom the Lord spoke.
This is the only place where the word christos occurs (cf. T. Levi 17:23, where the passive
participle chriomenos is used twice for persons anointed for the priesthood), and the reference
here is to Jesus. This is clear in Testament of Levi 18, where the advent of a new priest is
announced after a steady deterioration of the levitical priesthood. He is not said to be a
descendant of Levi, and he is described with words and phrases which are partly parallel to
those found in Testament of Judah 24, a chapter describing the advent of an ideal king from
Judah, after a period of sin and exile for the sons of Judah. It has been assumed that these
two Testaments originally closed with a description of an ideal levitical high priest and an
ideal king from Judah. This has to remain a conjecture, however; in their present form both
chapters refer to Jesus Christ.
Also, where salvation or a savior is predicted to come out of (one of) these tribes (T.
Sim. 7:12; T. Naph. 8:2; T. Gad 8:1; T. Jos. 19:6 (11); cf. T. Levi 2:11; T. Jud. 22:2; T. Dan.
5:10), only one person is referred toagain it is Jesus, who is often connected with Judah in
particular. The Testaments in their present form remain interested in the juxtaposition of Levi
and Judah and of priesthood and kingship; but whenever they mention an agent of divine
deliverance in connection with these two tribes or with one of them, they mean Jesus.

T. Levi Testament of Levi

Jub. Jubilees

passim throughout

T. Levi Testament of Levi

T. Reu. Testament of Reuben

T. Levi Testament of Levi

T. Sim. Testament of Simeon

T. Naph. Testament of Naphtali

T. Gad Testament of Gad

T. Jos. Testament of Joseph

T. Levi Testament of Levi

T. Jud. Testament of Judah

T. Dan. Testament of Daniel

 5. The Qumran Scrolls. The community which used the writings discovered in the caves
at Qumran was a priestly sect led by Zadokite priests. Under the leadership of an influential
teacher, the Teacher of Righteousness, who was regarded as an authoritative interpreter of
the Law and the Prophets, it separated from the Jerusalem temple and the Hasmonean
priesthood officiating there. The group interpreted the events of the immediate past and
present in the light of the Scriptures, and it also dreamed of a decisive turn brought about by
God, when its views would be proved correct. The texts dealing with the future show a great
variety in images and concepts. Attempts have been made to distinguish stages in the
eschatology of the Qumran documents; yet a cautious, mainly descriptive approach seems
advisable. Our evidence remains fragmentary, and it is probable that the members of the
group, while adhering to some basic convictions, could differ in the description of details.
Restricting ourselves to those passages where the terms to anoint and the anointed
one occur, we note first that in a number of cases the prophets of the OT are called anointed
ones (CD 5:216:1; 1QM 11:7, 8; and especially CD 2:12, where we should read the
anointed ones of his Holy Spirit). This corresponds to the designation the anointed one of
Spirit used in 11QMelch 18 for the one who brings good tidings of Isa 52:7, clearly
inspired by Isa 61:1. The good tidings are concerned with Gods intervention in the future
through Melchizedek, conceived as an angelic figure. Another future prophet is mentioned
in 1QS 9:11: until there shall come the prophet and the anointed ones of Aaron and
Israel, perhaps referring to Deut 18:1819, a text mentioned in 4QTestim alongside Num
24:1517 and Deut 33:811.
In 11QMelch 18 the word anointed is certainly not used as a technical term. With
regard to the high priest and the prince expected in the future, the situation is not very
different. The people at Qumran looked forward to the times when the meaning of the Law
would be fully clear and when Gods will would be obeyed completely. Then, a duly
appointed high priest and a Davidic prince would discharge their respective functions
properly. Then also, the final battle against demonic forces and human enemies would be
won. In a number of textsbut by no means everywherethe anointed status of high priest
and prince is mentioned, so that it is advisable to avoid the translation messiah, which
suggests titular use.

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]

11QMelch Melchizedek text from Qumran Cave 11

1QS Serek hayyaad (Rule of the Community, Manual of Discipline)

4QTestim Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material; followed by abbreviation of

biblical or apocryphal book

11QMelch Melchizedek text from Qumran Cave 11

 In 1QS 9:11, the anointed one of Aaron figures beside the anointed one of Israel. The
latter designation returns in 1QSa 2:14, 20, a description of an eschatological banquet where
he and the high priest and their subordinates are present. In lines 1112, the priest is said to
be at the head of the whole congregation; whether the expression the anointed mentioned
here refers to the royal figure (and whether it is used absolutely) is not clear, due to the defects
in the text. It is clear that the high priest is the leading figure; he is also the leading figure in
the War Scroll, where the prince of the congregation is mentioned only in passing (1QM
5:1). Gods directives for the war are transmitted by the high priest (1QM 2:1; 15:4; 16:13;
18:5; 19:11); victory is won through the help of the Holy Ones sent from heaven. The passage
in 4QFlor mentions the Branch of David who shall arise with the Interpreter of the Law at
the end of time (lines 1112; cf. Jer 23:14; 33:1416, etc.). Just before this, the Florilegium
quotes from 2 Sam 7:1114, and later it adds Ps 2:1. The Interpreter of the Law is also
found in CD 7:1821; he is said to come together with the Prince of the whole
congregation. He is a priestly figure. Also, in some other texts the king is portrayed as being
dependent on the interpretation of the priests: see 11QTemple 56:21; 57:1115 (cf. 58:18
21, where the king has to consult the high priest before going to war); and 4QpIsaa 810,
which interprets Isa 11:13 as referring to the Branch of David, and then makes the latters
judicial activity dependent on the teaching of the priests.
The meaning of the expression anointed one of Aaron in Israel in CD 12:2324; 14:19;
and 19:1011 (cf. anointed one from Aaron and Israel in 20:1) remains disputed. The word
m a is found here in the singular, but many have argued that the expression nevertheless
admits of a plural interpretation. Because CD 7:1821 mentions two persons, the expectation
of a priest and a king may also be assumed in the other passages. It is also possible that at
some stage the prerogatives of the anointed one of Israel were absorbed into the concept
of the anointed Aaronic priest.
The royal figure is often designated as prince (of the congregation) with a term taken
from Ezekiel 4048. He is also called Branch of David (to the texts just mentioned may be

1QS Serek hayyaad (Rule of the Community, Manual of Discipline)

1QSa Appendix A (Rule of the Congregation) to 1QS

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

4QFlor Florilegium (or Eschatological Midrashim) from Qumran Cave 4

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]

4QpIsa Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material; followed by abbreviation of biblical
or apocryphal book

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]
added 4QPBless 34), anointed one of Israel, or (in 4QPBless 3) the righteous anointed
one (the anointed one of righteousness), an expression close to the absolute anointed
one which may be present in 1QSa 2:11. In 1QSb 5:2029, a blessing for the prince of the
future congregation has been preserved. It is concerned with his victory over the ungodly,
his dominion over the earth, and his justice for the oppressed (it quotes Isa 11:45).
As may be expected from a priestly community, the future high priest is by far the most
important figure, particularly as teacher of the law and mediator of Gods will. His role may
be compared to that of the Teacher of Righteousness in the past (CD 6:11). He is undoubtedly
the primary leader of the people; he also plays an important role in 1QM, although he does
not participate in the actual warfare (1QM 9:8), in contrast with the Davidic prince in 1QM
5 and elsewhere. To the texts already mentioned may be added 1QSb 3:17 and 1821, a
blessing for the future high priest, which is directly followed by a blessing for the sons of
Zadok.

6. The Psalms of Solomon. The Psalms of Solomon were probably written around 50
40 B.C. by pious Jews propagating strict obedience to Gods law. Psalms 2 and 8 react to
Pompeys intervention in Judean affairs in 63 B.C., together with the events leading up to and
following it. The authors are clearly opposed to the Hasmoneans, who had not discharged
their priestly duties properly and had usurped the high priesthood (8:11) as well as royal
authority (17:56). The authors also anticipate Gods deliverance; in the case of Psalms of
Solomon 17 and 18 (not in Ps. Sol. 11), this is expected from a Davidic kinge.g., Ps. Sol.
17:21: Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the son of David, at the time you
have (fore)seen, O God, to rule over Israel your servant. This king will rule as the
representative of God who himself is king of Israel forever and ever (vv 1, 46). In Ps. Sol.
17:2145, the kings rule is described at great length with many references to the OT psalms
and prophecies discussed above. Two features are dominant. First, the king will free Israel
from its enemies, and the people in the dispersion will return and the nations will serve God.

4QPBless Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material; followed by abbreviation of

biblical or apocryphal book

4QPBless Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material; followed by abbreviation of

biblical or apocryphal book

1QSa Appendix A (Rule of the Congregation) to 1QS

1QSb Appendix B (Blessings) to 1QS

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

1QSb Appendix B (Blessings) to 1QS

Second, the king will serve the Lord as the ideal pious, obedient, and wise man (these psalms,
after all, are ascribed to Solomon), and unrighteousness will be banished from the country.
In 17:32 and 18:5, 7 (plus the superscription), the king is called anointed. In view of
18:5 (his anointed one), the christou kyriou in 18:7 and the superscription to Ps. Sol. 18
are also translated of the Anointed of the Lord. In 17:32 all Gk mss read christos kyrios,
an anointed Lord. The parallel expression in 18:5 would suggest that the Gk here is the
result of careless copying or deliberate alteration on the part of a later Christian scribe in
changing a genitive into a nominative (cf., e.g., Lam 4:20 LXX and Luke 2:11). Alternatively,
we may assume that the king was designated by two honorifics following one another (cf.
Dan 9:25 and the use of Lord in Ps 110:1). In any case, the expression is used in Ps. Sol.
17:32 as a qualification rather than a title; this is different in Ps. Sol. 18, a conventional
composition made up when the psalms were put together into one collection. Here, the
anointed of the Lord has become a fixed expression denoting the Davidic king appointed by
God to bring about a turn in the fate of Israel.

7. Egyptian Jewish Sources. In the writings of Philo we find little that is relevant to our
investigation. His description of the future happiness of the just and virtuous in his On
Rewards and PunishmentsOn Blessings and Curses presupposes many elements of the
common eschatological scenario; only in his interpretation of Num 24:17 LXX in Praem. 95
do we get a glimpse (and no more) of a savior figure.
In Book 3 of the Sibylline Oracles (very complex, and difficult to interpret), we see
reference to a holy prince who will come to gain sway over the scepters of the earth
forever, introducing the most great kingdom of the immortal king (vv 4650, to be dated
after the battle of Actium in 31 B.C.). Verses 652795 (a long eschatological passage to be
dated around the middle of the 2d century B.C.) begin with a reference to a king from the
sun, sent by God, who will stop the entire earth from evil war and will act in obedience
to the noble teachings of the great God. Various traditional elements are found, including a
reference to Isa 11:68 in vv 78895.
The fifth book of the Sibylline Oracles, dating from the beginning of the 2d century A.D.,
refers to a savior figure who is depicted as coming from heaven. We read about a king sent
from God to destroy all kings (5:1089); a great star coming from heaven bringing
destruction (15561); an exceptional man from the sky (25659; Christian interpolation in v
257); and a blessed man from the expanses of heaven who, with a scepter given by God,
destroys the cities of the enemies and renews Jerusalem and the temple (41433).

mss manuscripts

LXX Septuagint

LXX Septuagint

Praem. Philo, De praemiis et poeniis

2d second

2d second
 8. Pseudo-Philo. For the sake of completeness, we should mention here the Liber
Antiquitatum Biblicarum, falsely ascribed to Philo and generally dated in the 1st century A.D.
(before A.D. 70), which retells the story of Israel from Adam to the death of Saul. In a
concluding note about Phinehas, it says that God anointed him in Shiloh when he appointed
him priest (L. A. B. 48:2). Some scholars suppose that there is a textual mistake here and
think that the original text spoke of Phinehas anointing Eli, his successor (50:3). The little
boy Samuel is anointed (as priest?), hailed as prophet, and called a light for this nation for
a long time (51:67). In 51:6, there is a clear reference to 1 Sam 2:10. Chapter 59 relates at
great length Davids anointing by Samuel. Verse 4 includes a hymn by David (cf. 11Qpsa
151:57; cf. Ps 151A LXX) in which he blames his brothers and parents for forgetting him
when the anointed of the Lord was to be designated. The descendant of David mentioned
in 60:3 is probably Solomon, not a future ideal Davidic king.

9. Josephus. The Jewish historian Josephus is our most reliable source of information
about the unrest in Palestine during the 1st century A.D., which found its climax in the war
between the Jews and Romans in A.D. 6670. At a critical moment in his life, Josephus had
switched allegiances to the Romans, in his own view not for political reasons but guided by
God, who granted him insight into his dealings with his people, in the past and in the present.
Josephus account of the events and the motives underlying peoples actions is, therefore,
biased. This comes out clearly in JW 6.31113, where he speaks about an ambiguous oracle
found in the Scriptures to the effect that at that time one from their country would become
ruler of the world. The ordinary people and the wisemen interpreted this as referring to a
man from Israel. Josephus (who does not specify the scriptural passage) is convinced,
however, that the oracle signified the sovereignty of Vespasian, who was proclaimed
emperor on Jewish soil.
Josephus records many incidents and rebellions from the death of Herod onward to the
overall war in A.D. 6670. In a number of cases these were led by men who were able to
gather a substantial group of people around them. None of the men is called
anointed/messiah by Josephus. Some of them were clearly brigands, leading groups of
impoverished peasants, and at times resorting to guerrilla warfare against those in power.
Others are described as prophetic figures resembling Moses (and Joshua)see Ant 20.97

1st first

L. A. B. Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum

LXX Septuagint

1st first

JW Josephus, The Jewish War (= Bellum Judaicum)

Ant Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (= Antiquitates Judaicae)

98; and JW 2.25863 = Ant 20.16771; Ant 20.188 (cf. the Samaritan Mosaic prophet in Ant
18.8587, and the commotion in Cyrene recorded in JW 7.43742). See also MESSIANIC
MOVEMENTS IN JUDAISM.
Still others are reported to have had royal aspirations. Josephus mentions three such men
in the time following the death of Herod the Great: Judas, Simon, and Athronges (JW 2.55
65; Ant 17.27185). The extent to which these men and their followers fostered messianic
hopes, inspired by popular memories of David as leader of a sizable band of brigands before
being installed as king (1 Samuel 2130), remains uncertain. It is said of two leaders in the
Jewish War that they had royal aspirations. They were Menahem (see especially JW 2.433
34 and 44148) and Simon bar-Giora (see especially JW 4.510 and 575; 7.2931).
In two passages in the present text of the Antiquities, Josephus speaks about Jesus as the
Christ. The first (18.6364) includes the statement He was the Messiah; the second
(20.200) introduces James as the brother of Jesus who was called the Christ. Josephus may
have included a notice or notices about Jesus (if only because at the end of the 1st century
A.D. he was aware of the Christian claim that Jesus was the Messiah), but the present reports
have certainly undergone Christian redaction. See also JOSEPHUS.

10. Early Christian Sources. The followers of Jesus of Nazareth regarded him as the
Messiah expected by Israel. (For the typical Christian use of the term (ho) christos, see
CHRIST.) In this section, Christian statements about Jewish beliefs in the Messiah are
reviewed briefly, but they should be read against the background of discussions between
Jews and Christians, like those mentioned in the book of Acts. There, Paul is portrayed as
trying to convince members of synagogues in the Diaspora that Jesus is the expected Christ
(Acts 9:22; 18:5; cf. 18:28 of Apollos). This included proving that the Christ had to suffer
and to rise from the dead (17:3). In all instances, the designation ho christos is used, without
any further addition.
In Mark 12:35, Jesus questions the obviously common conception of the scribes that the
Christ is the son of David; in Mark 15:32, the chief priests and the scribes speak of the
Christ, the King of Israel. In the Markan passion story, much emphasis is placed on the fact

JW Josephus, The Jewish War (= Bellum Judaicum)

Ant Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (= Antiquitates Judaicae)

Ant Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (= Antiquitates Judaicae)

Ant Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (= Antiquitates Judaicae)

JW Josephus, The Jewish War (= Bellum Judaicum)

JW Josephus, The Jewish War (= Bellum Judaicum)

Ant Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (= Antiquitates Judaicae)

JW Josephus, The Jewish War (= Bellum Judaicum)

JW Josephus, The Jewish War (= Bellum Judaicum)

1st first
that Jesus is the Christ and may be called King of the Jews, but without any political overtones
that would justify his crucifixion. The apocalyptic discourse in Mark 13 anticipates false
messiahs and false prophets (vv 2122). The situation in the period leading up to the Jewish
War is reflected here; the readers are reminded that Jesus the Christ, whose return to power
is expected, differs completely from the popular leaders of the time.
In the discussions between Jesus (and in one case John the Baptist) and the Jews in the
Fourth Gospel, the statements of the latter serve to highlight by contrast certain aspects of
Johannine christology; yet they have some value in themselves. In 7:42, the Christ is said to
be a descendant of David, and to be a native of Bethlehem; in 12:34, the Christ is said to
remain for everreflecting the emphasis on Davids everlasting kingdom (Ps 89:3637;
Ezek 37:25). In 7:27, the statement when the Christ appears, no one will know where he
comes from may be connected with conceptions found in apocalyptic texts (see below).
John the Baptists declaration, Among you stands one whom you do not know (John 1:26),
and his denial that he should be Elijah (1:21), may be explained by the conception of a savior
living incognito on earth, to be revealed and to be anointed by Elijah (found as a Jewish
notion in Justins Dialogue with Trypho 8.4; 49.1; cf. 110.1).
The expectation that the Christ will do signs (John 7:31) is not found in Jewish sources;
signs are usually connected with an expected prophet like Moses (also in John 6:14; 9:16
17). A similar leveling of different terminologies is found in 4:25, 29, where a Samaritan
woman raises the question whether Jesus may be the Christ, and professes to believe in the
Messiah who, when he comes, will show us all things. The few indications we possess of
a Samaritan expectation of a future agent of divine deliverance all point in the direction of a
person like Moses, thought to be predicted by Deut 18:1519. Sometimes this person is called
Taheb (the one who returns), sometimes he is regarded as Moses redivivus (see a number
of passages in the 4th century A.D. Memar marqah; three times it is said that the Taheb will
reveal the truth). We may also compare the report about a Samaritan prophet in the days of
Pilate (Ant 18.8587).

11. Apocalyptic Texts. a. 1 Enoch. In this composite document, the book of Dreams
(chaps. 8390), to be dated just before 161 B.C., portrays the birth of a white bull (symbol of
a good and pious man) after the final judgment (90:37). His relation to the wild ox in 90:38
is not clear. No special activities of the bull or the wild ox are recorded.
The dating of the Parables of Enoch (chaps. 3771) remains disputed, since they are only
found in the Ethiopic version, and no Aram or Gk fragments are extant. Most scholars now
date this part of 1 Enoch to the second half of the 1st century A.D. The central figure is a
heavenly redeemer, often called that (the) Son of man (cf. Dan 7:914, referred to in 1 En.
46:13), the Chosen One (cf. Isa 42:1; see I En. 39:6; 40:5, etc.; and cf. 46:3), or the
Righteous One (38:2; cf. 46:3, 56:3). The heavenly redeemer, who is thought to have been
with God from the beginning (48:3, 6) and remains in Gods presence, reveals all things to
the elect and is the judge of the world and the champion of the righteous, destroying their
enemies (who are Gods enemies). See also SON OF MAN. So 48:810 speaks about the

Ant Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (= Antiquitates Judaicae)

1st first

1 En. 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Apocalypse)

defeat of the kings of the earth by Gods elect because they have denied the Lord of Spirits
and His Anointed. The phrase his anointed occurs here because of the reminiscence of Ps
2:2. In chapter 52, the visionary sees mountains of iron, copper, silver, gold, soft metal, and
lead and is told by an accompanying angel that these will serve the dominion of His
Anointed that he may be potent and mighty (52:4). In v 6, this is explained by their melting
as wax before fire in the presence of the Chosen One. In the description of the complex
redeemer figure in the Parables, elements from many Scriptural texts are used (e.g., Isa 11:2
4 in 1 En. 49:34 and 62:23). This redeemer figure receives many names derived from
Scripture, one of which is His Anointed.

b. The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch. Like 4 Ezra (see below), 2 Baruch was composed
in the years following the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70. It has the expressions My
Anointed (39:7; 40:1; 72:2), my servant, the Anointed One (70:9), and the Anointed
One (29:3; 30:1). In all cases a royal figure is meant who reigns for a limited period,
introducing a time of complete bliss and incorruptibility. In 70:9, it is said that my servant,
the Anointed One, will reign after wars and disasters on earth. The holy land will have peace
(71:1); of the nations, only those who have not subjected Israel will be spared (72:26).
Peace, joy, harmony, and health will abound (chaps. 7374, with references to Isa 11:68
and Gen 3:1618). Also, For that time marks the end of what is corruptible and the
beginning of what is incorruptible (74:2).
In the interpretation of the vision of the vine and the cedar (chaps. 3637), the kingdom
of my Anointed is said to come after the end of the fourth kingdom (39:7). The enemies,
including their last leader (represented by the cedar), will be destroyed. My Anointed One
will charge him with all iniquities and destroy him on Mt. Zion (39:840:2). The Messiah
will reign over the remnant of Gods people in the place God has chosen (40:2). His
kingdom will stand forever, until this work of corruption comes to an end and the times
appointed are fulfilled (40:3).

In 2 Bar. 29:230:1, the reign of the Anointed One in the holy land is described in
paradisiac terms; the emphasis is on the slaughter of Leviathan and Behemoth for food, on
abundant fertility, and on the return of the manna. When the Messiahs presence on earth has
come to an end, he will return in glory, and a general resurrection will follow (30:2). The
Messiah is clearly thought to have been in heaven before his revelation on earth (29:3; 39:7;
cf. 73:1).
c. 4 Ezra (= 2 Esdras). Four passages in this work mention an agent of divine deliverance.
In 7:2629, this agent appears (or is revealed) with his companions when the now-invisible
city and the now-concealed country become visible. He will bring 400 years (according to
most versions) of happiness to all who survive. After that period everyone, including the
divine agent, will die; there will then be a period of silence for seven days, as there had been
at the beginning of creation; finally, the new aeon of incorruptibility will begin, bringing with
it resurrection and judgment (7:3044). The divine agent is called my son, the Anointed
One; in this passage, my son must either be interpreted against the background of Ps 2:7

1 En. 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Apocalypse)

2 Bar. 2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse)

or be considered (as most scholars think) a translation of Gk ho pais mou, which should have
been translated my servant. As for the companions mentioned in 7:26, we may point to
6:26 and 13:52. Presumably, a select group of pious men are meant, including Enoch, Moses
(?), and Elijah. In 14:9 Ezra receives the promise that he will be taken away from the earth
and will remain with my son and with those like you, until the end of time. This translation
is reported at the end of chapter 14 in the majority of the versions of the book.
In the interpretation of the vision of the Eagle and the Lion (11:112:3), the lion is
explained as the Anointed One whom the Most High has kept back to the end of days, who
will spring from the seed of David (according to all versions except the Latin; cf. Gen 49:9,
10). We note here the absolute use of the term (Lat unctus), the idea that the Messiah is
already in existence (cf. 2 Baruch and 1 Enoch), coupled with the notion that he is a
descendant of David. As in the vision itself (11:3646), he charges his counterpart (the eagle
= the Roman rulers) with certain crimes (12:32). The next verse adds that he will convict and
destroy them; he will also give joy to the survivors in the landuntil the day of the final
judgment comes.
In chapter 13 the designation anointed one is not found. In a vision, a human figure
comes from the depth of the sea and flies with the clouds of heaven (cf. Dan 7:2, 3, 13). He
destroys a great host of adversaries with a stream of fire from his mouth (vv 311; cf. Isa
11:4 and Ps 18:9 [Eng 8]). He does so after carving out a vast mountain and flying upon it
(v 6; cf. Dan 2:3435, 4445). After the destruction of the enemies, he sends for a peaceful
company that is joined by other people coming from captivity (Jews from the Diaspora) and
still others (presumably converted Gentiles). The interpretation of the vision in vv 2553
differs in many details from the vision itself. In vv 2526 we hear that the man was held in
readiness by the Most High through many ages; v 32 speaks of my son/servant who will be
revealed (cf. also vv 37, 52). In vv 3738, his main activity is (surprisingly) that he convicts
the nations, reproaches them for their evil devices, and destroys them without effort by
means of the law. The man will stand on Mt. Zionin fact, Zion will come into sight
before all men, completely and fully built (v 36). He will deliver, order, and protect the
survivors (vv 2648) plus the returned ten tribes, which receive much attention (vv 3947).
In v 52, the companions of my son/servant are mentioned. No mention is made of a final
judgment succeeding the days of this redeemer. The expectations concerning the end in
general and the coming of an agent of divine deliverance in particular are clearly rather
diverse in 4 Ezra.
d. The Apocalypse of Abraham. This text, also usually dated some time after A.D. 70,
mentions in 31:1 that God will sound the trumpet out of the air and will send his chosen one
(Isa 42:1; cf. 1 Enoch 3771) who will summon Gods people oppressed by the Gentiles.
F. Later Jewish Writings
The period from the destruction of the temple (A.D. 70) to the end of the 2d century is
important because of the reactions to the events of A.D. 6670 and the impact of the revolt of
Simon bar-Kokhba in A.D. 132135 leading to the expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem. In the
present context, we shall restrict ourselves to some brief remarks.

2d second
 1. The Eighteen Benedictions. This Jewish daily prayer is known to us in two later
recensions, a longer Babylonian one and a shorter Palestinian one. We do not know exactly
in what form(s) it was prayed in the 1st century A.D., before and after the fall of Jerusalem.
Both versions pray for the gathering of the dispersed, for the reinstatement of the proper
judges and counselors, for Gods mercy on Jerusalem and the temple, and for the proper
worship in the temple. The Babylonian recension speaks explicitly of Gods return to
Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the city. We find this in the fourteenth benediction that also
prays: raise up quickly in its midst the throne of David. The fifteenth benediction adds:
Make the Branch of David to sprout quickly, and let his horn be exalted by thy salvation.
For we await thy salvation all the day. Blessed art thou, Lord, who makest the horn of
salvation to sprout (cf. Ps 132:17; Sir 51:12 [in Heb]; and the references to the Branch of
David in Jeremiah, Zechariah, and the Qumran Scrolls). The fourteenth benediction of the
Palestinian recension combines the prayer for Jerusalem with that for the house of David:
Be merciful to the kingship of the house of David, thy (righteous) anointed. Blessed art
thou, Lord, God of David, who buildest Jerusalem. The elements of the hope on Gods
intervention of the future found in these two recensions will certainly have formed part of
the daily prayer in the period after A.D. 70 and, formulated differently, probably also in the
years before.
2. Rabbinic Sources. It is notoriously difficult to use the data in the Mishnah, Tosephta,
the two Talmuds, and the oldest Midrashim for historical purposes. One has to be extremely
careful in establishing the original form of the many sayings of individual scholars, and the
problems of ascription are many. The same holds true for the traditions about the various
scholars.
No messianic sayings are recorded of Tannaitic scholars who died before A.D. 70. In
sayings attributed to later Tannaim, we find a distinction between the days of the Messiah
and the world/age to come, comparable to that found in 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra (though there
are many differences of opinion as to the exact nature of the days of the Messiah). The
Mishnah mentions the (Davidic) Messiah only in two places: m. Ber. 1:5 speaks about this
world and the days of the Messiah, while m. Soa 9:15 mentions further deterioration of
the state of affairs in the days of the advent (lit. the footprints) of the Messiah. It should be
noted that the Mishnah speaks several times about the anointed one, meaning the anointed
(high) priest (in particular in tractate Horayot), and that it distinguishes him from he who
is dedicated by the many garments (m. Hor. 3:4; m. Meg. 1:9; m. Mak. 2:6). If this contains
a reminiscence of a time when (high) priests could not be anointed (later rabbinic sources

1st first

Ber. Berakot

Soa Soa

lit. literally

Hor. Horayot

Meg. Megilla

Mak. Makkot
mention that the oil of unction was hidden away in the days of Josiah), it may explain why
the sect of Qumran, and probably other groups as well, anticipated the day when a properly
anointed high priest would arise.
Very important is the tradition that Rabbi Akiba hailed the leader of the second revolt,
Simon bar Kokhba, as the Messiah. On coins of the revolt, Simon is called prince (n ; cf.
Ezek 34:24 and the Qumran Scrolls) of Israel; sometimes he is mentioned together with
Eleazar the Priest, who also appears singly. On some coins, a temple appears with a star
above it. This may be a reference to Num 24:17, a star shall come forth out of Jacob ,
the text that is central in the tradition concerning Rabbi Akiba, recorded in y. Taan. 68d. In
the variant sources there is a play of words on Simons name. In newly discovered documents
from the Judean desert, he is called son of Kosiba; the many who, like Akiba, hailed him
as the Messiah called him son of the star (Aram kkb). In rabbinic writings, the s in the
name is usually changed to a z (bar-Koziba), implying that he was regarded as the son of
the lie (i.e., a liar). The fact that Simon (not of Davidic descent, as far as we know) was
regarded as Messiah by a great man like Rabbi Akiba shows the intensity of the longing for
redemption and explains the great deception in the years after 135. The subtle change in the
spelling of his fathers name shows this, as does the saying of Rabbi Yoanan b. Torta,
handed down together with that of Rabbi Akiba: Akiba, grass will grow out of your
cheekbones and the Son of David will still not have come. It is often thought that the notion
of the death of a figure called Messiah, son of Joseph (or son of Ephraim), in the war against
the final enemy, Gog, arose in the time after the defeat of Simon bar Kokhba (Kosiba). The
notion of a Messiah from Joseph as a warrior is also found without the idea of defeat;
according to some scholars, this must have existed earlier.

3. The Targums. It is difficult to assess the value of the messianic paragraphs in the
various Aramaic translations of sections of the Hebrew Bible. We have to rely on manuscripts
of a relatively late date, the texts of which are of a composite character; there are also many
variations between related Targums, and the original wording and original date of the
constitutive elements are difficult to establish. Yet much work is being done on these
writings, especially with a view to investigating to what extent passages in them may shed
light on discussions that are known to have taken place in the period from the 2d century B.C.
to the 2d century A.D, in particular at the time early Christianity originated. One example
may be given here. The star from Jacob in Num 24:17 was interpreted messianically by R.
Akiba, as we have seen; in the Qumran Scrolls, Num 24:17 is connected with the prince of

Taan Taanit

. Taanit

2d second

2d second
the congregation in 4QTestim 913 and 1QM 11:67. In CD 7:1821, the star is interpreted
as the Interpreter of the Law, while the scepter (mentioned immediately afterward in Num
24:17) is equated with the prince of the whole congregation (cf. 1QSb 5:2728). The LXX
version of the verse, which speaks about a star and a man, is referred to in Philo, Praem.
95 (cf. Vita Mos. I 290). R. Akiba, therefore, was by no means the first to connect Num 24:17
with a future redeemer.
In Tg. Onq., the king and the Messiah are spoken of; in Tg. Ps.-J., a king and the
Messiah and a scepter; in Tg. Neof., with some variation, a king and a redeemer and a
chief (so also Frg. Tg.). The Targums clearly represent an old traditional interpretation; their
testimony supplements our evidence. On the other hand, it is only the evidence from older
sources that enables us to determinate the date of the interpretation found in the Targums.
G. Summary
The term Messiah/Anointed One is not found very often in the Hebrew Bible and in
the Jewish writings of the period between 200 B.C. and A.D. 100. In the Hebrew Bible, people
are anointed to become kings, or (high) priests, or (in one case only) a prophet. In the great
majority of cases, the term anointed is connected with a royal figure. In the Royal Psalms,
Gods promises and instructions to David and his dynasty are recalled. The psalmists make
far-reaching assertions, but these are always connected with the reigning king (who, among
other things, is called the Lords anointed) but not with a future son of David. Yet these
psalms, which continued to be sung long after there were any kings in Jerusalem, will have
helped to shape the hope for an ideal Davidic king. So did the prophecies concerning a future
king from Davids family, but in these texts the term anointed does not occur. It should be
noted that in various texts importance is attached to cooperation between king and high priest.
An investigation of Jewish writings around the beginning of the common era reveals that
the term Messiah was by no means generally used as a designation for Gods representative

4QTestim Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material; followed by abbreviation of

biblical or apocryphal book

1QM Milmh (War Scroll)

CD Cairo (Genizah), Damascus Document [= S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910. Repr. New York, 1970]

1QSb Appendix B (Blessings) to 1QS

LXX Septuagint

Praem. Philo, De praemiis et poeniis

Vita Mos. Philo, De vita Mosis III

Tg. Onq. Targum Onqelos

Tg. Ps.-J. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan

Tg. Neof. Targum Neofiti I

Frg. Tg. Fragmentary Targum

or intermediary at the beginning of a new age of peace for Israel and the nations. The
expectations of a radical and definitive change brought about by God did not necessarily
include a task for (human or angelic) agents of divine deliverance, and the fact that Gods
agents were anointed need not be stressed. The expected future Davidic king in Ps.Sol. 17 is
only called anointed of the Lord in passing; in Ps.Sol. 18, the term seems to have become
a fixed expression in denoting the future ideal Davidic king appointed by God. The complex
redeemer figure in the Parables of Enoch is only twice called his (i.e., the Lords) anointed,
probably under the influence of Ps 2:2. A royal messiah is found in 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra; in
these writings, his reign is a temporary one. In the documents of Qumran, we meet a future
high priest who is once called the anointed one of Aaron and a future king called the
anointed one of Israel or the righteous anointed one. Whether the expression anointed
ones of Aaron and Israel in the Damascus Document refers to two persons or to one remains
unclear. In one fragment we meet a prophetic figure called the anointed one of the Spirit
(cf. Isa 61:1).
Christian statements about Jewish beliefs and expectations found in the NT writings tend
to put a relatively strong emphasis on the Jewish hope for the Messiah. They should be read
against the background of discussions between Jews and Christians about Jesus, whom the
Christians believed to be the Messiah (Christ).
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Wacholder, B. Z. 1979. Messianism and Mishnah: Time and Place in the Early Halakhah. Jerusalem.
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MARINUS DE JONGE2

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols., ed. G. Kittel and G. Friedrich. Trans.
G. W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, 196476

ConBOT Coniectanea biblica, Old Testament

AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums

Marinus de Jonge Professor of NT and Early Christian Literature, University of Leiden, Leiden, The
Netherlands
2
De Jonge, M. (1992). Messiah. In D. N. Freedman (Org.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 4,
p. 777788). New York: Doubleday.